1 GPSG

The following is a list of languages with implemented GPSG fragments:

• German (Weisweber, 1987; Weisweber and Preuss, 1992; Naumann, 1987, 1988;Volk, 1988)

• English (Evans, 1985; Phillips and Thompson, 1985; Phillips, 1992; Grover, Car-roll and Briscoe, 1993)

• French (Emirkanian, Da Sylva and Bouchard, 1996)

• Persian (Bahrani, Sameti and Manshadi, 2011)

2 LFG

LFG has well-designed formal foundations (Kaplan and Bresnan, 1982; Kaplan, 1995),and hence first implementations were available rather quickly (Frey and Reyle, 1983a,b;Yasukawa, 1984; Block and Hunze, 1986; Eisele and Dorre, 1986; Kohl, 1992; Kohland Momma, 1992; Wada and Asher, 1986; Delmonte, 1990; Her, Higinbotham andPentheroudakis, 1991; Kaplan and Maxwell III, 1996; Mayo, 1997, 1999; Boullier andSagot, 2005a,b; Clément, 2009; Clément and Kinyon, 2001).

The following is a list of languages with implemented LFG fragments, probablyincomplete:

• Arrernte (Dras, Lareau, Börschinger, Dale, Motazedi, Rambow, Turpin and Ulin-ski, 2012),

• Arabic (Attia, 2008),

• Bengali (Sengupta and Chaudhuri, 1997),

• Danish (Ørsnes, 2002; Ørsnes and Wedekind, 2003, 2004),

• German (Rohrer, 1996; Berman, 1996; Kuhn and Rohrer, 1997; Butt et al.,1999a; Dipper, 2003; Rohrer and Forst, 2006; Forst, 2006; Frank, 2006; Forstand Rohrer, 2009),

• English (Her, Higinbotham and Pentheroudakis, 1991; Butt, Dipper, Frank andKing, 1999a; Riezler, King, Kaplan, Crouch, Maxwell III and Johnson, 2002;King and Maxwell III, 2007),

• French (Zweigenbaum, 1991; Frank, 1996; Frank and Zaenen, 2002; Butt, Dip-per, Frank and King, 1999a; Clément and Kinyon, 2001; Boullier, Sagot andClément, 2005),

• Georgian (Meurer, 2009),

• Indonesian (Arka, Andrews, Dalrymple, Mistica and Simpson, 2009),

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• Italian (Mayo, 1999; Quaglia, 2012),

• Irish (Sulger, 2009, 2010),

• Japanese (Her, Higinbotham and Pentheroudakis, 1991; Masuichi and Ohkuma,2003; Umemoto, 2006),

• Korean (Her, Higinbotham and Pentheroudakis, 1991),

• Malagasy (Randriamasimanana, 2006; Dalrymple, Liakata and Mackie, 2006),

• Mandarin Chinese (Her, Higinbotham and Pentheroudakis, 1991; Fang and King,2007),

• Murrinh-Patha (Seiss and Nordlinger, 2012),

• Norwegian (Dyvik, Meurer and Rosén, 2005),

• Polish (Patejuk and Przepiórkowski, 2012),

• Portugiesie (Alencar, 2004),

• Spanish (Mayo, 1999),

• Tigrinya (Kifle, 2011),

• Turkish (Çetinoglu and Oflazer, 2006),

• Ungarish (Laczkó, Rákosi and Tóth, 2010; Rákosi, Laczkó and Csernyi, 2011),

• Urdu/Hindi (Butt, King and Roth, 2007; Bögel, Butt and Sulger, 2008),

• Welsh (Mittendorf and Sadler, 2005) and

• Wolof (Dione, 2012a,b)

Many of theses grammars were developed in the ParGram consortium1 (Butt, King,Niño and Segond, 1999b; Butt, Dyvik, King, Masuichi and Rohrer, 2002). Apart fromthese grammars there is a smart fragment of Northern Sotho, which is currently ex-tended (Faaß, 2010).

Many of the LFG systems combine linguistically moticated grammars with a statis-tics component. Such a component can help to find preferred readings of a sentencefirst, it can increase the efficiency of processing and make the complete processing ro-bust (for instance Kaplan et al., 2004; Riezler et al., 2002). Josef van Genabith’s groupin Dublin works at the induction of LFG grammars from corpora (z. B. Johnson et al.,1999; O’Donovan et al., 2005; Cahill et al., 2005; Chrupala and van Genabith, 2006;Guo et al., 2007; Cahill et al., 2008; Schluter and van Genabith, 2009).

Some of the systems can be tested online:

• http://iness.uib.no/xle-web/xle-web

• http://lfg-demo.computing.dcu.ie/lfgparser.html

• http://www.xlfg.org/1http://pargram.b.uib.no/research-groups/. 29.11.2012.

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3 Categorial Grammar

The basic operations for combining linguistic objects are rather simple and well-un-derstood, so that it is no surprise that there are many systems for the developmentand processing of Categorial Grammars (Yampol and Karttunen, 1990; Carpenter,1994; Bouma and van Noord, 1994; Lloré, 1995; König, 1999; Moot, 2002; Whiteand Baldridge, 2003; Baldridge et al., 2007; Morrill, 2012). An important role playsMark Steedman’s group (see fro instance Clark et al., 2002; Clark and Curran, 2007).

Implemented fragments exist for the following languages:

• German (Uszkoreit, 1986; König, 1999; Vierhuff, Hildebrandt and Eikmeyer,2003; Vancoppenolle, Tabbert, Bouma and Stede, 2011)

• English (Villavicencio, 2002; Baldridge, 2002; Beavers, 2003, 2004)

• Finnish (Karttunen, 1989)

• French (Baschung, Bes, Corluy and Guillotin, 1987)

• Dutch (Bouma and van Noord, 1994; Baldridge, 2002)

• Tagalog (Baldridge, 2002)

• Turkish (Hoffman, 1995; Baldridge, 2002)

In addition, Baldridge et al. (2007, p. 15) mention an implementation for ClassicalArabic.

Some of the systems for the processing of Categorial Grammars were augmentedby statistics components, so that lexical items can be extracted from corpora and theprocessing is robust (Osborne and Briscoe, 1997; Clark, Hockenmaier and Steedman,2002). Briscoe (2000) and Villavicencio (2002) use statistical information in their UG-based language acquisition models.

4 HPSG

The formal properties of the description language for HPSG grammars is well-under-stood and there are many systems for processing them (Dörre and Seiffert, 1991; Dörreand Dorna, 1993; Popowich and Vogel, 1991; Uszkoreit et al., 1994; Erbach, 1995;Schütz, 1996; Schmidt et al., 1996b,a; Uszkoreit et al., 1996; Müller, 1996, 2004a;Carpenter and Penn, 1996; Penn and Carpenter, 1999; Götz et al., 1997; Copestake,2002; Callmeier, 2000; Dahllöf, 2003; Meurers et al., 2002; Penn, 2004; Müller, 2007a;Sato, 2008; Kaufmann, 2009).2 Currently, the LKB system by Ann Copestake and theTRALE system, that was developed by Gerald Penn, have the most users. The DELPH-IN-Konsortium and various TRALE users developed many small and some large frag-ments of various languages. The following is a list of implementations in differentsystems:

2Uszkoreit et al. (1996); Bolc et al. (1996) compare systems that were available or were developed at thebeginnings of the 90ies. Melnik (2007) compares LKB and TRALE.

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• Arabic (Hahn, 2011),

• Bengali (Paul, 2004),

• Bulgarian (Simov, Osenova, Simov and Kouylekov, 2004; Osenova, 2010a,b,2011),

• Danish (Ørsnes, 1995, 2009; Neville and Paggio, 2004; Müller, 2009b; Müllerand Ørsnes, 2011; Müller, 2012; Müller and Ørsnes, In Preparation),

• German (Kiss, 1991; Netter, 1993, 1996; Meurers, 1994; Hinrichs et al., 1997;Kordoni, 1999; Tseng, 2000; Geißler and Kiss, 1994; Keller, 1994; Müller, 1996,1999; Müller and Kasper, 2000; Crysmann, 2003, 2005b,c; Müller, 2007b; Kauf-mann and Pfister, 2007, 2008; Kaufmann, 2009; Fokkens, 2011),

• English (Copestake and Flickinger, 2000; Flickinger, Copestake and Sag, 2000;Flickinger, 2000; Dahllöf, 2002, 2003; De Kuthy and Meurers, 2003; Meurers,De Kuthy and Metcalf, 2003; De Kuthy, Metcalf and Meurers, 2004),

• Esperanto (Li, 1996),

• French (Tseng, 2003),

• Ga (Kropp Dakubu, Hellan and Beermann, 2007; Hellan, 2007),

• Sign Language (German, French, British, Greek) (Sáfár and Marshall, 2002;Marshall and Sáfár, 2004; Sáfár and Glauert, 2010),

• Georgianh (Abzianidze, 2011),

• Greek (Kordoni and Neu, 2005),

• Hausa (Crysmann, 2005a, 2009, 2011, 2012),

• Hebrew (Melnik, 2007),

• Japanisch (Siegel, 2000; Siegel and Bender, 2002; Bender and Siegel, 2005),

• Yiddish (Müller and Ørsnes, 2011),

• Korean (Kim and Yang, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2009; Kim, Sells and Yang, 2007;Song, Kim, Bond and Yang, 2010; Kim, Yang, Song and Bond, 2011),

• Maltese (Müller, 2009a),

• Mandarin Chinese (Liu, 1997; Ng, 1997; Müller and Lipenkova, 2009),

• Dutch (van Noord and Bouma, 1994; Bouma, van Noord and Malouf, 2001;Fokkens, 2011),

• Norwegian (Hellan and Haugereid, 2003; Beermann and Hellan, 2004; Hellanand Beermann, 2006),

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• Persian (Müller, 2010; Müller and Ghayoomi, 2010),

• Polish (Przepiórkowski, Kupsc, Marciniak and Mykowiecka, 2002; Mykowiecka,Marciniak, Przepiórkowski and Kupsc, 2003),

• Portugese (Branco and Costa, 2008a,b; Costa and Branco, 2010),

• Russian (Avgustinova and Zhang, 2009),

• Sahaptin (Drellishak, 2009),

• Spanish (Pineda and Meza, 2005a,b; Bildhauer, 2008; Marimon, 2012),

• Turkish (Fokkens, Poulson and Bender, 2009),

• Wambaya (Bender, 2008a,b, 2010).

The first implemented HPSG grammar was a grammar of English that was developedin the HP labs in Palo Alto (Flickinger, Pollard and Wasow, 1985; Flickinger, 1987).Grammars for German were developed in Heidelberg, Stuttgart and Saarbrücken in theLILOG project. After this grammars for German, English and Japanese were developedin Heidelberg, Saarbrücken and Stanford in the Verbmobil project. Verbmobil was thelargest AI project in Germany ever. It was a machine translation project for spokenlanguage in the domains of trip planing and apointment scheduling (Wahlster, 2000).

Currently there are two larger groups that work on grammar development: theDELPH-IN consortium (Deep Linguistic Processing with HPSG)3 and the networkCoGETI (Constraintbasierte Grammatik: Empirie, Theorie und Implementierung)4.Many of the grammar fragments that are listed above were developed by membersof DELPH-IN and some were derived from the Grammar Matrix which was developedfor the LKB to provide grammar writers with a typologically motivated initial gram-mar that corresponds to the properties of the language under development (Bender,Flickinger and Oepen, 2002). The CoreGram project5 is a similar projekt that is runat the Freie Universität Berlin. It develops grammars for German, Danish, Persian,Maltesw, Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, French and Yiddish that share a common core.Constraints that hold for all languages are represented in one place and used by allgrammars. Furthermore there are constraints that hold for certain language classes andagain they are represented together and used by the respective grammars. So while theGrammar Matrix is used to derive grammars that individual grammar writers can use,adapt and modify to suit their needs, CoreGram really develops grammars for variouslanguages that are used simultaneously and have to stay in sync. A brief description ofthe CoreGram can be found in Müller and Ørsnes, In Preparation.

There are systems that combine linguistically motivated analyses with statisticscomponents (Brew, 1995; Miyao et al., 2005; Miyao and Tsujii, 2008) or learn gram-mars or lexicons from corpora (Fouvry, 2003; Cramer and Zhang, 2009).

The following URLs point to pages on which grammars can be tested:

3http://www.delph-in.net/. 25.03.2013.4http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~cogeti/. 25.03.2013. Supported by the DFG under the grant number

HO3279/3-1.5http://hpsg.fu-berlin.de/Projects/CoreGram.html. 25.03.2013.

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• http://www.delph-in.net/erg/

• http://hpsg.fu-berlin.de/Demos/

5 Construction Grammar

John Bryant, Nancy Chang, Eva Mok developed a system for the implementation ofEmbodied Construction Grammar6. Luc Steels works on the simulation of languageevolution and language acquisition (Steels, 2003). In personal communication (p. M.2007) he stated that is is a long way to go until robots finally will be able to learn tospeak but the current state of the art is already impressive. Steels can use robots thathave a visual system (camera and image processing) and uses visual information pairedwith audio information in the language acquisition simulation. The implementation ofFluid Construction Grammar is documented in Steels, 2011 and Steels, 2012. Thesecond book contains parts about German, in which the implementation of Germandeclarative clauses and w interrogative clauses is explained with respect to topologicalfields (Micelli, 2012). The FCG system, various publications and example analysesare available at: http://www.fcg-net.org/. Jurafsky (1996) developed a ConstructionGrammar for English that was paired with a probabilistic component. He showed thatmany preformance phenomena that are discussed in the literature (see Section ?? onthe Competence/Preformance Distinction) can be explained with recourse to proba-bilities of phrasal constructions and valency properties of words. Bannard, Lievenand Tomasello (2009) use a probabilistic context free grammar to model grammaticalknowledge of two and three year old children.

6 TAG

There exist various synstems for the processing of TAG grammars (Doran, Hockey,Sarkar, Srinivas and Xia, 2000; Parmentier, Kallmeyer, Maier, Lichte and Dellert,2008; Kallmeyer, Lichte, Maier, Parmentier, Dellert and Evang, 2008). Smaller andlarger TAG fragments have been developed for the following languages:

• Arabic (Fraj, Zribi and Ahmed, 2008),

• German (Rambow, 1994; Gerdes, 2002; Kallmeyer and Yoon, 2004; Lichte,2007),

• Englisch (XTAG Research Group, 2001; Frank, 2002; Kroch and Joshi, 1987),

• French (Abeillé, 1988; Candito, 1996, 1998, 1999; Crabbé, 2005),

• Italian (Candito, 1998, 1999),

• Korean (Han, Yoon, Kim and Palmer, 2000; Kallmeyer and Yoon, 2004),

• Vietnamese (Le, Nguyen and Roussanaly, 2008)

6See http://www.icsi.berkeley.edu/~jbryant/old-analyzer.html and Bryant, 2003.

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Candito (1996) developed a system for the representation of meta grammars, which al-lows the uniform specification of crosslinguistic generalizations. This system was usedby some of the projects mentioned above for the derivation of grammars for specificlanguages. For instance Kinyon, Rambow, Scheffler, Yoon and Joshi (2006) derive verbsecond languages from the meta grammar. Among thoses grammars for verb secondlanguages is a grammar of Jiddish for which there was no TAG grammar since 2006.

Resnik (1992) combines TAG with a statistics component.

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