1 draft yield gap analysis sierra leone)

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Yield Gap Analysis of Selected Commodities in

Sierra Leone

CORAF/WECARD/MAFFS

Draft Report by Nazir Mahmood

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12th April 2016

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Table of Contents I. General Study Context ..................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Physical Environment of Sierra Leone. .................................................................................... 3

1.2 Climate and Soils .................................................................................................................... 3

1.3 Food insecurity and Human Development .............................................................................. 4

1.4. Agricultural Productivity ........................................................................................................ 5

II. Overview of Trends in Key Commodity Yields................................................................................... 6

2.1 Rice Yields .............................................................................................................................. 6

2.2 Cassava Yields ........................................................................................................................ 6

2.3 Cocoa Yields ........................................................................................................................... 7

2.4 Ruminants Production ............................................................................................................ 8

III. Motivation, Objective and Methodology of Study ........................................................................... 9

3.1 Motivation ............................................................................................................................. 9

3.2 Objective ...............................................................................................................................10

3.3 Methodology ........................................................................................................................11

IV. Results ......................................................................................................................................... 15

4.1 Yield Gap of Rice ...................................................................................................................16

4.2 Yield Gap Inland Valley Swamp Rice ......................................................................................18

4.3 Yield Gap Mangrove Swamp Rice ..........................................................................................20

4.4 Yield Gap Boli Land Swamp Rice ............................................................................................23

4.5 Cassava Yield Gap ..................................................................................................................25

4.6 Cocoa Yield Gap ....................................................................................................................28

V. Summary of Key Preliminary Findings ............................................................................................ 30

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I. General Study Context

Agriculture employs about 70 percent of Sierra Leone’s labour force, and contributes at least 45

percent to the country’s gross domestic product (GDP). This implies Sierra Leone’s economy can

only be sustainably transformed and its levels of poverty significantly reduced if agricultural

productivity is commensurately scaled up. Eradication of hunger, food security and value-added

agriculture has been at the fore of national policy discourses since the end of the country’s civil

war in 2002. Central to this objective is the special attention the Government of Sierra Leone

(GoSL) has paid to minimizing yield gaps and expanding productivity in strategic commodities

through exploration of alternative investment opportunities to increase productivity. These efforts

have further been informed by the recent Ebola virus disease outbreak in the country that brought

importation of essential commodities for the country’s survival to a halt, including rice, when

there is abundant arable land for its local production to meet domestic demand. Thus, this study

cannot be overemphasized with regard to the sustainable development drive of the country

1.1 Physical Environment of Sierra Leone.

Sierra Leone is in the lowland humid tropics, located on the West Coast of Africa, between

latitude 6o 55’N and 10o 00’N and longitude 10o 16’W and 13o 18’W. The country covers a total

area of 7.2 million hectares, of which 5.4 million hectares (75%) are arable as shown in Table 1.1

Table: 1. Distribution of Arable Land by Ecology

Ecology Total Arable Land (ha) Share (%)

Upland 4,300,000 60%

Inland Valley Swamp 690,000 10%

Mangrove Swamp 200,000 3%

Boli Land 120,000 2%

Riverain Grassland 110,000 2%

Total 5,400,000 75%

National Area 7,200,000 100%

Source: Allieu (2005).

1.2 Climate and Soils

The national temperatures generally range from an average of 24.1oC to 28.3oC, except in the

Harmattan period, between November and February, when it can drop to below 20oC at night.

Sunshine is abundant in Sierra Leone, but it varies with the amount of cloudiness, averaging 6-8

hours per day during the dry season and 2-4 hours per day during the rainy season when crops are

mainly cultivated.

1 Allieu, 2005

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The soils on the uplands are Ultisols and Oxisols (low activity clay soils), that are acidic (pH 4-5)

with high levels of exchangeable aluminum and low base saturation. These soils require careful

management for production to be maintained at a high level, without need for recourse to the bush

fallow rotation. Soil nutrient budgets for N, P, K and some micro-nutrients (Zn) in the uplands

are negative. Plant nutrients therefore have to be added through organic and inorganic sources if

soil nutrient mining is to be curtailed. Since irrigation is limited, cropping is mainly rain fed, and

confined to relatively short periods, which has an important effect on stability of food supplies

and therefore food security.

1.3 Food insecurity and Human Development

Sierra Leone is one of the poorest countries in the world. About 22.3 percent of the population

cannot afford minimum daily caloric requirements and face regular difficulties in meeting

immediate needs in terms of food, shelter, and clothing. 2 Sierra Leone is currently ranked 181 out

of 187 countries for the 2015 classification of the Human Development Index.3 The civil war

devastated agriculture as the main stay of the economy. While significant progress has been

made towards peace-building, the resettlement of displaced populations, reconstruction of war-

affected communities and rehabilitation of productive households and community assets, the

country still faces enormous challenges. Poverty levels remain high, with 52.9 percent of the

population still living below the national poverty line of US$1.25 a day as per 2013 national

poverty line estimates. Its global human development ranking has improved from being least

during the war and in the immediate post-war era, to 8th position from bottom currently.4 While

some progress has been made in reducing child and maternal mortality rates, these rates remain

appalling and some of the highest in the world. Under-five mortality rate decreased from 286

deaths per 1,000 live births in 2005 to 156 deaths in 2013; infant mortality rate from 170 deaths

per 1,000 births in 2005 to 92 in 2013; and maternal mortality rates from 2,300 deaths per

100,000 live births in 1990 and 1,800 deaths in 2005 to 1,165 deaths in 2013.5

The war caused the displacement of 30 percent of the population with farms abandoned as Sierra

Leoneans fled their agricultural settlements for big towns and cities; those who could afford left

the country for neighbouring states and beyond. However production of food and export of crops

has to some extent recovered since the end of the war.

There exists a high dependency on rice in Sierra Leone, the country’s staple food source, with

104kg consumed per capita per annum.6 However, there has been a rice deficit especially for the

2 The proportion of those living below the minimum food energy intake however constitutes significant

improvement from 42.8 percent of what it was in 1991 (see Sierra Leone Draft Millennium Development Report

2016). 3 See The United Nations Human Development Report, UNDP (2015). 4 See Bangura (2015, p.29); and UNDP Human Development Reports since 1990 5 Sierra Leone Millennium Development Report (2015). 6 1980 WARDA, Annual report.

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last two and a half decades, a trend that dramatically worsened more so during the civil, 1991–

2002. Although domestic production recovered quickly after 2001, the country produces only

three- quarters of its rice requirement, with remaining demand being met by imports. During the

food price crisis of 2008, the cost of rice rose by over 50 percent between January and July that

year. On average, households spend approximately 50 percent of their incomes on food.7 The

2009 global financial crisis hit the country hard too, with remittances and revenues from minerals

dropping by 30 percent and the current high levels of commodity prices pose a great risk to the

country’s food security status.8

1.4. Agricultural Productivity

As noted earlier, agriculture remains the backbone of Sierra Leone’s economy, and the country is

endowed with sufficient arable land, favorable climatic conditions, several agro-ecologies suitable

for a wide variety of crops, and ample water resources. Despite these abundant natural production

resources, Sierra Leone has not been able to reach its full potential in the agriculture sector due to

a number of challenges including a lack of expertise, weak producer organizations, low access to

technology, weak infrastructure, institutional and financial obstacles to private sector

development, and overall low levels of government capacity.13 Close to 80 percent of the

country’s agricultural workforce are women, and women farmers directly affect 40 percent of the

national revenue.9 Like most other countries in sub- Saharan Africa, agricultural activities tend to

be separated by gender.

Production of major crops has recovered rapidly since the end of the civil conflict. The increase in

overall rice output, which accounts for more than 80 percent of Sierra Leone’s total food grain

production, has been the driving factor behind this. In 2009, milled rice production reached an

estimated 465,000 tons, three times the average of 152,000 tons during 1999- 2001.10 However,

the increase in production can be attributed to a trebling of the area harvested, from a 40-year low

of 200,000 hectares in the year 2000 to over 600,000 hectares in 2005. As a consequence, Sierra

Leone has been recording some improvement towards reducing dependency on overseas markets

for food supplies, compared to periods just after the war. Despite these efforts, however, imports

continue to constitute a dominant share of overall consumption of rice (most strategic commodity)

in the country, and domestic yields of the grain still far remain from desire, as Table 2 in the next

section shows. During 2001-2013, yield has only varied from 1.20 metric tons per hectare, to

1.87.

7 WFP, (2011 p7) 8 WFP, (2011 p7) 9 U.S. Department of State, “2011 Investment Climate Statement: Sierra Leone,” Retrieved on 3rd march from

http://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157354.htm 10 WFP, (2011, p19)

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II. Overview of Trends in Key Commodity Yields

2.1 Rice Yields

Rice production has increased steadily and continuously after the civil war touching an all-time

record of 1,255,559 tons in 2013 (Table 2). This increase in production is attributed to increase in

area cultivated which has increased form 258,850 hectares in 2001 to 671,422 hectares in 2013.

There is also some movement in productivity, yields increased from 1.20t/ha in 2001 to 1.87 t/ha

in 2013. This increase in yield appears to be a result of increase in area under rice cultivation.

Despite this increase, yields are still very low in Sierra Leone compared to the average of Sub-

Saharan Africa and remain far below the potential.

Table 2: Trend in Rice Production and Productivity, 2001-2013

2.2 Cassava Yields

Like rice, cassava production has been increasing since the end of the conflict. Production has

increased from 741,216 tons in 2001 to 4,932,892 tons in 2012, an increase of about 85 percent. It

is clear from the Table 3 that increase in production is entirely a result of increase in area under

cultivation. The area under cultivation increased from 61,768 ha in 2001 to 379,453 ha in 2012,

while yield stagnated at 13.00t/ha from 2013 to 2012. Cassava yields are relatively low given the

yield potential of 20-40t/ha of available improved cassava varieties (SLICASS). The low yield on

farmer’s field could largely be attributed to poor management practices, and the predominant use

of traditional varieties which are susceptible to the yield reducing cassava mosaic disease.

Year

Area (Ha) Yield (Mt/Ha) Production (Mt)

2001 258,850 1.20 310,620

2002 343,142 1.23 422,065

2003 356,506 1.25 445,633

2004 426,772 1.27 542,000

2005 427,907 1.29 552,000

2006 422,556 1.33 562,000

2007 432,356 1.36 588,004

2008 475,592 1.43 680,097

2009 499,111 1.78 888,417

2010 549,022 1.87 1,026,671

2011 603,924 1.87 1,129,338

2012 717,872 1.59 1,141,417

2013 671,422 1.87 1,255,559

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Table 3: Trend in Cassava Production and Productivity, 2001-2012

2.3 Cocoa Yields

In recent years, there has been a big push in Sierra Leone to increase cocoa production, following

on from the demise of the industry during the civil war. Efforts to improve the sector include the

establishment of Kenima Forestry and Tree Crop Research Centre (KFTCRC) mandated to

conduct research on tree crops. While agriculture plays an important role in Sierra Leone's

economy, given that it employs around two-thirds of the country's labour force, however, cocoa

production still constitutes a tiny fraction of the country's overall agricultural production. This is

not surprising, as for instance, in 2011, only 123,576 ha of land was committed to cocoa

production compared to 603,924 ha for rice and 361,384 ha for cassava (Tables 2, 3 and 4).

Nonetheless, both area under cultivation of cocoa and the crop yields have been gradually

increasing. Area under cultivation increased from 30,333 ha to 123,576 ha, while yields increased

from 0.36 t/ha to 0.9 t/ha in 2001 and 2011, respectively.

Year Area Cultivated (Ha) Yield (Mt/Ha) Production (Mt)

2001 61,768 12.00 741,216

2002 68,909 13.00 895,817

2003 83,936 13.00 1,091,168

2004 134,404 13.00 1,758,004

2005 175,923 13.00 2,287,000

2006 228,700 13.00 2,973,100

2007 297,310 13.00 3,865,030

2008 312,176 13.00 4,048,288

2009 327,785 13.00 4,261,205

2010 344,175 13.00 4,697,992

2011 361,384 13.00 4,474,275

2012 379,453 13.00 4,932,892

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Table 4: Trend in Cocoa Production and Productivity, 2001-2011

2.4 Ruminants Production

Small ruminants (sheep and goats) represent a very important source of protein in Sierra Leone.

Sheep and goats are found at village level throughout the country, but little attention has so far

been paid to their improvement. Hence this sub sector remains under developed as Goats and

sheep are reared mainly for domestic use. Because of low maintenance costs and relatively high

productivity rates and potential offtake, sheep and goats constitute a very advantageous part of

small-scale farm operations. Valuable benefits can be obtained from even modest improvement

programmes. During the war period goats and sheep were very vulnerable and stock of these

ruminants dwindled drastically. Restocking was done after the war and since then gradual

increase in stocks has been realized.

Table 5: Small Ruminant Production Trend

Year Sheep Goats

2011 750,200 883,300

2012 825,220 971,630

2013 907,742 1,068,793

Year Area Cultivated

(Ha) Yield (Mt/Ha) Production (Mt)

2001 30,333 0.36 10,920

2002 35,135 0.37 13,000

2003 42,105 0.38 16,000

2004 49,762 0.42 20,900

2005 57,226 0.42 24,035

2006 73,576 0.42 30,902

2007 84,578 0.42 35,523

2008 97,265 0.42 40,851

2009 106,992 0.87 93,083

2010 117,691 0.91 107,099

2011 123,576 0.91 112,450

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III. Motivation, Objective and Methodology of Study

3.1 Motivation

Despite the evidence that global yield growth for major food security crops has shown general

decline since the 1980s, it is obvious that countries such as Sierra Leone in SSA would continue

to have enormous unexploited potential to boost not only national yields and productivity, but

also boost “world food supply through increases in yield of key crops, livestock and fisheries.”11

Of the total national land area of 7.2 million hectares covering Sierra Leone, two-thirds has been

suitable for cultivation, including 1.0 million hectares of highly fertile low-lands.12 Huge potential

for intensification exists in the country with government’s continued determination to increase

local agricultural research and the growing global technical opportunities, including south-south

cooperation to enhance transfer of technologies.

It has been argued that sustainable agricultural yield increases can only be underwritten by input

intensification and total factor productivity. But the fact that the intensification of input “has not

lent itself very suitably as a yield growth strategy for resource-constrained African smallholder

farmers,” continues to suggests that stronger institutions and political will are needed to ensure

the requisite investment in agricultural technology to reach the minimum agricultural productivity

in the region. In general, “fertilizer use intensity in SSA is still the lowest in the world.

In Sierra Leone, based on SLIHS2011 survey, “a minimum of 63 percent of farmers within the

households do not use any of the following inputs: hired labour, chemical inputs, improved seeds,

irrigation, and machinery. Irrigation is most underutilised at a rate of 99.83 percent, while the

overall input underutilisation rate is estimated at 91 percent.” Credit is a major source of finance

for rural agriculture input financing, which is effectively lacking in rural areas due to (i) strong

aversion and reticence of formal private commercial instructions for lending to this sector; and (ii)

limited state financial capacity to provide credit to vast majority of farmers through specialized

banking institutions. Farmers preponderantly depend on informal source for credit with miniscule

amounts. “The current rate of sourcing credit from the informal sector is estimated at 87.72

percent, compared to 12.29 percent from the formal sector. Yet the mean amount of funds loaned

out in the informal sector is estimated at Le 331,000 (US$76), compared to Le 1,130,000

(UD$258) in the formal sector.”13

It is essential to stimulate total factor productivity as a yield-enhancing strategy for Sierra Leone’s

agriculture to ensuring that crucial parts of the 17 UN SDGs are met by 2030, especially SDGs

1,2,8,10,12 and even 16. The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme had

targeted a 6 percent average growth in agricultural production annually, if Africa was to reduce

poverty and hunger by half in 2015 and beyond; which would require TFP to increase by at least 11 See TOR on Yield Gap Analysis forwarded by CORAF/WECARD (2014, p.1). 12 Bangura (2015, p.68). 13 Bangura (2015, ).

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4.4 percent per year. 14 This is a monumental challenge for Sierra Leone, when even SSA’s

average TFP growth recorded less than 1 percent during 1985–2008.15 Yet, it is inconceivable to

transform Sierra Leone and Africa in general if minimum investment in input intensification is

not met to engender the required TFP growth in Agriculture.

Food production needs to be increased substantially if Sierra Leone is to meet its growing food

and feed demand. Intensification and/or expansion of agriculture are the two main options

available to meet the growing crop demands. However, consideration of the effects of expansion

on cultivated land on biodiversity and ecosystem makes a case for closing yield gaps through

intensification to attain potential yields as the most viable option to increase crop production and

productivity.

It should be further noted that traditional methods of agricultural intensification often have

negative externalities. Therefore, there is a need to explore location-specific methods of

sustainable agricultural intensification. Hence the study would identify ecology specific gaps in

order to recommend how the achievement of potential yields on currently cultivated land will

meet the present and future food demand based on scenario analyses considering population

growth. It is hoped that Sierra Leone will reach food self-sufficiency or improve their current

food self-sufficiency levels if potential crop production levels are achieved. The sustainability of

such agricultural intensification largely depends on the way management strategies for closing

yield gaps are chosen and implemented. A study on yield gap will make us better understand yield

problems of the present farmer fields and help inform policy on strategies of closing these gaps.

3.2 Objective

The West and Central Africa Council for Agricultural Research and Development (CORAF/WECARD) has therefore supported the Government of Sierra Leone through the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food Security (MAFFS) to commission a scoping study aimed at determining the current yield gap situation of key commodities in the country. The study

specifically aims to estimate yield gaps (between yield potential or yield under optimum management and average yields achieved by farmers under current practices) in the crop farming sub-sector. Three crops and one type of livestock will be analyzed: Rice; Cassava; Cocoa; and Small Ruminant Production. The justification for the choice of these crops and livestock is provided in the methodology section.

14 See TOR on Yield Gap Analysis forwarded by CORAF/WECARD (2014, p.1). 15 See TOR on Yield Gap Analysis forwarded by CORAF/WECARD (2014, pp.1).

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3.3 Methodology

Some theoretical abstraction of yield gap

Increasing agricultural productivity or yield is critical to economic growth and development. This

can be achieved by using improved agricultural technologies and management systems. Yield

refers to production per unit area. Yield gap is calculated by subtracting achieved average yield

from the yield potential.16 Yield potential of a crop is the yield obtained when it is grown in a

suitable environment of adequate moisture and nutrients, without pest and disease problems.17

Yield gaps are frequently reported to be due to biophysical, socio-economic and institutional

constraints.18

The biophysical constraints may include yield-limiting factors such as poor soil and water

management, diseases, insects, weeds and crop management. Socioeconomic factors include

contexts such as increased general price level that inflates price for agricultural inputs and hence

their accessibility to farm families. And institutional factors include the lack of political will, and

managerial, organizational and research capacity to guide policy and produce and disseminate

knowledge towards agriculture.

Understanding yield gap is very crucial to assist in crop yield predictions since yield potential

shows the probable future productivity to be achieved. Also, information on determinants of yield

gap can be used in policy interventions for enhancing crop production. Conventionally, yield

potential is measured by simulation model of plant metabolic activities which produce the likely

highest yield.19 Crop production depends on the crop area and crop yield; so to increase

production one has to raise either of them. There is a higher probability to expand the land area

towards crop growth due to congenial environment.20 However, scientists and policy makers aim

at improving yields to reduce excessive land extensions, with a view to ensure food security and

conservation of the ecosystem services, and to protect the environment. Although yield increasing

technologies may have negative outcomes on the environment, they remain important in

achieving sustainable food security.

Choice of commodities to study

The choice of commodities for the analysis was finally agreed after a two-day workshop on

harmonization of methodology held in Cote d’Ivoire. In that meeting three crops (rice, cassava

and cocoa) and small ruminants (goats and sheep) were chosen for Sierra Leone. These

agricultural commodities have different production status in the country.

16 Aneani F. & Ofori-Frimpong K. (2013 p117). 17 Aneani F. & Ofori-Frimpong K, (2013 p117). 18 Becker et al., 2003; Wopereis et al., 1999. 19 Aneani F. & Ofori-Frimpong K. (2013 p117) 20 Aneani F. & Ofori-Frimpong K. (2013 p117).

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Rice

Rice is the single most important crop in terms of production, consumption and imports in Sierra

Leone. Availability of rice is crucial to the well-being of Sierra Leoneans as the majority of its

citizens are involved in its production. Low national production of this all-important staple would

have negative effect on the economy of the country, as scarce foreign exchange would have to be

expended to procure the commodity to meet the shortfall in demand. Poverty reduction and

increased prosperity in Sierra Leone cannot therefore be addressed without sufficient attention

being paid to improving rice productivity and production to achieve the national goal of self-

sufficiency and food security.

Rice is produced in Sierra Leone in the upland and lowland. The lowland consists of inland valley

swamps (IVS), mangrove, boliland and riverain grassland. The uplands account for approximately

two-thirds of the acreage under rice, followed by the IVS. Grain yield in the upland is however

generally lower than in the lowlands. While more land could be brought under cultivation in all

the major ecologies, increasing the average yield in the upland and IVS through improved

technology would significantly increase the availability of the grain and help meet the national

goal of rice self–sufficiency and food security with less negative environmental consequences.

Sierra Leone has not been able to produce enough rice to meet its local consumption, especially

since the end of the 1970s. Production increased from 1960 to 1975, with self-sufficiency. By the

end of the 1970s, rice paddy production had fallen to 600,000 tons, dropping further to 500,000

tons by the late 1980s, and 460,000 tons by the mid-1990s. The lowest production ever recorded

was 198,000 tons in 1999, at the peak of the civil war.

Government embarked on massive policy reform following the end of the civil war to improve

rice production environment. This led to increase in production from 310,620 tons of paddy in

2001 to 1,255,559 tons in 2013.21 Despite this increase in production, rice importation still

remains a hug burden on our foreign exchange. Increased rice importation, despite rising trend in

local production, can be attributed to increased population growth at a rate not matched by local

production to stem importation. Thus, there is all the necessity to prioritize rice in yield gap

studies with a view to understanding ways to improve productivity in this leading sub-sector.

Cassava

In Sierra Leone, Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is the most important root crop and the

second most important food crop after rice, the country’s staple. The tuberous roots of cassava are

eaten in a variety of ways ranging from the boiled form, to processed products like gari and

foofoo. A considerable amount of cassava is also processed into starch. The leaves are used to

prepare the very popular cassava leaf sauce. One of the major factors responsible for the low

production of cassava in the country is the widespread cultivation of inherently low-yielding local

21 PEMSD, (2015, p 65)

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varieties that are also highly susceptible to the yield-depressing African cassava mosaic disease.

Low soil fertility in most parts of the country and high pest incidence also contribute towards the

low root yields obtained by farmers.

Cassava can grow and produce dependable yields in places where cereals and other crops will not

do well. It can tolerate drought and can be grown in soils with low nutrient capacity, and responds

well to irrigation or higher rainfall conditions, and to use of fertilizers. This shows that cassava

can be grown in a wide range of ecologies including all the upland areas as well as the inland

valley swamps and bolilands after water has receded. Cassava is grown all over Sierra Leone, but

indications are that the Northern Province is the highest cassava producer followed by the

South.22 In general, cassava is grown in mixture with other crops particularly upland rice.

However, mix—cropping of cassava and rice is more predominant and widespread in the South

and East of Sierra Leone than in the North.23

According to the FAO/MAFFS Crop Survey Report of 2003, area under cassava cultivation was

99,484 ha yielding a total of 479,458 ton with average yield of 4.8t/ha. The minimum requirement

of tubers in 2007 for a typical food basket is 710,200 tons, according to the MAFFS Medium

Term Agricultural Strategic Plan. The main goal is to promote cassava as an acceptable food crop

and exploit its full potential as a food security crop as well as an export crop. The major strategy

is to develop high yielding varieties of cassava that are tolerant and resistant to the major pests

and diseases, rapid root bulking, adapted to the varying environmental conditions. With the

adoption and widespread use of improved varieties with yield potential of 12-15 t/ha and good

cultural practices, yields and total production can be increased significantly thereby enhancing

food security, generating market surpluses and raw materials for small-scale cassava processing

industries.

Cocoa

Cocoa is a leading export crop in Sierra Leone. It is grown in many parts of the country, but the

most favourable areas and therefore the major production areas are in a belt that spans the Moa

River drainage basin, from north east of Kailahun District in the Easter Region of the country, to

Barri and Makpele Chiefdoms in the Pujehun District in the Southern Region. This belt includes

the Kenema District in the East.

Small Ruminants

The recent epidemic catastrophic experience of Sierra Leone (the Ebola outbreak, killing more

than 3,500 out of more than 8,000 infected persons) related to the consumption of infected bush

meat has compelled the need for undertaking research and policy reforms to support productivity

of livestock for nutritional requirement of the population.

22 MAFFS,2005 23 MAFFS, 2005

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The performance of the livestock subsector has been marginal in the country. It contributes

about 3 percent compared with 75 by the crops subsector to agricultural GDP.24 This is mainly

attributed to low funding and development initiatives to promote the livestock sector.

Funding for the livestock subsector had been in the range of 0.9 to 1.7 percent of total funding of

the agriculture sector between 2008 and 2013, which has resulted in the low performance of the

livestock sub-sector.

Although small ruminants (sheep and goats) represent a very important source of protein, and

produce other products such as skins, their present contribution to the total production of the

agricultural and natural resources sector in Sierra Leone is only 3 percent. Sheep and goats are

found at village level throughout the country, but little attention has so far been paid to their

improvement or the use of improved animal husbandry practices including health care. Because

of low maintenance costs and relatively high productivity rates and potential revenue uptake,

sheep and goats constitute a very advantageous part of small-scale farm operations. Valuable

benefits can be obtained from even modest improvement programmes within a short space of

time. Furthermore, the prices of mutton and goat meat are generally higher than that of beef. The

estimated population of sheep and goats in Sierra Leone is 420,000, of which half are found in the

Northern Province.25

Variety of crops to analyze

The choice of the variety to study was based on the popularity in the ecology and the presence of

catalog information for that variety. Four rice varieties, one cassava variety, and one cocoa variety

were selected. Below is a table showing the selected varieties for the study.

Table 6: Varieties of commodities used for the studied

No. Study commodity Variety Yield Potential (t/ha)

Ecology

1

Rice

ROK 34 2-4 Upland

NERICA L19 2-4 Inland Valley Swamp

ROK 10 2.0-3.5 Mangrove

ROK 29 2.5-4.5 Boli Land

2 Cassava SLICASS 4 30 Upland

3 Cocoa cocoa - Upland Source: GOSLa, (2015 pp. 10-11)

24 MAFFS,2013 25 Position paper on Goat and sheep production in Sierra Leone,” Retrieved on 3rd march from

http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/s8374b/S8374b21.htm

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Yield Gap Determination

Yield gap will be estimated per agro-ecological zone in Sierra Leone. The ecologies are broadly divided into two: upland and lowland ecologies. The lowland consists of IVS, Mangrove, Boliland and Riverain grassland for crops. Four types of yield gap are computed, as per the agreed regional guidelines:

• Gap 1 = Difference in performance in the catalogue and the performance of tests in

experimental stations.

• GAP2 = Difference in experimental station and maximum performance in the fields of

producers

• Gap 3 = Difference in performance in experimental station and average Performance in

the fields of producers

• Gap 4 = Variance of maximum performance in the fields of producers and average yield in

the fields of producers.

Type of Data

Due to the limited time and resources, the study used mostly secondary data, in the analysis of the

three selected crops (rice, cassava and cocoa). Yield gap studies have been undertaken in recent

times on these crops, thus available data is drawn from these studies to address the objective of

this research as related to the three crops, including reports from the Sierra Leone Agricultural

Research Institute and the Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Food Security. Primary data was

collected to estimate the yield gap of Small Ruminants.

The primary data was collected using structured questionnaires. Two villages in the Bombali

District in the North were selected for the study. Twenty five farmers are randomly select from

each of the sampled village, hence a total of fifty farmers were sampled.

IV. Results

In this section results of the study are presented. The result show yield gaps in the four categories

as indicated in the methodology. The model yields or yields in catalogue are obtained from the

national catalogue of plant species and varieties of Sierra Leone, the experimental potential are

estimated using data from SLARI trials, farmer potential and estimated national average yields

were estimated with using secondary data from MAFFS. The experimental yield potential for

study commodity were estimated using the results from an on-station trial in which an attempt

was made to include treatments for optimal management to prevent nutrient, pest and disease

stresses.

16

4.1 Yield Gap of Rice

Yield Gap Upland Rice

Yield Gap 1: Difference in performance in the catalogue and the performance of tests in

experimental stations

Table 7 presents difference in performance between the catalogue and the tests in experimental

stations. The yield gap between the experimental yield and the highest potential yield of ROK34

rice was estimated to be 1,350 kg/ha (a gap of 33.75 percent). A yield gap of 350 kg/ha was

obtained when the average yield was considered. This is an indication that realized yields even at

the experimental stations still have huge potentials for increase. If this gap is closed, the rice

production will be enhanced. It is worth noting that potential yields are difficult to achieve even at

the best of times, we should however try to close the yield gap to the lowest possible point.

Table 7: Rice Yield Gap 1: Difference in performance in the catalogue and the performance

of tests in experimental stations

Variety ROK 34

Item

Catalogue Yield

Range (2-4 t/ha)

Experimental Yield

Upper Limit

Estimated Yield (kg/ha)

4,000

2,650

Yield Gap (kg/ha) 1350

Percentage yield gap to potential

(%)

33.75

Yield Gap 2: Difference in experimental station and maximum performance in the fields of

producers

Table 8 shows the yield gap that is observed between yields at experimental stations and

maximum yields obtained at farmer’s field. A yield gap of 1,350 kg/ha (51% of experimental

yield) was obtained; it shows the influence of traditional management practices on grain yield of

rice on farmers’ fields. In the uplands, farmers largely used traditional management practices and

this has negative influence on yields. The yield gap realized at this level is higher than that

obtained at yield gap1 in table 7. There is a large yield gap to close given the yield potential in

the catalogue of the variety and what is obtained by farmers.

17

Table 8: Yield Gap 2: Difference in experimental station and maximum performance in the

fields of producers

Variety ROK 34

Item

Experimental Yield Maximum

performance in

farmers Field


2,650

1,300

Yield Gap (kg/ha) 1,350

Percentage yield gap (%) 51

Gap 3 = Difference in performance in experimental station and average Performance in the

fields of producers

Table 9 show the yield gap between experimental station and average in farmers’ field. The gap is

about 1,650kg/ha (62.3%). The gap appears to be increasing; this is because the average yield is

affected by farmers who obtain very poor yields, suggesting the need for equitable distribution of

agricultural input support. It is also an indication of the differences in management practices

employed by farmers which is a key determinant of yield.

Table 9: Yield Gap 3 = Difference in performance in experimental station and average

Performance in the fields of producers

Variety ROK 34

Item

Experimental Yield Average performance

in farmers Field


2,650

1,000


Percentage yield gap (%) 62.3

Yield Gap 4: variance of maximum performance in the fields of producers and average yield in


Yield gap4 assess the existing gap between the maximum in farmers’ fields and the average

performance. From the results there is only a 300kg/ha gap between the maximum and average

performance in the farmers’ fields. This gap is not very large compared to the gaps previously

assessed. Farm conditions are not much different, as farmers generally employ similar

management practices. The differences in yields in farmers’ fields are largely due to differences

in soil fertility and other environmental conditions.

18

Table 10: Yield Gap 4: variance of maximum performance in the fields of producers and

average yield in the fields of producers

Variety ROK 34

Item

Maximum performance

in farmers Field

Average performance

in farmers Field


1,300

1,000


Percentage yield gap (%) 23

4.2 Yield Gap Inland Valley Swamp Rice

The inland valley swamp is a major rice growing ecology distributed throughout the country. Rice

yields are higher in this ecology than in the upland, however observed yields of most rice varieties

in farmers’ fields are still lower than potential yields. Here the yield gap of NERICA L19 is

assessed and results are as presented below.

Rice Yield Gap 1: Difference in performance in the catalogue and the performance of tests in


A yield gap of 24.25% is observed between potential yield of NERICA L19 and experimental

yield. Experimental yield of 3,030 kg/ha was obtained from planting NERICA L 19 in the IVS,

this yield is still low relative to the yields of the variety in other countries where irrigation is

practiced. This yield levels obtained are a result of many factors, which include the low level of

fertilizer used (60:40:40 NPK) at experimental stations. This fertilizer rate was recommended in

the 1980s when soil fertility are better off than today. Hence the recommended fertilizer rate

needs review to improve on experimental yields and further reduce the yield gap.

Table 11: Rice Yield Gap 1: Difference in performance in the catalogue and the

performance of tests in experimental stations

Variety NERICA L19

Item

Catalogue Yield

Range (2-4 t/ha)

Experimental

Yield

Upper Limit Yield


4,000

3,030



(%)

24.25

19

Yield Gap2: Difference in experimental station and maximum performance in the fields of

producers


maximum yields obtained at farmer’s field in the inland valley swamp. A yield gap of 736 kg/ha

(24%) was obtained. This gap is smaller than the one obtained in the upland for gap 2, thus

reiterating the fact that inland valley swamp yields are better compared to the upland ecology.

However, the existence of the gap is a manifestation of the inability of farmers to follow

management practices recommended by SLARI. Farmers largely practice traditional management

in their day to day rice activities. Apart from issues of management problems of water control,

weeds, pest and disease are also a major yield reducing factor in farmers’ field.


fields of producers

Variety NERICA L19

Item


performance in

farmers Field


3,030 2294



Yield Gap 3 = Difference in performance in experimental station and average Performance in


Table 13 shows the yield gap between experimental station and average yield in farmers’ field.

The gap obtained is 1,230kg/ha. The gap is higher when assessed at this level relative to gaps

realized in tables 11 and 12 above; this is because the average yield is affected by farmers who

obtain very poor yields. It is an indication of the differences in management practices employed

by farmers which is a key determinant of yield.

20

Table13: Yield Gap3 = Difference in performance in experimental station and average


Variety NERICA L19

Item


in farmers Field


3,030

1800



Yield Gap 4, variance of maximum performance in the fields of producers and average yield in


Yield gap 4 (Table 14), assess the existing gap between the maximum in farmers’ fields and the

average performance. The result indicates a 494kg/ha gap between the maximum and average

performance in the farmers’ fields representing 21.53 percent yield gap between the best yields

and the worst yields in farmers’ field. Farm conditions are not much different, as farmers

generally employ similar management practices. However, farmers still have differences such as

time to undertake certain farming activity. Late implementation of some farming activities has

negative implication on yields.

Table 14: Yield Gap 4, variance of maximum performance in the fields of producers and


Variety NERICA L19

Item

Maximum performance

in farmers Field

Average performance

in farmers Field


2,294

1800



4.3 Yield Gap Mangrove Swamp Rice

The mangrove ecology is the major rice growing ecology in the north west of the country. This

region is called the rice bowl of the country. Reducing yield gap in this ecology will contribute

significantly to the attainment of rice self-sufficiency. The ecology account for only 3.6% of

arable land in the country but is a major contributor national production. Mangroves are normally

salty in the dry season but can be highly productive once the salt is flushed during July to August

when rice is cultivated to be harvested between November and December. With proper salinity

management, yields could be maintained at 3.0 metric tons per hectare (Allieu, 2005). Apart from

salinity yields are also reduced by incidence of crabs and weed.

21



The yield gap between the experimental yield and the highest potential yield of ROK 10 was

estimated to be 900 kg/ha and the percentage yield gap was 33.75%. This is an indication that

realized yields even at the experimental stations still have hug potentials for increase. If this gap is

close, the rice production will be enhanced. Fertilizer rate of 60:40:40 NPK is to be increased if

the potential yields of mangrove varieties are to be realized at experimental stations.



Variety ROK 10

Item

Catalogue Yield

Range (2.0-3.5t/ha)

Experimental

Yield

Upper Limit


3,500

2,600



(%)

25.7


producers


maximum yields obtained at farmer’s field. A yield gap of 600 kg/ha (23.08 percent of

experimental yield) was obtained; it shows the influence of traditional management practices on

grain yield of rice on farmers’ fields. Relative to the upland, yield gap 2 is smaller in the

mangrove farming system. The yield gap realized at this level is even smaller than that obtained at

yield gap 2 in inland valley swamp ecology. This indicates that though, IVS has a higher yield

potential farmers’ performance in the mangrove is better.

22


fields of producers

Variety ROK 10

Item


performance in

farmers Field


2,600

2,000





Table 17 show the yield gap between experimental station and average in farmers’ field. The gap

is about 1,150kg/ha (44.23%). This study has shown that although farmers may have control

weeds, pests and diseases, and applied fertilizer to the farms, farm maintenance was inadequate

leading to yields below the experimental yields. To bring yield at the farm level to experimentally

obtained yields, farm maintenance should not be ignored.


performance in the fields of producers

Variety ROK 10

Item


in farmers Field


2,600

1,450





Yield gap 4 (Table 18), assess the existing gap between the maximum in farmers’ fields and the

average performance. From the results there is only a 550kg/ha gap between the maximum and

average performance in the farmers’ fields. This gap is not very large compared to the gaps

previously assessed. Farm conditions are not much different, as farmers generally employ similar


in soil fertility and other environmental conditions.

23



Variety ROK 10

Item

Maximum performance

in farmers Field

Average performance

in farmers Field


2,000

1,450



4.4 Yield Gap Boli Land Swamp Rice

The boli land ecology is a low laying, flat or undulating grassland area thought to be a formed by

merging of the Mobole, Rokel, and Pampana Rivers at a period of higher sea level. It has a saucer

shape, usually flooded by rain water in the raining season; it becomes too dry for any crop

production in the dry season hence rice cultivation is possible only in the rainy season. The boli

land stretches from Yonibana through Batkanu in Northern Sierra Leone to the Guinea frontier.

The Bolis of Sierra Leone is predominantly a zone of derived Guinea savannah, resulting from the

destruction of forest vegetation by human activities. Major problems associated with the Boliland

are low nutrient status particularly in phosphorous, water control issues, weeds and acidity. It is

the ecology that can be mechanised easily because of its vast nature.



The result in table 14 estimate yield gap between the experimental yield and the highest potential

yield of ROK 29 to be 1,500 kg/ha and the percentage yield gap was 33.33%. This is an indication

that realized yields even at the experimental stations still have hug potentials for increase.

24



Variety ROK 29

Item

Catalogue Yield Range

(2.5-4.5t/ha)

Experimental Yield

Upper Limit

Estimated Yield (kg/ha) 4,500

3,000



(%)

33.33


producers.

A yield gap of 1,700kg/ha (56% of experimental yield, Table 15) was obtained for the variance in

yield between experimental station yields and yield at maximum performance in farmers’ field.

The result shows that there is a substantial yield gap to be cover in the boli land. Yield gap 2 in

the boli is even higher than that in the upland (51%). The result may not be unconnected with the

many problems faced by farmers. High weed infestation, low phosphorous and low or no use of

fertilizers are some of the many reasons causing low yields in farmers’ fields.

Table 15: Yield Gap 2: Difference in experimental station and maximum performance in the fields of

producers

Variety ROK 34

Item


performance in

farmers Field


3,000

1,300





Table 16 show the yield gap between experimental station and average in farmers’ field. The gap

is about 2,050kg/ha (68.33%). It clearly shows that one reason the country is struggling to attain

sufficiency in rice is the low yields obtained at farmers’ fields.

25

Table 16: Yield Gap 3 = Difference in performance in experimental station and average Performance in the

fields of producers

Variety ROK 34

Item


in farmers Field


3000

950





From the results in table 17 there is a yield gap 350kg/ha (26.92%) between the maximum and


previously assessed. This tells you that generally farmers yield more or less the same as there

practices are not too different. However there are some few more efficient farmers who obtain

higher yields than the rest.

Table 17: Yield Gap 4, variance of maximum performance in the fields of producers and average yield in the

fields of producers

Variety ROK 34

Item

Maximum performance

in farmers Field

Average performance

in farmers Field


1,300

950



4.5 Cassava Yield Gap


experimental stations.

A 23% yield gap was obtained between catalogue and experimental yield. Experimental yield of

cassava is encouraging this may be because cassava has abilities to produce realistic yields under

poor conditions.

27



Variety SLCAS 4

Item

Catalogue Yield

(30t/ha)

Experimental

Yield


30,000

23,000



(%)

23.33


producers

A yield gap of 7900kg/ha (34.35% of experimental yield) was obtained for the variance in yield

between experimental station yields and yield at maximum performance in farmers’ field. This

yield gap is larger than what was obtained in yield gap 1. This shows that the efficiency at

experimental level is not replicated in farmers’ field.

Table 19: Yield Gap 2: Difference in experimental station and maximum performance in the fields of

producers

Variety SLCAS 4

Item


performance in

farmers Field


23,000

15,100





Results in table 20 indicates that a 12,200kg/ha yield gap exist between experimental yields and

average yields at farmers’ field. This gap accounts for 53.04% yield difference, indicating that

improving farmers yield to reach experimental yield levels will bring an extra 12,200kg/ha of

yield on farmers’ field.

28



Variety SLCAS 4

Item


in farmers Field


23,000

10,800





From the results in table 17 there is a yield gap 350kg/ha (28.47%) between the maximum and


previously assessed. This tells you that generally farmers yield more or less the same as there

practices are not too different. However there are some few more efficient farmers who obtain

higher yields than the rest.



Variety SLCAS 4

Item

Maximum performance

in farmers Field

Average performance

in farmers Field


15,100

10,800



4.6 Cocoa Yield Gap

Yield gap 4, assess the existing gap between the maximum in farmers’ fields and the average

performance. From the results there is only a 70kg/ha gap between the maximum and average

performance in the farmers’ fields. This gap is not very large compared to the gaps previously

assessed. Farm conditions are not much different, as farmers generally employ similar


in soil fertility and other environmental conditions

29

Table 17: Yield Gap 4

Variety

Item

Maximum performance

in farmers Field

Average performance

in farmers Field


507

434



30

V. Summary of Key Preliminary Findings Commodity yields are generally low in Sierra Leone, reference to the three crops—rice, cassava and

cocoa—analyzed above. Huge gaps remains not only between experiment stations and farm level yields,

but also between catalogue (scientific optimal yields) and experimental stations. This implies that while

fundamental capacity and other problems exist that account for poor yields, this constitutes great

potential to increase commodity yield and productivity in the country if government could

overcome these. Poor yield at farm level indicates that farming is still dominated by traditional

management practices. In the uplands, farmers largely used traditional management practices and

this has negative influence on yields.

The study does not find significant difference between the maximum in farmers’ fields and the

average performance. This is attributable to the fact that farm conditions are generally not much

different across the country; farmers generally employ similar management practices. The

differences in yields in farmers’ fields are largely due to differences in soil fertility and other

environmental conditions.

<<<Detailed conclusion and recommendations are being prepared and shall be reflected on

the next draft, which will also include analysis on rimunants>>>

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Government of Sierra Leone. 2005. First Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PSRP1, 2005-2007):

A National Programme for Food Security, Job Creation and Good Governance; Ministry of

Development and Economic Planning/Office of the Vice President. Freetown; Sierra Leone.

Government of Sierra Leone. 2009. Second Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PSRP2, 2008-

2012): The Agenda for Change. Ministry of Finance and Economic Development; Freetown;

Sierra Leone.

Government of Sierra Leone. 2013. Third Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PSRP3, 2013-

2018): The Agenda for Prosperity. Ministry of Finance and Economic Development; Freetown;

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Government of Sierra Leone. 2014. Agricultural/Agribusiness growth Diagnostic: Annex III—

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Benin.[Online]:[Cited05.04.16]:URL:http://www.warda.org/workshop/RicePolicy/Alieu/Alieu.E.

Sub%20Sierra%20Leonne.Paper.pdf.

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