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Knowledge Objectives

Understand perspectives on leadership, and how effective leadership might depend upon ... – Traits

– Behaviors

– Situations (Fiedler’s contingency theory)

– Transactions between leaders and followers (e.g., “path-goal” leadership)

– Transformational activity - charisma

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• Identify the bases of power in organizations

• Describe how power can be diagnosed and acquired in organizations

Knowledge Objectives

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Leadership• Leadership Defined

– The process of inspiring, influencing, and guiding others to participate in a common effort.

• Formal Leadership– The process of influencing relevant others to pursue official

organizational objectives.

• Informal Leadership– The process of influencing other to pursue unofficial objectives

that may or may not serve the organization’s interests.

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Leadership as Traits

• Trait Theory– The search for universal traits possessed by all

leaders.– An early trait profile found moderate agreement on

five traits• Intelligence• Scholarship• Dependability in exercising responsibilities• Activity and social participation• Socioeconomic status

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Leadership as Traits

• A Modern Trait Profile: Leaders with Emotional Intelligence– Emotional Intelligence (EI): the ability to monitor

and control one’s emotions and behavior in complex social settings.

– Leadership traits associated with EI• Self-awareness

• Self-management

• Social awareness

• Relationship management

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Leadership as Traits

• The Controversy Over Male and Female Leadership Traits– Rosener’s research: Female leaders are better at

sharing power and information.• Later research found no significant differences in

the leadership styles of men and women.

• Women did not fit the female stereotype.

• Men did not fit the male stereotype.

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Leadership as Behavior

• Behavioral Styles Theory– WWII studies of the patterns of leader

behaviors (leadership styles) rather than who the leader was (traits).

• Democratic style

• Authoritarian style

• Laissez-faire (hands-off style)

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Leadership as Behavior• The Ohio State Model

– Initiating structure: leader’s efforts to get things organized and get things done.

– Consideration: the degree of trust, friendship, respect, and warmth that the leader extended to subordinates.

– Identified four leadership styles• Low structure, high consideration

• High structure, high consideration

• Low structure, low consideration

• High structure, low consideration

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Leadership as Behavior

• The Leadership Grid®– The belief that there is one best style of

leadership.• Concern for production: the desire to achieve

greater output, cost-effectiveness, and profits.

• Concern for people: promoting friendships, helping coworkers get the job done, and attending to things that matter to people.

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Leadership - dependent on the situation

• Fiedler’s Contingency Theory– Performance of the leader depends on

• the degree to which the situation gives the leader control and influence (favorableness of the situation).

• the leader’s basic motivation to either accomplish the task or having supportive relationships with others (task or relationship motivation).

– The challenge is to match the leader with a suitable situation: easier to move the leader than to change the leader’s style.

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• Path-Goal Theory– Derived from expectancy motivation theory.

– Effective leaders enhance employee motivation by• clarifying perceptions of work goals.

• linking rewards to goal attainment.

• explaining how goals and rewards can be achieved.

– Leadership styles• Directive

• Supportive

• Participative

• Achievement-oriented

Leadership as exchange

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Leadership as Transformation

• Transformational Leadership Theory– Transformational leaders

• Are capable of charting new courses for their organization.

• Are visionaries who challenge people to do exceptional things, above and beyond the plan.

– Transactional leaders• Monitor people to so they do the expected, according to plan

in order to maintain the status quo.

• Get people to do things by offering a reward or threatening them with a punishment.

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Behavior Modification

• Behaviorism– The belief that observable behavior is more

important than inner states (needs, motive, or expectations).

• Favorable consequences encourage behavior, whereas unfavorable consequences discourage behavior.

• Operant Conditioning– The study of how behavior is controlled by the

surrounding environment.

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Behavior Modification (cont’d)

• What Is Behavior Modification?– The practical application of operant

conditioning techniques to everyday behavior problems.

– The systematic management of environmental factors to get people to do the right things more often and the wrong things less often.

– Managing the the antecedents and/or consequences of observable behavior.

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Behavior Modification (cont’d)

• Managing Antecedents– Antecedent: an environmental cue for a specific

behavior.– Cue control: controlling the presentation of

cues to elicit the desired behaviors at specific places and times.

– Managing antecedents is a way of encouraging good performance.

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Behavior Modification (cont’d)

• Managing Consequences

– Positive reinforcement: encouraging a behavior with a pleasing consequence.

– Negative reinforcement: encouraging a behavior by immediately withdrawing or terminating a displeasing consequence.

– Extinction: discouraging a behavior by ignoring it.

– Punishment: discouraging a behavior by the immediate presentation of an undesirable consequence or the withdrawal of something desirable.

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Behavior Modification (cont’d)

• Positively Reinforce What Is Right About Job Performance– Build up desirable job behaviors by reinforcing the desirable

counterpart to an undesirable behavior.• Focus on the the positive aspects of job performance.

• Schedule Reinforcement Appropriately– Continuous reinforcement: every instance of a behavior is

rewarded.– Intermittent reinforcement: rewarding some, but not all,

instances of a behavior; the most effective form of reinforcement.

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Influence - the exercise of power in the workplace

• Influence– Any attempt by a person to change the behavior

of superiors, peers, or lower-level employees.• Is not inherently good or bad.

• Can be used for purely selfish reasons.

• Can be used to subvert organizational objectives.

• Can be used to enhance organizational effectiveness.

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Power

• What Is Power?– The ability to marshal the human, informational, and

material resources to get something done.

– Power affects• Decisions

• Behavior

• Situations

– Types of power• Power over: the ability to dominate.

• Power to: ability to act freely.

• Power from: ability to resist the demands of others.

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Power (cont’d)• Five Bases of Power

– Reward power: having the ability to grant rewards.– Coercive power: gaining compliance through threats or

punishment.– Legitimate power: gaining compliance based on the power

associated with holding a superior position.– Referent power: gaining compliance based on charisma or

personal identification.– Expert power: gaining compliance based on the ability to

dispense valued information.

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Power (cont’d)

• Diagnosing and Using Power– used between moderately dependent

people/groups– can assess who has it; often symbolic– control over resources, info, authority– help others attain power (norms of reciprocity)– Delay, speed, restructure

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Influence and Power

• Eight Generic Influence Tactics– Consultation– Rational persuasion– Inspirational appeals– Ingratiating tactics– Coalition tactics– Pressure tactics– Upward appeals– Exchange tactics