1 integrated pest management: it’s concept · the rational of pest management is to alter a...

1 Integrated Pest Management: It’s Concept

K. M. Singh, M. P. Singh, Toge Riba and Debashish S en

Following the success story of Green Revolution in late 1960’s, there have been reports of either stagnating or declining levels of crop productivity in recent years, which causes much alarm to the policy makers. Over exploitation of natural resources and excessive use of chemical in agriculture have lead to poor sustainability of farm production. On the other hand, there is continuous need to increase agricultural productivity in order to feed the fast growing human population. There will be approximately 11,000 million peoples in India to feed in the year 2050 AD, the stock of agricultural land will diminish, as a consequence the arable land area per person which was 0.3 hectares in 1981 will be decline to 0.13 ha in 2050 AD. To feed the future generations without degrading the resource base that supports crop productivity agriculture must become economically viable and ecologically sustainable. Though the value of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in sustainable agriculture has been recognized still very little is being adopted at field level. This may be due to insufficient percolation of the technology at the farmer’s level.

Historical Perspectives

Many components of IPM were developed long time back, however, the concept of IPM comes into exist only after realizing the harmful effects of synthetic Lady bird beetle feeding on aphids

2 Integrated Pest Management for Sustainable Agriculture

chemical pesticides. During ancient times, humans had to live with and tolerate the ravages of insects and other pets. Gradually through trial and error experiences, farmers developed a number of mechanical, cultural and physical control measures of different pests. This was followed by the use of plant products, bio control agents and inorganic chemicals. Chinese were probably the pioneers in the use of botanical pesticides and use of bio-control agents for pest control. However, systematized work on many important tactics of pest control including use of resistant varieties, bio control agents and botanical insecticides was done in the USA during 18th and 19th century. A number of synthetic inorganic insecticides containing arsenic, mercury, tin and copper were also developed towards the end of 19th century and beginning of 20th century. With the development of these pesticides the research focus of pest control shifts towards chemical control (Perkins, 1980). The first synthetic organic chemicals to be used as insecticides were alkyl thiocyanates during 1930s. The insecticidal property of DDT was first reported by Paul Muller in 1939 from Switzerland and for his finding he was awarded Nobel Prize in 1948. In 1941, insecticidal property of HCH was discovered in France and letter on a series of synthetic organic chemicals possessing insecticidal property were developed. Due to their efficacy, convenience, flexibility and economy, these pesticides played a major role in crop production. The success of high yielding varieties of wheat and rice that gives the “Green Revolution” was partially due to the protection umbrella of pesticides (Pradhan, 1983). The spectacular success of these pesticides masked their limitations. The extensive and intensive use, misuse and abuse of pesticides during the ensuing decades caused widespread damage to the environment. In addition, insect pest problems in some crops increased following the continuous application of pesticides. This in turn, further increased the consumption of pesticides resulting in the phenomenon of the pesticide treadmill. In late 1950s, entomologists began to identify the problems associated with over reliance on insecticides and some of them are pesticide resistance, secondary pest outbreaks, hazards of toxic residues in food commodities and biomagnifications, environmental pollution and killing of non target beneficial organisms

After realizing these facts, Stern et al., (1959) propounded the concept of integrated control. The integrated control emphasized the selective use of insecticides, so that natural enemies were conserved in the agro-ecosystem. This integration was expanded in later years to include other control techniques. The idea of managing insect pest populations was proposed by Geier and Clark (1961) who called the concept as ‘ Protective management of noxious species’ or pest management in short. According to Geier (1966), the term integrated pest control (IPC) does not satisfactorily express the concept. It is not always evident whether it is meant to designate an empirical superimposition or juxtaposition of techniques or a systematic attempt at creating new or modified ecological systems in which pest population can be stabilized at tolerable levels of abundance. Later on, the term IPM has found more and more acceptance over the alternative term IPC and a number of definitions have been proposed. IPM as a comprehensive approach to pest control that combined means to reduce the status of pests to tolerable levels while maintaining a quality environment.

IPM is a dynamic and constantly evolving approach to crop protection in which all the suitable management tactics and available surveillance and forecasting information are utilized to developed a holistic management programme as part of sustainable crop production

Integrated Pest Management: It’s Concept 3

technology. Here it needs to be emphasized that the aim of future IPM programmes should not be restricted to mere efficient use of pesticides and product substitution, within an agricultural system that essentially remains unchanged. Rather these programmes should aim at fundamental structure changes through a better understanding of ecological processes and synergy between crops.

Survey and Surveillance in Pest Management

The assessment of presence, distribution, and abundance of insect pests are essential prerequisites to rational pest control programmes. Modern pest management cannot operate without accurate estimates of pest and natural enemy population or plant damage and its effect on yield. This is made possible by undertaking surveys. The word ‘survey’ is derived from two latin words ‘Sur’ =over and ‘Video’ = to see, meaning thereby ‘a general view’, ‘an inspection’ or ‘collection of data for mapping’. Surveillance denotes repeated or sequential survey of the same place or locality for some observation to ascertain the changes or fluctuations in the object of study. Thus when pest control is the objective, surveillance is the regular monitoring of pest populations in order to decide when to apply control measures (Saini, 1997).

The major objectives of pest surveillance are: to detect species of pests and natural enemies present, assess levels of population/damage, study the influence of weather and seasonal parameters on pests and natural enemies, know new species of pests, monitor the behavior of minor pests in attaining major status, monitor build-up of resistance in pests to pesticides, mark endemic areas, lunch timely plant protection measures on need basis, to forewarn farmers, etc.

Kinds of SurveyQualitative Survey: It involves the identification of the different species present over an

area.Quantitative Survey: It involves the estimation of population of one or more species of

insects.The surveys may be extensive: covering a vast area to have preliminary assessment,

or intensive: where more accurate and detailed knowledge is required. The survey work is accomplished with the help of appropriate sampling.

Sampling Insect PopulationSample is a representative part of the total population and base the estimate on that part

as it is not possible to count all the insects in a habitat. The total number of samples to be taken depends on the degree of precision required. There are various sampling methods and some of them are discussed below-

(i) Absolute Methods: These methods are used to estimate the density of insects per unit area. The types of absolute sampling used are: (a) Unit of Habitat Method: After deciding the unit of habitat to be sampled, suction

traps, brushing, extraction with heat or liquids, vegetation beating, visual searches, etc. are used to sample the unit of habitat.


(b) Recaptured Technique: It involves an initial capture of insects; marking individuals in some manner and release. This is again sampled and the population of marked individuals in the sample is used to estimate total population in the area.

(c) Removal Trapping: It requires repeated collection of individuals from an area. The rate of decline in insect abundance due to sampling and removal is used to estimate the original population size.

(ii) Relative Method: It provides an indication of insects abundance or damage relative to other times or locations. Different techniques used to estimate abundance/damage are: visual searches, use of various traps (light, water, bait, sticky), plant damage (degree of defoliation, number of clipped plants, etc.)

Stages of Pest to be sampledIt is important to select the appropriate stage of the pest for sampling. The stage selected

should be present in the field for a long period. Otherwise, there is risk that inspires of good population a low count will be caused either because the insect has already passed through or not reach that particular stage. This is usually the larval stage and there should be a minimum of 10 replications. Obviously an intimate knowledge of the insect life history, behavior and statistics is required for planning a sampling programme and in analyzing the results. Time of the day at which the samples are taken is also important as the diurnal rhythms of insects may cause them to move from one part of the habitat to another.

Sampling TechniqueIt involves how and from where the samples are to taken. Different sampling techniques

for different crops have been developed. (a) Random Sampling: The sample is taken at random with good field coverage to

determine insect numbers or damage per sample unit (b) Point Sampling: It is the measure of population density designed to relate the number

of insects (or their damage) to the number of plants ( or plant parts) per acre. (c) Sequential Sampling: It requires continuous sampling until a pre-established upper

or lower infestation level is found. Sequential sampling charts are prepared and from these charts need for further sampling are determined after each sample taken.

(d) Trap Sampling: Using light, suction, sticky material or sex pheromone to detect the presence of insects in an area.

Fore castingOne of the fundamental objects of plant protection scientists is to be able to predict

outbreaks of pests, so that appropriate control measures be initiated when required. The climate can be the most important variable affecting pest forecast. However, the prediction is based on weather forecasts. The techniques of accumulating day degrees have been used for a long time to predict the appearance of pests on the crop after winter. The development and emergence


of pests from eggs or pupae is largely determined by temperature, but the temperature has to exceed certain thresholds for any development to take place. Increasingly, computer modeling of plant growth and weather forecast updated by current weather conditions being developed to try to produce long range forecasts from early monitoring data.

Economic Decisions in IPM

Insect colonization and feeding often cause injury to the plants. The injury does not necessarily results in damage. The letter refers to a measurable loss of host utility most often including yield quantity, quality or aesthetics. The lowest level of injury where the damage can be measured is called the damage boundary. While the lowest number of insects that will cause economic damage is referred to as economic injury level (EIL). The rational of pest management is to alter a system with as little environmental, economic, or social disruption as possible, so that the population of the pest is consistently less than the EIL. This usually involves an environmental manipulation that may include the input such as application of insecticides.

Fig.1.1. Economic Descision Levels

Population growth is time dependant, there is often delay after treatment before population density actually declines. The treatment, such as application of microbial insecticides might be delayed in showing its impact and therefore must be applied at a point preceding EIL. This point is referred as Economic Threshold Level (ETL). ETL is defined as the pest density at which control measures should be applied to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching Economic Injury Level (EIL). ETL and EIL is influence by market value of crop, management costs, degree of injury per insect and crop susceptibility to injury. Degree of injury per insect and crop susceptibility to injury is again influence by weather, soil factors and biotic factors.

INTEGRATION OF TACTICSIntegration involves proper choice of compatible tactics and blending them so that each

component potentiates or complements the other. The pest management tactics are either preventive or therapeutic.


Preventive tactics

Preventive practices utilize tactics to lower environmental carrying capacity (reduce the general equilibrium position) or increase the tolerance of the host to pest injury. Prevention relies on an estimate understanding of the pest’s life cycle, behavior and ecology. Preventive tactics are discus below

Crop RotationsCrop rotation is central to all sustainable farming systems. It is an extremely effective

way to minimize pest problems (pests with narrow host range and dispersal capacity) while maintaining and enhancing soil structure and fertility.

Field Sanitation/Crop Residue ManagementReducing or removing crop residues and alternate host sites can be used to control some

insects and many diseases. Incorporating the residue into the soil hastens the destruction of disease pathogens by beneficial fungi and bacteria. Burying diseased plant material in this manner also reduces the movement of spores by wind. Insects most affected by tillage will be those that overwinter in crop residue (for example, yellow stem borer of rice) and those that lay their eggs in the residue. Conversely, fields where residue has not been disturbed may have higher levels of some beneficial predators like spiders, which may reduce levels of insect pests. Reduced or zero-tillage may also reduce the damage by certain pests, as the crop residue creates a micro-climate less preferred by some insects (for example, flea beetles). It is important to maintain a balance between crop sanitation and soil conservation. Lighter soils and those prone to wind and water erosion may require postponing tillage until just before seeding to ensure stubble cover for as long as possible. Alternate host sites, such as field margins, fence lines, pastures, etc, will usually contain weeds and natural vegetation that may serve as reservoirs for disease, vectors of disease and insect pests. Left uncontrolled, these insect and disease pests can be transmitted to healthy crop plants. Insects may use these plants as alternate habitat until an appropriate crop occurs in a nearby field. However, these areas may also host many beneficial insects and predators, therefore the grower must carefully assess the potential threat from pest insects in these areas before mowing or removing any plants.

Seed QualityThe use of high-quality seed is especially important in preventing disease. The seed

supply should be free diseases and insects. Seed analysis by a reputable seed testing laboratory will help determine specific diseases in the seed supply. Relatively few diseases are exclusively seed-borne, and it is more common for pathogens to be transmitted from soil, stubble, or wind, as well as with the seed. Planting physically sound seed is also important. Insect injury site in the seed may serve as an entry point for soil-borne micro-organisms that rot the seed once it is planted or insect may even damage the embryo and such seeds will fail to germinate.


Healthy SoilProper nutrient management is an important component of IPM in organic systems.

Organic production does not allow synthetic fertilizers or sewage sludge. Although crop plants must grow vigorously to withstand pest damage, overly lush plants often attract more pest insects and experience more damage than other plants. Over fertilized plants may give visual clues to insects and become targets of attack. Survival of immature insects may also be better on over fertilized plants. Nutrient stress from insufficient plant nutrients can also cause plants to be more attractive to insect pests or more susceptible to damage by insect pests. Consequently, the careful planning and execution of soil fertility programs (including pH) is an important component of pest insect management.

Weed ManagementThe presence of diverse vegetation within or near the field may add essential resources for

predators or parasites of insect pests. Conversely, weeds may also adversely affect the orientation of the predators or parasites to their host; it may also directly contribute to the multiplication of pests and they are also competitors with our crop for space, water and nutrients. For weed management each field situation should be considered separately. If weed control is necessary, it can be check by mechanical removal or by using mulches.

Crop and Variety SelectionSome insect pests are specific to certain crops, such as Plutella xylostella in cruciferous

vegetables, while others, such as grasshoppers, will attack numerous crops. The situation is similar with diseases. The cultivation of insect and disease resistant cultivars can be a useful tool. In the past few decades, biotechnology has also provided many inputs in the field of


agriculture. However, there are still lot controversies in the use of GMOs. The biotechnology industry claims that genetically altered crops are absolutely safe and pose no danger to humans. According to them, genetic engineering is another step in the history of agricultural technology just as the introduction of tractors, fertilizers and plant breeding. There is estimation that food production can be increased by 15 to 20 per cent by using better cultivars containing disease resistant properties through genetic engineering. On the other hand, there are arguments against them. The transgenic food products might not be safe; they may affect the environment and biodiversity; and markets are monopolistic and this might make farmers vulnerable to exploitation.

IntercroppingThe practice of intercropping (where two crops are grown at the same time) can reduce

pest problems by making it more difficult for the pests to find a host crop. This technique also provides habitat for beneficial organisms.

Planting TimePlanting should be scheduled so that the most susceptible time of plant growth does not

correspond to the peak in pest cycles. In India early planting has been found to reduce gall midge and leaf folder damage in rice; shootfly and headbug damage in sorghum and millets; whitegrub damage in groundnut and mustard aphid damage in Brassica crops. Early planting of cabbage and cauliflower during September could escape Plutella xylostella infestation and similarly early planting of cucurbits during late January escape the infestation by red pumpkin beetle in the most susceptible stage of the crop.

Seed Rate and Plant SpacingUsing a optimum seed rate is to maintain optimum plant spacing which can give the

highest quantity and better quality yield. Spacing may also influence the population and damage of many insect pests by modifying the micro environment of the crop and or affecting health, vigour and strength of the crop plants or pattern and duration of crop growth and development. More plants in a field may reduce the impact of a given aphid population on individual plants, but they may create a more favourable habitat for insects that prefer a dense canopy, such as armyworm. The population of Aphis craccivora on chickpea is more.

Depth and Timing of SeedingOptimum seeding depth is also important. Deep seeding in cold soils may result in seedling

blights and damping-off, especially in pulses and small seeded crops. Seeding depth should generally be no deeper than required for quick germination and even emergence. Variables include seed size, soil type and moisture conditions. If the soil is loose before seeding, a packing operation will firm up the soil and bring moisture closer to the surface. For most crops, seeding should ideally be done when the soil is warm enough for rapid germination. Seeds that remain ungerminated in cool soil are more susceptible to damage by insects such as wireworms.


Trap CroppingSeeding trap strips around the edge of a cropped field or along a fence row helps lure

insect pests to a specific area where they can be managed more easily. For example, planting bromegrass near a wheat field attracts wheat stem sawflies and their native parasites away from the wheat crop. Indian mustard (Brassica juncea (L.)Czern.) was found to be a preferred host for oviposition by diamond back moth, Plutella xylostella (Linnaeus) and leaf webber (Zeller), Crocidolomia binotalis Zeller as compared to cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.) and can be used as trap crop for management of lepidopteran pests of cabbage. Generally, the insect pests in the trap strips are controlled by mowing or cultivating the strip, or by applying an acceptable organic product, such as Bacillus thuringiensis. Trap strips can also act as a barrier to protect the crop field. Producers have found that planting yellow sweet clover or Sirius field peas repels grasshoppers and prevents them from damaging crops. A thorough knowledge of the crop and insect pests of the area is necessary to prevent this technique from backfiring.

TillageTillage can be properly timed before seeding, after harvesting and during summer fallow

to reduce populations of insect pests such as cutworms and grasshoppers that spend part of their life cycles in the soil or stubble. Tillage can help starve insects in the spring or during fallow, prevent adults from laying eggs in the soil and expose overwintering insects to predators and inclement weather.

BarrierIf it is feasible, physical exclusion methods like row covers, insect screen houses, etc.

can be use for organic cultivation of high value crops. Plant collars can be used for protection against insect pests like cutworms. Digging of 30 to 60 cm deep trenches or erecting 30 cm high tin sheet barriers around fields is useful for protecting them from the moving bands of locust and hairy caterpillars. Cage made up of transparent polythene sheet (200 gauge) of 30 cm height and 120 cm perimeter (open from top) can avoid infestation by red pumpkin beetles in the early crop stage of cucurbits. Fruits wrapped in paper bags or cloth or straw remain protected to the extent of nearly 95 per cent against fruit flies. A number of sticky and slippery bands at the basal end of tree trunk are utilized for preventing mealy bug nymphs from climbing trees.

QuarantineQuarantines are also an important component of preventive tactics.

Therapeutic Tactics

Therapeutic tactics are applied as a correction to the system when necessary. The objective of therapy is to bring down the increasing pest population below the economic injury level. The some of the therapeutic tactics are briefly discussed below-


Hand PickingHand picking is easy for the pest which lay eggs in batches, having large and conspicuous

body, insect’s lives in colonies, etc.

Hot and Cold TreatmentApplication of dry heat including exposure to sun rays during hot summer months of

April to June helps in killing a number of pests in seeds and store commodities. Treatment of sugarcane setts with heat therapy units either as hot water or hot air treatment kills scale insects carried over through the setts. Hot water treatment of plant storage organs like roots, corns, bulbs, etc. helps to kill concealed pests. Cold storage of fresh and dry fruits and vegetables is often reported for escaping damage by fruit fly, potato tuber moth and pathogens.

Predators and ParasitoidsPredators and parasitoids are the natural enemies that attack various life stages of insects,

resulting in the regulation of herbivore numbers in a particular ecosystem. Some estimates have suggested that natural enemies control about 99 per cent of all potential pests. Indeed, it is the destruction of the relationship between naturally occurring bioagents and pests that is often responsible for pest outbreaks. The aim of using biocontrol agent is to restore and/or enhance this relationship. In the context of biological control the term ‘control’ does not mean eradication, but it reflects to the population suppression to a level where the pest is no longer economically damaging. In a healthy, balanced ecosystem, biological control by natural predators is constantly occurring. The more diverse a cropping system becomes, the greater the spectrum of insect species and micro-organisms within it. This leads to the development of more natural enemies within the ecosystem.

Microbial PesticidesA present a large number of microbial pesticides are available in the market and these

formulations can be used for management of insect pests and diseases. Name of the some microbial pesticides formulations and target pest used in India is given in table 1.1.

Table 1.1. Some of the Microbial pesticides used in India with their product name and target pests.Fungicides Taxus Products Targets

Pseudomonas florescence Bacterium ABTEC Pseudo, Biomonas, Esvin Pseudo, Sudo, Phalada 104PF, Sun Agro Monus, Bio-cure-B

Plant soil borne diseases

Ampelomyces quisqualis Fungus Bio-Dewcon Powdery mildewTrichoderma harzianum Fungus Biozim, Phalada 105, Sun Agro Derma

HSoil borne pathogens

Trichoderma viride Fungus Monitor, Trichoguard, NIPROT, Bioderma, Biovidi, Eswin TrichoBiohit, Tricontrol, Ecoderm, Phalada 106TV, Sun Agro Derma, Defense SF

Soil borne pathogens


Fungicides/bactericidesBacillus subtilis Bacterium Biotilis Soil borne pathogensInsecticidesBacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis

Bacterium Tacibio, Technar Lepidopteran pests

Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki

Bacterium Bio-Dart, Biolep,Halt, Taciobio-Btk

Lepidopteran pests

Beauveria bassiana Fungus Myco-Jaal, Biosoft,ATEC Beauveria, Larvo-Guard, Biorin, Biolarvex, Biogrubex, Biowonder, Veera, Phalada 101B, Bioguard, Bio-power

Coffee berry borer, diamondback moth, thrips, grasshoppers, whiteflies, aphids, codling moth

Metarhizium anisopliae Fungus Meta-Guard, Biomet, Biomagic, Meta, Biomet, Sun Agro Meta, Bio-Magic

Coleoptera and lepidoptera, termites, mosquitoes, beetles, grubs, leafhoppers

Contd.Paecilomyces fumosoroseus

Fungus Nemato-Guard, Priority Whitefly

Paecilomyces lilacinus Fungus Yorker, Paceilomyces, Paecil, Pacihit, ROM biomite, Bio-Nematon

Whitefly

Verticillium lecanii Fungus Verisoft, ABTEC, Verticillium, Vert-Guard, Bioline, Biosappex, Versitile, Ecocil, Phalada 107 V, Biovert Rich, ROM Verlac, ROM Gurbkill, Sun Agro Verti, Bio-Catch

Whitefly, coffee green bug, homopteran pestsHelicoverpa armigera

Helicoverpa armigera nucleopolyhedrosisVirus

Virus Helicide, Virin-H, HelocideBiovirus-H, Helicop, Heligard

Helicoverpa armigera

Spodoptera lituranucleopolyhedrosis virus

Virus Spodocide, Spodoterin, Spodi-cide, Biovirus-S

Spodoptera litura

NematicidesVerticillium chlamydosporium

Fungus - Nematodes

Source: Kabaluk et al., (2010)

Botanical PesticidesMany plants have been reported for possessing pesticidal properties. Singh et al.,

(1999) reported that nearly 1000 plants belonging to 10 families possess pesticidal properties. However, only few plants have been registered for commercial production in India (Table 1.2). The commercial formulations of these botanicals are available and can be used redealy for pest management.


Table 1.2. Botanical Pesticides Registered in India

Sl. No Botanical PesticidesBotanical Pesticides (Biopesticdes) Registered U/s 9 (3)1 Azadirachtin2 Pyrethrum/PyrethrinBotanical Biopesticides Registered U/s 9(3B) only3 Eucalyptus leaf extract

Sex Pheromone LuresSex pheromones are mainly use for monitoring of the pests, however, it is also in some

cases recommended for mass trapping and mating disruption of insects. When the pheromones are use for mating disruption or mass trapping, it should trap at least 95 per cent of the male population of the pest in the field to bring a decline in the pest population as males of many insect species h can mate repeatedly. Farmers should always take a precaution that using pheromones may also attract more pest population in the field. Higher number of traps with lures in a unit area is recommended for mass trapping and mating disruption.

Sex pheromone lures commercially available in India are- Earias vitella, E. insulana, Helicoverpa armigera, Pectiphora gossypiella, Spodoptera litura, Chilo auricillus, C. infuscatellus, C. sacchariphagus indicus, Scirpophaga excerptalis, S. incertulas, Leucinodes orbonalis, Plutella xylostella, Oryctes rhinoceros and Rhynchophorus ferrugineus.

Synthetic Chemical PesticidesUse of chemical pesticides is most effective and easily adoptable technique for pest

management. However, harmful effects of the use of these chemical pesticides should also keep in mind. Use of chemical pesticides must be made compatible with other components of pest management. Physiologically selective insecticides are presently available only for a limited number of pests and field situations. Even broad spectrum insectides may be used in an ecologically selective manner. Systemic insecticides applied as granules, seed dressing, root zone application, stem injection and leaf-axil application avoid damage to natural enemies moving on the plant surface. Seperation time could be achieved by timing of sprays to avoid period of maximum adult activity of natural enemies. Pesticides having short residual toxicity may be used when the crop is attaining harvesting stage. Even sub lethal doses of chemical pesticides may be applied in combination with microbial pesticides to increase the efficacy of microbial pesticide.

IPM modeling and Transfer of Technology

Farmers–participatory wholesome IPM technology development, revalidation and transfer suited to the local needs should be given priority and should be implemented jointly by the scientists, extension functionaries in the development departments, NGOs and farmers. HRD programmes at various levels have to be organized and strengthen and free exchange of


non chemical inputs of IPM among the states and regions should be encouraged. The agro-ecosystem analysis on selected crops and conducts of farmer’s field schools (FFS) in IPM in the recent years by the state and central government departments have been quite successful. IPM is the most suited to small and marginal farm families. Since their number is increasing, it is envisaged that IPM technology will be adopted in greater measures in the years to come. Special training in IPM technology under the “Women in Agricultural Programme” also helped in the effective implementation of better IPM technologies.

REFERENCESAltieri, M. 1995. Escaping the treadmill. Ceres 27(4): 15-23.Dhaliwal, G.S. and Arora, R. 1998. Principles of Insect Pests Management. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana,

India.Geier, P.W. 1966. Management of Insect Pests, Annual Review of Entomology, 11: 471-490.Geier, P.W. and Clark, L.R. 1961. An ecological approach to pest control. In: Proceedings of Eight

Technical Meeting, 1960. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Warsaw, Poland, pp. 10-18.

Kabaluk, J.T., Svircev, A.M., Goettel,M.S. and Woo, S.G. (eds.). 2010. The Use and Regulation of Microbial Pesticides in Representative Jurisdictions Worldwide. IOBC Global. Pp 99.

Pedigo, L.P. 1991. Entomology and Pest Management. Mac Millan Publishing Co., New York, USA.Perkins, J.H. 1980. The quest for innovation in agricultural entomology. In:Pest control: Cultural and

Environmental Aspects. D. Pimentel and J. H. Perkins (eds). AAAS Selected Symposium 43, Western Press, Colorado, USA, Pp. 23-80

Pradhan, S. 1983. Agricultural Entomology and Pest Control. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India.

Saini, R.K. 1997. Survey and surveillance in insect pest management. In: Compendium on Advance training Course on insect pest management. Naresh, J.S., Singh, H. and Rohilla, H.R. (eds.), Department of Entomology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana, India, 165pp.

Stern, V.M., Smith, R.F., van den Bosch, R. and Hagen, K.S. 1959. The integration of chemical and biological control of the spotted alfalfa aphid: The integrated control concept. Hilgardia 29: 81-101

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