1 marine conservation

7/31/2019 1 Marine Conservation

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FALL 2005FALL 2005

EVPP 505-001EVPP 505-001

BIO 508-002BIO 508-002


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Marine Conservation IssuesMarine Conservation Issues

PollutionPollution Heavy metals & TBT (lecture 2)Heavy metals & TBT (lecture 2)

PesticidesPesticides (lecture 3)(lecture 3) OilOil (lecture 4)(lecture 4)

NutrientsNutrients (lecture 5)(lecture 5)

PathogensPathogens (lecture 5)(lecture 5)

DebrisDebris (lecture 6)(lecture 6)

NoiseNoise (lecture 7)(lecture 7)


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Poor fishery management (Poor fishery management (lectures 8 -9)lectures 8 -9) Collapse of Atlantic cod (Collapse of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhuaGadus morhua))

& Atlantic halibut (& Atlantic halibut (HippoglossusHippoglossushippoglossushippoglossus))

- 28% of global fish stocks are significantly28% of global fish stocks are significantly

depleted or overexploiteddepleted or overexploited- Depleted fish stock show little sign of recoveryDepleted fish stock show little sign of recovery

even after decade of conservation measureseven after decade of conservation measures


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Destruction of keystone habitatsDestruction of keystone habitats (lecture 10)(lecture 10) Nearly a quarter of all fish species associatedNearly a quarter of all fish species associated

with coral reefswith coral reefs Widespread coral reef damageWidespread coral reef damage

Bleaching and disease eventsBleaching and disease events

Siltation and smotheringSiltation and smothering Possible impacts from global warmingPossible impacts from global warming



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Depletion of keystone speciesDepletion of keystone species (lectures 11-14)(lectures 11-14)- Only 1% of original whitetip reef sharkOnly 1% of original whitetip reef shark

population in Gulf of Mexicopopulation in Gulf of Mexico North Atlantic right whale reduced to few 100North Atlantic right whale reduced to few 100

animalsanimals

Extinction of Stellar sea cow and Atlantic grayExtinction of Stellar sea cow and Atlantic graywhalewhale

Destruction of turtle breeding beachesDestruction of turtle breeding beaches



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Global warmingGlobal warming (lectures 15-16)(lectures 15-16)- Melting of polar ice shelvesMelting of polar ice shelves

- Polar species habitat lossPolar species habitat loss- Increasing freshwater inputIncreasing freshwater input

- Possible impact on thermohaline circulationPossible impact on thermohaline circulation

Sea level risesSea level risesAcidification of oceansAcidification of oceans

Shifts of species distributionsShifts of species distributions



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Problems with marine conservation law andProblems with marine conservation law andpolicypolicy (lecture 17; Guest lectures)(lecture 17; Guest lectures)

- Imperfect lawsImperfect laws- Lack of enforcementLack of enforcement

- Lack of integrationLack of integration

- Vested interestsVested interests



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Now in the age of marineNow in the age of marine

deterioration?deterioration?

Reidl (1980) suggested there were 4 eras ofReidl (1980) suggested there were 4 eras ofmarine research:marine research:1) Seafarers1) Seafarers

2) Oceanographic Expeditions (e.g. Challenger expedition)2) Oceanographic Expeditions (e.g. Challenger expedition)

3) Marine Stations (e.g. Scripps & Woods Hole)3) Marine Stations (e.g. Scripps & Woods Hole)

4) Field Research4) Field Research

Stachowitsch (2003) suggested a fifth era:Stachowitsch (2003) suggested a fifth era:5) Study of deteriorated marine ecosystems5) Study of deteriorated marine ecosystems


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OTHER PROBLEMSOTHER PROBLEMS

Although arguably a more urgent issueAlthough arguably a more urgent issuemarine conservation is more difficult duemarine conservation is more difficult dueto a number of issuesto a number of issues

e.g. getting information on species declinee.g. getting information on species decline For 60 years no-one noticed extinction of limpetFor 60 years no-one noticed extinction of limpet

speciesspecies Lottia alveusLottia alveus even though the area it inhabited was studded witheven though the area it inhabited was studded with

marine laboratories (Carltonmarine laboratories (Carlton et alet al., 1991)., 1991)WHY?WHY?

Marine conservation research much harder than inMarine conservation research much harder than ina terrestrial environmenta terrestrial environment


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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIALDIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL

& MARINE CONSERVATION& MARINE CONSERVATION

Oceans are much biggerOceans are much biggerArea of Pacific Ocean could encompassArea of Pacific Ocean could encompass

all land continents aloneall land continents alone

Marine areas make up 99% of knownMarine areas make up 99% of known

biospherebiosphere

BUT only a small areaBUT only a small area controlledcontrolledbybynational lawsnational laws(i.e. 200 nautical miles or less)(i.e. 200 nautical miles or less)


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Oceans less transparent than airOceans less transparent than air Little light penetrates farther than 100mLittle light penetrates farther than 100m

below surfacebelow surface

In areas of high plankton/turbidity etcIn areas of high plankton/turbidity etc

penetration even lesspenetration even less

Remote sensing from satellites/airplanesRemote sensing from satellites/airplanesdifficultdifficult

Most marine areas/ecosystems not directlyMost marine areas/ecosystems not directlyobservableobservable


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Oceans less transparent than airOceans less transparent than airAlso photosynthesis constrained toAlso photosynthesis constrained to

photic zone (sunlit waters)photic zone (sunlit waters) But nearshore and surface waters mostBut nearshore and surface waters most

effected by human activitieseffected by human activities

Impacts on photosysnthesis and primaryImpacts on photosysnthesis and primaryproduction effect whole marineproduction effect whole marine

ecosystemecosystem


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Oceans are 3 dimensionalOceans are 3 dimensional Water layers & lots of stratificationWater layers & lots of stratification

(result of salinity & temperature(result of salinity & temperaturedifferences)differences)

Much more complex environment thanMuch more complex environment than

flat terrestrial environmentflat terrestrial environment LESS THAN 2% OF OCEAN ACCESSIBLELESS THAN 2% OF OCEAN ACCESSIBLE

TO SCIENTISTS VIA SCUBA DIVINGTO SCIENTISTS VIA SCUBA DIVING

Submarines are few and expensiveSubmarines are few and expensive


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Dispersal stages smallerDispersal stages smaller Many fish and invertebrate larvaeMany fish and invertebrate larvae


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Longer dispersal distancesLonger dispersal distances Larval stages may drift for days orLarval stages may drift for days or

monthsmonthsCan disperse 1000s of kmCan disperse 1000s of km

Recruitment of animals to specific siteRecruitment of animals to specific site

much more randommuch more randomNumber of fish offspring recruitment rateNumber of fish offspring recruitment rate

Single small protected areas not enoughSingle small protected areas not enough

to protect a speciesto protect a species


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Pelagic environment fluidPelagic environment fluidAlthough seabed (benthic) environmentAlthough seabed (benthic) environment

is very stable, pelagic environment isis very stable, pelagic environment isvery changeablevery changeable

Movement of water bodies can shiftMovement of water bodies can shifthabitat dramaticallyhabitat dramatically

Fish stocks can shift location 10s of kmFish stocks can shift location 10s of kmin a single dayin a single day

Prediction of animal distribution difficultPrediction of animal distribution difficult

Small site protection not possibleSmall site protection not possible


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Primary production & consumers arePrimary production & consumers arepatchypatchy Instead of sessile or long-lived (trees) producersInstead of sessile or long-lived (trees) producers

mobile & short-lived (phytoplankton)mobile & short-lived (phytoplankton) Growth or disappearance of producers can be veryGrowth or disappearance of producers can be very

rapidrapid

Can rapidly exploit patchy nutrient resources orCan rapidly exploit patchy nutrient resources orbeneficial environmental changesbeneficial environmental changes

Which meansWhich means


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Consumers have to travel long distances Consumers have to travel long distances productivity oases in oceanic desertproductivity oases in oceanic desert

Will encounter more human obstructions/activities inWill encounter more human obstructions/activities intheir travels (e.g. draft nets)their travels (e.g. draft nets) Will travel through waters of many different countriesWill travel through waters of many different countries

and legal/exploitation regimesand legal/exploitation regimes

Patchy but high concentrations of associatedPatchy but high concentrations of associatedspecies make patches profitable to fishing species make patches profitable to fishing competition between marine species & humanscompetition between marine species & humans

Less stable: marine systems more susceptible toLess stable: marine systems more susceptible to

boom or bust than terrestrial environmentboom or bust than terrestrial environment


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Seabed structure components very smallSeabed structure components very smalle.g. coral, worm tubes, seagrass, spongese.g. coral, worm tubes, seagrass, sponges

provide important habitat structureprovide important habitat structure

as opposed to larger structures rainforestas opposed to larger structures rainforesttrees etc. in terrestrial environmenttrees etc. in terrestrial environment

Small size and lack of accessibility of theseSmall size and lack of accessibility of these

structures mean that managers overlook theirstructures mean that managers overlook theirimportanceimportance

e.g. seabed structure (e.g deep sea coralse.g. seabed structure (e.g deep sea coralsimportant for survival of young cod -important for survival of young cod -providesprovides

hiding places from predators etc;hiding places from predators etc;LindholmLindholm et alet al., 1999., 1999))


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Great increase in disturbance withGreat increase in disturbance withdecreasing distance from shoredecreasing distance from shoreNear shore - more nutrients, temperature/salinityNear shore - more nutrients, temperature/salinity

fluctuations, disturbance from waves and humanfluctuations, disturbance from waves and humanactivitiesactivities

But species further from the shore, and seaBut species further from the shore, and seasurface, less adapted to recover from disturbancessurface, less adapted to recover from disturbances

If offshore/deep habitats or species damaged takeIf offshore/deep habitats or species damaged takelonger to recover and impact greatlonger to recover and impact great

Especially a problem with deep water trawling andEspecially a problem with deep water trawling and

deep sea drilling etc.deep sea drilling etc.


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Oceans chemically downhill from landOceans chemically downhill from landChemicals, nutrients and waste flow from land to seaChemicals, nutrients and waste flow from land to sea

Very, very rare for contaminants to flow the otherVery, very rare for contaminants to flow the other

way, i.e. sea to landway, i.e. sea to landActivities on land can have major impacts on theActivities on land can have major impacts on the

oceansoceans

So conservation must take into account land basedSo conservation must take into account land basedactivities as well are marine activitiesactivities as well are marine activities


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Nutrients are not so quickly recycledNutrients are not so quickly recycled On the land dead matter is decomposed andOn the land dead matter is decomposed and

nutrients are returned to the ecosystem quicklynutrients are returned to the ecosystem quickly

In the oceans, dead and decaying organisms sinkIn the oceans, dead and decaying organisms sink Once nutrients have sunk beneath the photicOnce nutrients have sunk beneath the photic

(sunlit) zone they are lost to producers(sunlit) zone they are lost to producers

until nutrients are re-circulated (e.g.until nutrients are re-circulated (e.g.upwhellings)upwhellings)

These nutrients can be lost to producers for 100sThese nutrients can be lost to producers for 100sof yearsof years

Anthropogenic nutrients etc entering the marineAnthropogenic nutrients etc entering the marine--


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Less opportunities forLess opportunities for ex situex situconservationconservation(captive breeding etc)(captive breeding etc) Larval stages of marine species very small, difficultLarval stages of marine species very small, difficult

to feed and maintainto feed and maintain Seawater chemistry and physics difficult toSeawater chemistry and physics difficult to

maintain artificiallymaintain artificially

Many species adapted/require wide-ranging, andMany species adapted/require wide-ranging, and

mobile habitat (esp. pelagic species)mobile habitat (esp. pelagic species) Deep sea species are a particular problemDeep sea species are a particular problem

(100sx atmospheric pressure)(100sx atmospheric pressure)

Mortality rates frequently highMortality rates frequently high

AppropriateAppropriate ex situex situhabitat extremely costlyhabitat extremely costly


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Less opportunities forLess opportunities for ex situex situconservationconservation(captive breeding etc)(captive breeding etc) Larval stages of marine species very small, difficultLarval stages of marine species very small, difficult

to feed and maintainto feed and maintain Seawater chemistry difficult to maintain artificiallySeawater chemistry difficult to maintain artificially

Many species adapted/require wide-ranging, andMany species adapted/require wide-ranging, andmobile habitat (esp. pelagic species)mobile habitat (esp. pelagic species)

Deep sea species are a particular problemDeep sea species are a particular problem(100sx atmospheric pressure)(100sx atmospheric pressure)

Mortality rates frequently highMortality rates frequently high

AppropriateAppropriate ex situex situhabitat extremely costlyhabitat extremely costly

In situIn siturequired for conservationrequired for conservation


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Marine species exploited areMarine species exploited are wildwildTerrestrial exploited species are primarilyTerrestrial exploited species are primarilydomestic/livestockdomestic/livestock

Breeding controlledBreeding controlled Predators controlledPredators controlled

Feeding controlledFeeding controlled

Waste disposed ofWaste disposed of

Medical treatment providedMedical treatment provided

Climate/environment controlledClimate/environment controlled

Productivity of terrestrial stocks greater/controlledProductivity of terrestrial stocks greater/controlled

Meager human input to sustain marineMeager human input to sustain marinestocksstocks


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Technology for hunting/killing marineTechnology for hunting/killing marinespecies less selective/evolving fasterspecies less selective/evolving faster Wildlife removal on land very selective equipment andWildlife removal on land very selective equipment and

carefully controlled/regulated/monitoredcarefully controlled/regulated/monitored

Fisheries now use satellite positioning, temperatureFisheries now use satellite positioning, temperaturesensors, 3D sonarsensors, 3D sonar

Use large capacity fishing gear and vesselsUse large capacity fishing gear and vessels(e.g. 60 mile longlines, driftnets kms long)(e.g. 60 mile longlines, driftnets kms long)

Laws and regulation have not kept pace with speed ofLaws and regulation have not kept pace with speed oftechnology developmenttechnology development

More efficient at catching more of fewer and fewer fishMore efficient at catching more of fewer and fewer fish

But non selective methodsBut non selective methods

(e.g. mass of by-catch is several times shrimp catch)(e.g. mass of by-catch is several times shrimp catch)


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Lack of ownership/personal responsibilityLack of ownership/personal responsibility Land owners typically do not pollute and destroyLand owners typically do not pollute and destroy

land they own and farmland they own and farm

64% of ocean area outside of the control of any64% of ocean area outside of the control of anycountry (High Seas)country (High Seas)

Tragedy of the commonsTragedy of the commons if you dont exploit it if you dont exploit itsomeone else willsomeone else will

Countries with good land laws frequently turn aCountries with good land laws frequently turn ablind eye to/ignore sea lawsblind eye to/ignore sea laws

Or easily persuaded to overlook over-exploitationOr easily persuaded to overlook over-exploitation

E.g. North Sea scientists advise a zero cod quota E.g. North Sea scientists advise a zero cod quota

politicians overruled thispoliticians overruled this


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Marine species and ecosystems have lessMarine species and ecosystems have lesscultural and legal protectioncultural and legal protection Large predators on land protected (e.g. bears,Large predators on land protected (e.g. bears,

wolves) but not in oceans (sharks, marlin)wolves) but not in oceans (sharks, marlin)

Structure-providing organisms protectedStructure-providing organisms protected(trees/forests) but not sponges, kelp beds, deep(trees/forests) but not sponges, kelp beds, deepwater corals etcwater corals etc (coral reefs an exception in some areas)(coral reefs an exception in some areas)

Coastal national parks may prohibit hunting landCoastal national parks may prohibit hunting landspecies, but promote hunting of marine speciesspecies, but promote hunting of marine species

Extraction methods far more destructive than wouldExtraction methods far more destructive than wouldbe acceptable on landbe acceptable on land

(~ hunting deer with hand grenades)(~ hunting deer with hand grenades)


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less cultural and legal protectionless cultural and legal protection Protection of land wildlife often underProtection of land wildlife often under

conservation/environment departments but marineconservation/environment departments but marinewildlife under fisheries departmentswildlife under fisheries departments

Less legal protectionLess legal protectionAn extraction/exploitation ethos rather than conservationAn extraction/exploitation ethos rather than conservation Less experience/expertise in conservation biologyLess experience/expertise in conservation biology

Bodies dealing with marine conservation differentBodies dealing with marine conservation differentfrom land conservation no control / input overfrom land conservation no control / input overland activities impacting the marine environmentland activities impacting the marine environment


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Much less spent on marine conservation!Much less spent on marine conservation!

Disparity despite 71% of global being marineDisparity despite 71% of global being marine Despite 99% of the biosphere being marineDespite 99% of the biosphere being marine


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Published Research onPublished Research on

Marine Conservation vs TerrestrialMarine Conservation vs Terrestrial

60.9% terrestrial60.9% terrestrial

14.5% general14.5% general

13.6% freshwater13.6% freshwater 10.1% marine10.1% marine

0.8% anadromous (e.g. estuarine etc)0.8% anadromous (e.g. estuarine etc)

so marine research has less impactso marine research has less impact

Kochin & Levin. 2003, 2004Kochin & Levin. 2003, 2004


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Pub. Res. on Marine ConservationPub. Res. on Marine Conservation

2.2%: pollution2.2%: pollution 2.0%: over-fishing2.0%: over-fishing 0.9%: invasive species0.9%: invasive species 0.4%: marine protected areas0.4%: marine protected areas

3.3%: over-fishing3.3%: over-fishing 1.9%: pollution1.9%: pollution 1.2%: invasive species1.2%: invasive species

0.2%: marine protected areas0.2%: marine protected areas

>80 % terrestrial projects>80 % terrestrial projects

9.7% marine projects9.7% marine projects Kochin & Levin. 2003, 2004Kochin & Levin. 2003, 2004

BETWEENBETWEEN


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BETWEENBETWEEN

TERRESTRIAL & MARINETERRESTRIAL & MARINE

CONSERVATIONCONSERVATION Terrestrial and marine ecosystemsTerrestrial and marine ecosystems

threatened by similar problemsthreatened by similar problems

Over-exploitationOver-exploitationPhysical deterioration ofPhysical deterioration ofecosystems/habitatsecosystems/habitats

PollutionPollutionInvasive speciesInvasive speciesClimate changeClimate change

BETWEENBETWEEN


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BETWEENBETWEEN


CONSERVATIONCONSERVATION Driving forces behind problems the sameDriving forces behind problems the same

Over-populationOver-population

Excessive consumptionExcessive consumptionInsufficient understandingInsufficient understandingUndervaluing natureUndervaluing nature

Inadequate institutionsInadequate institutions

AlsoAlso

BETWEENBETWEEN


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BETWEENBETWEEN


CONSERVATIONCONSERVATION Maintaining theMaintaining the status quostatus quoinsufficientinsufficient

(too much damage done already)(too much damage done already)

Small populations at particular riskSmall populations at particular risk Top carnivores/keystone species especiallyTop carnivores/keystone species especially

importantimportant

Even stable populations can be depleted byEven stable populations can be depleted bytechnological advances and inability totechnological advances and inability todetect declinesdetect declines

In situIn situultimatel better thenultimately better then ex situex situ BETWEENBETWEEN


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BETWEENBETWEEN


CONSERVATIONCONSERVATION Ecosystem conservation better than individualEcosystem conservation better than individual

species conservationspecies conservation

Emphasizing conservation of charismaticEmphasizing conservation of charismaticspecies can be an umbrella for other speciesspecies can be an umbrella for other species Protected areas are good but not sufficient Protected areas are good but not sufficient

good management outside protected areas also requiredgood management outside protected areas also required

Countries with the fewest resources have theCountries with the fewest resources have themost biodiversity in need of conservationmost biodiversity in need of conservation

Strong special interests oppose conservationStrong special interests oppose conservation

New technology can help as well as hinderNew technology can help as well as hinder

BETWEENBETWEEN


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BETWEENBETWEEN


CONSERVATIONCONSERVATION Laws not enough for conservationLaws not enough for conservation

- need public support too- need public support too

Vigilance is needed a brief lapse and speciesVigilance is needed a brief lapse and speciesor habitats can disappear for everor habitats can disappear for ever Government environmental protection/Government environmental protection/

conservation departments always weaker thanconservation departments always weaker than

those exploiting/damagingthose exploiting/damaging

Managing conservation = managing humansManaging conservation = managing humans Resources are scarceResources are scarce

Time is shortTime is short

REFERENCESREFERENCES


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REFERENCESREFERENCES

Carlton, J.T., Vermeij, G.J., Lindberg, D.R., Carlton, D.A. and Dudley, E. 1991.Carlton, J.T., Vermeij, G.J., Lindberg, D.R., Carlton, D.A. and Dudley, E. 1991.

The first historical extinction of a marine invertebrate in an ocean basin: theThe first historical extinction of a marine invertebrate in an ocean basin: the

demise of the eelgrass limpetdemise of the eelgrass limpet Lottia alveusLottia alveus.. Biological BulletinBiological Bulletin180(1): 72-80.180(1): 72-80.

Kochin, B.F. & Levin, P.S. 2003. Lack of concern deepens the oceans problems.Kochin, B.F. & Levin, P.S. 2003. Lack of concern deepens the oceans problems.NatureNature424: 723.424: 723.

Kochin, B.F. & Levin, P.S. 2004. Publication of marine conservation papers: isKochin, B.F. & Levin, P.S. 2004. Publication of marine conservation papers: is

conservation biology too dry?conservation biology too dry? Conservation BiologyConservation Biology18: 1160-1162.18: 1160-1162.

Lindholm, J.B., Auster, P., Kaufman, L.S. 1999. Habitat-mediated survivorship ofLindholm, J.B., Auster, P., Kaufman, L.S. 1999. Habitat-mediated survivorship of

juvenile (0-year) Atlantic cod Gadus morhua.juvenile (0-year) Atlantic cod Gadus morhua. Marine Ecology Progress SeriesMarine Ecology Progress Series180: 247-255.180: 247-255.

Reidl, R. 1980. Marine ecology a century of changes.Reidl, R. 1980. Marine ecology a century of changes. Marine EcologyMarine Ecology1: 3-46.1: 3-46.

Stachowitsch, M. 2003. Research on intact marine ecosystems: a lost era.Stachowitsch, M. 2003. Research on intact marine ecosystems: a lost era. MarineMarine

Pollution BulletinPollution Bulletin46: 801-805.46: 801-805.

Norse, E. & Crowder, L.B. 2005. Why marineconservation

biology? In: Marine Conservation Biology(Ed. E. Norse &L.B. Crowder), pp. 1-18. Island Press, Washington

1 marine conservation

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