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Chapter 3

Introduction to the Qualitative Research Process

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Qualitative Research

A systematic, subjective approach used to describe life experiences and give them meaning

Useful in understanding human experiences such as pain, caring, powerlessness, and comfort

Focuses on understanding the whole Consistent with holistic philosophy of nursing

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Frameworks for Qualitative Studies

The goal of qualitative research is not hypothesis testing.

Frameworks are used in a different sense in qualitative research.

Each type of qualitative research is guided by a particular philosophical stance.

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Data from Qualitative Studies

Are subjective Incorporate perceptions and beliefs of

researcher and participants

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Four Approaches to Qualitative Research

Phenomenological: Describes and captures the “lived experience” of study participants

Grounded theory: Explores how people define reality and how their beliefs are related to actions

Ethnographic: Seeks to understand people (ways of living, believing, adapting, etc.)

Historical research: Searches throughout history for generalities

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Methods Similar in Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Select topic. State problem or question. Justify significance of study. Design study. Identify and gain access to data sources. Select study subjects.

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Methods Unique to Qualitative Research

Selection of subjects Researcher-participant relationship Data collection methods Data management Data analysis Interpretation

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Selection of Subjects (Participants)

Subjects are referred to as participants. May volunteer to be involved in study May be selected by researcher because of

their particular knowledge, experience, or views related to study

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Purposive Sampling Methods

May select individuals typical in relation to the phenomenon under study

May seek out individuals different in some way from other participants to get diverse perspectives

Snowballing technique is commonly used.

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Sample Size

Decisions regarding sample size differ from quantitative studies. Based on needs related to study purpose Number of subjects is usually smaller Case studies with only one subject may be used Six to 10 subjects not unusual

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Characteristics of Researcher-Participant Relationships

Participants are treated as colleagues rather than subjects.

The researcher must have the support and confidence of participants to the complete study.

Maintaining relationships is of utmost importance.

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Data Collection Methods: Observation

What is going on here? Look and listen carefully. Note routine activities. Focus on details. Note processes as well as discrete events. Note unexpected events.

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Data Collection Methods: Interviews

Open-ended format Researcher defines focus. No fixed sequence of questions Questions tend to change as researcher

gains insights from previous interviews and/or observations.

Respondents are encouraged to raise issues not addressed by researcher.

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Data Collection Methods: Text

May be written by participants on a particular topic at request of researcher

Narratives may be solicited by mail rather than in person.

Text developed for other purposes, such as patient records or procedure manuals, can be accessed for qualitative analysis.

Published text (books, newspapers, etc.)

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Data Management Characteristics

Qualitative data analysis occurs concurrently with data collection rather than sequentially, as in quantitative research.

The researcher is simultaneously gathering data, managing a growing bulk of collected data, and interpreting the meaning of data.

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Goals of Description

Become familiar with data. Read and reread notes and transcripts. Recall observations and experiences. Listen to audiotapes. View videotapes.

Become immersed in data.

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Types of Descriptive Analysis

Reflexive thought Bracketing Data reduction Coding

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Reflexive Thought

Researcher explores personal feelings and experiences that may influence study and integrates this understanding into study.

Requires conscious awareness of self

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Bracketing

Used in some phenomenological research to help researcher avoid misinterpreting phenomenon as it is being experienced by participants

Bracketing is suspending or laying aside what researcher knows about experience being studied.

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Data Reduction

Analysis focuses on reducing large volume of acquired data to facilitate examination.

Researcher begins to attach meaning to elements of data.

Researcher discovers classes of things, persons, events, and properties.

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Coding

Way of indexing or identifying categories in data

Codes may be placed in data at time of data collection, when entering data into computer, and during later examination of data.

Data segments can then be retrieved by coding category.

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Data Displays

Are equivalent to summary tables used in quantitative studies

Allow researcher to convey succinctly main ideas of study

Codes used to organize the display

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Types of Data Analysis

Coding Memos Storytelling Narrative analysis

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Coding

Coding, used earlier for description, also can be used to expand, transform, and reconceptualize data, providing opportunities for more diverse analyses.

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Memos

Used to record insights or ideas related to notes, transcripts, or codes

Moves researcher toward theorizing and is conceptual rather than factual

May link data or use specific piece of data as an example of conceptual idea

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Storytelling

Can be instructive in understanding a phenomenon of interest

Includes a sequence of events with a beginning, middle, and an end

Stories have their own logic and are temporal.

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Narrative Analysis

A qualitative means of formally analyzing stories

Researcher unpacks story structure. Can be used to determine how people tell

stories How they shape the events How they make a point How they “package” events and react to them How they communicate their stories to audiences

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Interpretation of Qualitative Results

The researcher offers his or her interpretation of what is going on.

The focus is on understanding and explaining beyond that which can be stated with certainty.

May focus on usefulness of findings for clinical practice.

Researcher develops hunches about relationships that can be used to formulate tentative propositions.

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Rigor in Qualitative Research

Rigor needs to be defined differently in qualitative research because desired outcome is different.

Evaluation of rigor is based, in part, on logic of emerging theory and clarity with which it sheds light on phenomenon studied.

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Characteristics of Rigor

Openness Scrupulous adherence to a philosophical

perspective Thoroughness in collecting data Consideration of all data in subjective theory

development phase

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Causes for Lack of Rigor

Inconsistency in adhering to philosophy of approach being used

Failure to get away from older ideas Poorly developed methods Insufficient time spent collecting data Poor observations Failure to give careful consideration to all

data

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Description of Decision Trails

Strategies by which other researchers, using the same data, can follow logic of original researcher and arrive at same conclusions

Requires researcher to establish rules for categorizing data, arriving at ratings, or making judgments

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Requirements for Decision Trails

A record is kept of all decision rules used in data analysis to support the study’s conclusions and emerging theory.

All raw data are stored and available for review, if requested.

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Opposition to Decision Trails

Some qualitative researchers are concerned that data analysis would become too mechanistic.

Some qualitative researchers are opposed to the expectation that other researchers will reach the same conclusions when each researcher’s work is unique.