1 edu 5900 kaedah penyelidikan. 2 kaedah penyelidikan quasi- eksperimen dan ex-post facto
TRANSCRIPT
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EDU 5900KAEDAH
PENYELIDIKAN
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Kaedah Penyelidikan Quasi-Eksperimen dan ex-post facto
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OBJEKTIF
Menerangkan konsep, tujuan dan kepentingan kaedah penyelidikan Quasi-Eksperimen dan ex-post facto.
Menilai kesesuaian penggunaan kaedah tersebut bagi permasalahan kajian yang dikemukakan.
Merancang langkah-langkah pelaksanaan kajian mengikut kaedah tertentu.
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Rekabentuk Quasi-Eksperimen
The word "quasi" means as if or almost, so a quasi-experiment
means almost a true experiment.
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Kenapa Quasi-Eksperimen? Dinamakan Quasi-Eksperimental kerana penyelidikan yang
dilakukan hampir menyerupai reka bentuk eksperimen, kecuali tiada pembahagian secara rawak dilakukan.
Pembahagian rawak sukar dijalankan dalam keadaan tertentu seperti pemboleh ubah atribut (jantina, ras, pendapatan penjaga dll) kerana akan menjejaskan pemboleh ubah seperti rasa terasing dalam kumpulan baru dan sebagainya. Oleh itu reka bentuk ini digunakan.
Kaedah reka bentuk quasi-eksperimen bukan sebenar-benar eksperimen kerana tiada pembahagian rawak dilakukan.
Gunakan kumpulan sedia wujud dalam (intact group).
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QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS; are usually constructions that already exist in the real world. Those designs that fall into the quasi-experimental category fall short in some way of the criteria for the true experimental group. A quasi-experimental design will have some sort of control and experimental group, but these groups probably weren't randomly selected. Random selection is usually where true-experimental and quasi-experimental designs differ.
Some advantages of the quasi-experimental design include:
• Greater external validity (more like real world conditions)
• Much more feasible given time and logistical constraints
Disadvantages:
• Not as many variables controlled (less causal claims)
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Ciri-Ciri Rekabentuk Quasi-Eksperimen
Dua atau lebih daripada kumpulan responden yang tidak diagih secara rawak.
Memerlukan kawalan terhadap pemboleh ubah luaran yang tegas.
Mengutamakan perbezaan antara kumpulan responden secara semula jadi.
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Perbezaan antara eksperimen dengan quasi-eksperimen.
Aktiviti bacaan: Sila baca artikel yang bertajuk;EXPERIMENTAL AND QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
True and Quasi-Experimental Designs.
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Kaedah Ex Post FactoPerbandingan Sebab(Causal Comparative)
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Ex post facto The Latin term "Ex post facto" means, in a
UK legal context: "by reason of a subsequent act".
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Causal-Comparative Studies
Go beyond relationships/associations to examine cause-and-effects.
Two types of these studies: Ex Post Facto Correlational
Ex post facto
‘from what is done afterwards’
Ex post facto
The Latin term "Ex post facto" means, in a UK legal context: "by reason of a subsequent act".
Ex-post-facto designs ("after the fact")
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Definisi:
Kaedah ini digunakan untuk mengenal pasti punca atau penyebab (IV) sesuatu kesan (DV) yang diperhati dimana
IV adalah sesuatu yang telah berlaku dan tidak boleh dimanipulasikan(diluar kawalan penyelidik.
Casual Research explores the effect of one thing on another and more specifically, the effect of one variable
on another.
Lihat contoh dalam Noraini Idris (2010), ms. 230
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Causal-Comparative StudiesImportant Issues:
Primary purpose should be developing cause-and-effect relationships when experimentation is not possible
The “intervention” (IV) must have already occurred Must identify and consider extraneous variables Differences between the groups not due to the
independent variable should be controlled Be careful with causal conclusions
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Reka bentuk ini menekankan sebab yang dijangka. Contoh 1: Adakah program pendidikan pemulihan
meningkatkan prestasi 3M murid-murid yang lemah? Contoh 2: Adakah program kaunseling individu
meningkatkan motivasi murid bermasalah? Tafsiran sebab-akibat (cause-effect relationship) Penyelidik perlu memastikan:
Terdapat hubungan antara A (IV) dan B (DV); A datang dahulu daripada B; Tidak ada kesan pemboleh ubah luaran terhadap A, B atau
interaksi A dan B.
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1. Perhubungan statistik yang signifikan antara pemboleh ubah bebas dan bersandar wujud dengan sah.
2. Pemboleh ubah bebas wujud sebelum pemboleh ubah bersandar.
3. Pemboleh ubah lain tidak mempengaruhi pemboleh ubah bersandar.
Tiga Jenis Bukti Yang Perlu Untuk Mengesahkan Hubungan Sebab-akibat
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1. Begin with subjects who differ on an independent variable (such as their principal instrument/voice) and study how they differ on dependent variables (such as levels of performance anxiety or music theory test scores).
2. Begin with subjects who differ on a dependent variable (such as attrition from music--comparing those students who drop out of music with those who persist) and study how they differ on various independent variables (such as how much they practice, how they feel about their relationship with their teacher, how they feel about themselves as musicians, etc.).
Two Basic Approaches to Ex Post Facto Research
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This type of study is very common and useful when using human subjects in real-world situations and
the investigator comes in "after the fact." For example, it might be observed that students from one town have higher grades than students
from a different town attending the same high school. Would just "being from a certain town"
explain the differences? In an ex post facto study, specific reasons for the differences would be
explored, such as differences in income, ethnicity, parent support, etc.
Studies that investigate possible cause and effect relationships by observing an existing condition or state of affairs and searching back in time for plausible causal factors.
The ex post facto design is a variation of the "after-only with control group" experimental design.
The chief difference is that both the experimental and control groups are selected after the experimental variable is introduced rather than before.
Explores possible causes and effects. The independent variable is not manipulated, it has already been
applied. Focuses first on the effect, then attempts to determine what caused
the observed effect.
Characteristics of Ex Post Facto Researcher takes the effect/dependent variable and examines it
retrospectively Establishes causes, relationships or associations and their
meanings. Researcher has little to no control over independent variables. Flexible by nature. There is a control or comparison group. Intact groups are used. The treatment is not manipulated, it has already occurred. There may be both “treatment” and “control” groups, however these
will be existing, not assigned by the researcher. There is no manipulation of conditions
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Ex Post Facto research
Researcher cannot manipulate some variables and therefor selects participants that have certain values for those variables by themselves (gender, personality, illness, ...)
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The experimenter does not manipulate the IV... that is subjects cannot be randomly
assigned to the levels of the IV - rather they assign themselves because the IV is not
manipulated, it also qualifies as a descriptive technique
When to use this?
You can use this where more powerful experimental designs are not possible; when you are unable to select, control and manipulate the factors necessary to study cause and effect relationships directly, or when control variables except a single independent variable may be unrealistic and artificial.
Ex post facto advantages and disadvantages
Advantages Show a correlation where
more rigorous experimentation is not possible
Exploratory tool Useful to avoid articiality
in the research. Shows cause and effect
relationships
Disadvantages Lack of control for
independent variable and randomizing subjects.
Never certain if causative factor has been included or identified
Relationship between two factors does not est. cause and effect.
May be regarded as too flexible.
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• Melibatkan perbandingan antara kumpulan yang sedia wujud
Contoh: Menyelidik murid-murid yang menonton rancangan belajar bahasa Inggeris melalui siaran TV dan membandingkan prestasi mereka untuk mengkaji sama ada menonton program bahasa Inggeris di TV dapat membantu meningkatkan pencapaian mata pelajaran tersebut. Murid-murid dikumpulkan dalam beberapa kumpulan mengikut banyaknya mereka menonton siaran tersebut.
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Examples of Ex Post Facto Studies
•What is the effect of day care on the social skills of children?•What is the relationship between participation in extracurricular activities and self concept? •"smoking causes cancer”
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Ex Post Facto - example
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0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Months
AV
ER
AG
E D
EP
RE
SS
ION
S
CO
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Victim
Control
Depression in rape victims
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Research design
Y23Y22Y21 Y24X2 Y26Y25
Y13Y12Y11 Y14X1 Y16Y15
X1 = rape victim
X2 = control
Yij = average depression score in group i, at time j
---- indicates possible unequality of groups in both conditions
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• Kajian perbandingan sebab perlu digunakan apabila kajian eksperimen tidak dapat dilakukan.
• Keadaan sebab mesti berlaku sebelumnya. • Pemboleh ubah ekstranous perlu dikenal pasti
dan dicatat. • Perbezaan antara kumpulan perlu dikawal.• Hubungan sebab-akibat perlu dinyatakan dengan
berhati-hati!
Tips…
Baca Noraini Idris (2010), ms. 235 (Jadual 12.1)
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MIXED METHODS DESIGN
What Is Mixed Methods Research?
A mixed methods research design is a procedure for collecting, analyzing, and “mixing” both quantitative and qualitative research and methods in a single study to understand a research problem.
Combined Designs and Uses
Mixed MethodsResearch
ActionResearch
Combining quantitative andqualitative data to understand and explain a research problem better.
Using quantitative and qualitative data for individuals to study problems that they face in their setting
When to Use Mixed Methods Designs
When both quantitative and qualitative data, together, provide a better understanding of your research problem than either type by itself
When one type of research (qualitative or quantitative) is not enough to address the research problem or answer the research questions.
To incorporate a qualitative component into an otherwise quantitative study
To build from one phase of a study to another Explore qualitatively then develop an instrument Follow-up a quantitative study qualitatively to obtain more detailed
information
Identifying a Mixed Methods Study in the Literature The title includes words such as “mixed methods” or “multimethod,”
etc. Data collection section indicates both qualitative and quantitative
data were collected. Purpose statement and/or research questions indicate that the
researcher intends to collect both quantitative and qualitative data during the study.
Priority or weight: Qualitative, quantitative, or both equally Sequence of collecting quantitative and qualitative data is indicated Analyze both data sets
Combined in one analysis (integrated) Separate analysis
A Notation System for Designs
Study #1 QUAL + QUAN+ indicates the simultaneous or concurrent collectionof quantitative and qualitative data
Study #2 QUAN qual
Shows sequential collection ofquantitative and qualitative data
Uppercase letters indicate a priority or increased
weight for quantitative and/or qualitative data.Lowercase letters indicate a lower priority or weightfor either quantitative and/or qualitative data.
NOTATION USED
Types of Mixed Methods Designs
I. Triangulation Mixed Methods Design
II. Explanatory Mixed Methods Design
III. Exploratory Mixed Methods Design
QUANData and Results
QUANData and Results
+
QUALData and Results
QUALData and Results
qualData and Results
quanData and Results
Interpretation
Follow-up
Building
Mixed Methods Designs: Explanatory Design
Researcher places priority on quantitative (QUAN) data collection and analysis.
Researcher collects quantitative data first in the sequence.
Researcher uses the qualitative data to explain the results of the quantitative data.
Mixed Methods Designs: Exploratory Design
Research emphasizes qualitative (QUAL) data rather than quantitative (quan) data.
Researcher has a sequence of data collection that involves collecting qualitative data followed by quantitative data.
Researcher plans on the quantitative data to build on or explain the initial qualitative findings.
Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs
Rationale for the design Collecting quantitative and qualitative data Priority Sequence Data analysis matched to design Diagram of the procedures
Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs: Rationale
Rationale Test findings of first phase Explain results of first phase in more detail Provide a more complete understanding than either
quantitative or qualitative alone Collecting both quantitative and qualitative data
Numeric data Text data
Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs: Priority and Sequence
Priority Equal weight QUAN carries more weight than qual QUAL carries more weight than quan
Sequence Collect both quantitative and qualitative data at the same
time Collect quantitative data first, followed by qualitative data Collect qualitative data first, followed by quantitative data
Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs: Analysis and Diagram
Analysis matched to design (“mixing”) Data analysis strategies for triangulation design Data analysis strategies for exploratory design Data analysis strategies for explanatory design
Diagram of procedures Use notation system Identify priority Identify sequence
Examples of Visual DiagramsI. Triangulation Mixed Methods Design
II. Embedded Mixed Methods Design
QUAN(Data and Results) +
QUAL(Data and Results)
Interpretation
QUANData and Results
QUAN(Data and Results)
Interpretation
III. Explanatory Mixed Methods Design
IV. Exploratory Mixed Methods Design
QUAN(Data and Results)
QUAL(Data and Results)
qual(Data and Results)
quan(Data and Results)
Follow-up
Building
Examples of Visual Diagrams (cont’d)
Steps for Conducting a Mixed Methods Study
Determine if a mixedmethods study isfeasible
Develop quantitativeand qualitative research questions
Collect quantitativeand qualitative data
Analyze data separately orconcurrently
Write the report as a one- or two-phasestudy
Identify the data collection strategy andtype of design
Identify a rationale for a mixed methodsstudy Step 1Step 2
Step 4
Step 3
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
PrioritySequenceVisualization
Choosing Whether to Use a Quantitative or Qualitative
Approach
Match the approach to the problem Fit the approach to your audience Relate the approach to your experiences
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