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Behavioral PerspectiveBehavioral Perspective

Basic assumptions:Basic assumptions:

mind is useless constructmind is useless construct focus of science of psychology on: focus of science of psychology on: a. observable behaviora. observable behaviorb. the roll of environmental influences b. the roll of environmental influences

on that behavioron that behavior

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Types of LearningTypes of Learning

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Observational LearningObservational Learning

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Stimulus-Stimulus Stimulus-Stimulus LearningLearningLearning to associate one stimulus

with another.

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Response-Consequence Response-Consequence LearningLearning

Learning to associate a responsewith a consequence.

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Response-Consequence Response-Consequence LearningLearning

Learning to associate a responsewith a consequence.

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Ideas of classical conditioning originate Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, from old philosophical theories. However,

it was the Russian physiologist it was the Russian physiologist Ivan PavlovIvan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His who elucidated classical conditioning. His

work provided a basis for later behaviorists work provided a basis for later behaviorists like like John Watson and B. F. Skinner.John Watson and B. F. Skinner.

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

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Pavlov’s ExperimentsPavlov’s Experiments

Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation Stimulus, US) produces salivation

(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.

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Pavlov’s ExperimentsPavlov’s Experiments

During conditioning, the neutral stimulus During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, (tone) and the US (food) are paired,

resulting in salivation (UR). After resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now

Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)(now Conditioned Response, CR)

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Stimulus GeneralizationStimulus Generalization

Tendency to respond to Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS stimuli similar to the CS

is called is called generalizationgeneralization. .

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Stimulus DiscriminationStimulus Discrimination

DiscriminationDiscrimination is the learned ability to is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned

stimulus.stimulus.

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Extending Pavlov’s Extending Pavlov’s UnderstandingUnderstanding

Pavlov and Watson considered Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness, or mind, unfit for the consciousness, or mind, unfit for the

scientific study of psychology. However, scientific study of psychology. However, they underestimated the importance of they underestimated the importance of

cognitive processes and biological cognitive processes and biological constraints.constraints.

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Cognitive ProcessesCognitive Processes

Early behaviorists believed that learned Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be behaviors of various animals could be

reduced to mindless mechanisms.reduced to mindless mechanisms.

However, later behaviorists suggested However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn stimulus, meaning they learn expectancyexpectancy

or or awarenessawareness of a stimulus (Rescorla, of a stimulus (Rescorla, 1988).1988).

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Biological PredispositionsBiological Predispositions

Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals. learning were similar for all animals.

Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning.differ in their learning.

However, behaviorists later suggested However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an that learning is constrained by an

animal’s biology.animal’s biology.

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Biological Predispositions Biological Predispositions (preparedness)(preparedness)

John Garcia

Garcia showed that for some stimuli the duration between the

CS and the US may be long (hours), but

yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning and not to

others (light or sound).

Courtesy of John G

arcia

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Higher order Higher order ConditioningConditioning

a neutral stimulus associated with a a neutral stimulus associated with a CS can itself become a CSCS can itself become a CS

e.g. snake, picture of a snake, the e.g. snake, picture of a snake, the word word ““snakesnake”” etc. etc.

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Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning in everyday lifein everyday life

Examples:Examples:

a.a. bb c.c.

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Conditioned disgust studies (Rosin et Conditioned disgust studies (Rosin et al.)al.)

Conditioned attitudesConditioned attitudes

e.g. study of political sloganse.g. study of political slogans

Case of Little Hans (Freud Vs Wolpe & Case of Little Hans (Freud Vs Wolpe & Rachman)Rachman)

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Watson used classical Watson used classical conditioning procedures conditioning procedures to develop advertising to develop advertising

campaigns for a number campaigns for a number of organizations, of organizations,

including Maxwell House, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” making the “coffee break”

an American custom.an American custom.

Applications of Classical Applications of Classical ConditioningConditioning

John B. Watson

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n Brothers

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Operant & Classical Operant & Classical ConditioningConditioning

1. Classical 1. Classical conditioning forms conditioning forms associations associations between stimuli (CS between stimuli (CS and US). Operant and US). Operant conditioning, on the conditioning, on the other hand, forms other hand, forms an association an association between behaviors between behaviors and the resulting and the resulting events.events.

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Operant & Classical Operant & Classical ConditioningConditioning

2.2. Classical conditioning involves Classical conditioning involves respondent behaviorrespondent behavior that occurs as an that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves Operant conditioning involves operant operant behaviorbehavior, a behavior that operates on the , a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.punishing stimuli.

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Skinner’s ExperimentsSkinner’s Experiments

Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s thinking, especially his thinking, especially his law of effect.law of effect. This This

lawlaw states that rewarded behavior is likely to states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.occur again.

Yale U

niversity Library

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Operant ChamberOperant Chamber

Using Thorndike's law of effect as a Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the starting point, Skinner developed the

Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to study operant conditioning.study operant conditioning.

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Operant ChamberOperant Chamber

The operant chamber, The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that with a bar or key that

an animal an animal manipulates to obtain manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or or water. The bar or key is connected to key is connected to devices that record devices that record

the animal’s the animal’s response.response.

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Types of ReinforcersTypes of Reinforcers

Any event that strengthens the behavior it Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a

meerkat’s behavior in the cold.meerkat’s behavior in the cold.

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1.1. Primary ReinforcerPrimary Reinforcer:: AnAn innately innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink.reinforcing stimulus like food or drink.

2.2. Conditioned Reinforcer:Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the power through association with the primary reinforcer. Example?primary reinforcer. Example?

Primary & Secondary Primary & Secondary ReinforcersReinforcers

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1.1. Immediate Reinforcer:Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.gets a food pellet for a bar press.

2.2. Delayed Reinforcer:Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.paycheck that comes at the end of a week.

Immediate & Delayed Immediate & Delayed ReinforcersReinforcers

We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large

delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study.

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ShapingShaping

Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards in which reinforcers guide behavior towards

the desired target behavior through successive the desired target behavior through successive approximations.approximations.

A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminateobjects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

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Reinforcement SchedulesReinforcement Schedules

1.1. Continuous Reinforcement:Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs.each time it occurs.

2.2. Partial Reinforcement:Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part Reinforces a response only part

of the time. of the time. PR results in slower acquisition in PR results in slower acquisition in

the beginning, but it shows the beginning, but it shows greater resistance to extinction greater resistance to extinction later on. later on.

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Ratio SchedulesRatio Schedules

1.1. Fixed-ratio schedule:Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a Reinforces a response only after a specified number response only after a specified number of responses. e.g., piecework pay.of responses. e.g., piecework pay.

2.2. Variable-ratio schedule:Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a Reinforces a response after an unpredictable response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.)gambling, fishing.)

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Interval SchedulesInterval Schedules

1.1. Fixed-interval schedule:Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces Reinforces a response only after a specified time a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws exam only when the exam draws close.)close.)

2.2. Variable-interval schedule:Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)

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Schedules of Schedules of ReinforcementReinforcement

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PunishmentPunishment

An aversive event that decreases the An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows. behavior it follows.

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PunishmentPunishment

1.1. Results in unwanted fears.Results in unwanted fears.2.2. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in

place of another. place of another. 3.3. Justifies pain to others.Justifies pain to others.4.4. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in

its absence.its absence.5.5. Causes aggression towards the agent.Causes aggression towards the agent.6.6. *Conveys no new information to the *Conveys no new information to the

organism.organism.

Although there may be some justification for Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & occasional punishment (Larzelaere &

Baumrind, 2002), it often leads to negative Baumrind, 2002), it often leads to negative effects.effects.

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Cognition & Operant Cognition & Operant ConditioningConditioning

Evidence of cognitive processes during Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during operant learning comes from rats during

a maze exploration in which they a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious navigate the maze without an obvious

reward. Rats seem to develop reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive cognitive mapsmaps, or mental representations, of the , or mental representations, of the

layout of the maze (environment).layout of the maze (environment).

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Latent LearningLatent Learning

Such cognitive maps are based on Such cognitive maps are based on latent latent learning,learning, which becomes apparent when which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik,

1930).1930).

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Applications of Operant Applications of Operant ConditioningConditioning

Skinner introduced the concept of Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements small steps and provide reinforcements

for correct rewards.for correct rewards.

In School

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Applications of Operant Applications of Operant ConditioningConditioning

Reinforcement principles can enhance Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic performance.athletic performance.

In Sports

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Applications of Operant Applications of Operant ConditioningConditioning

Reinforcers affect productivity. Many Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share companies now allow employees to share

profits and participate in company ownership.profits and participate in company ownership.

At work

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Applications of Operant Applications of Operant ConditioningConditioning

In children, reinforcing good behavior increases In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring

unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.

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SkinnerSkinner’’s Legacys Legacy

Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and external influences instead of inner thoughts and

feelings. Critics argued that Skinner feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.

Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

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Two Factor LearningTwo Factor Learning

MowrerMowrer

Factor 1: ClassicalFactor 1: Classical Factor 2: OperantFactor 2: Operant

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Dollard & MillerDollard & Miller

Learned DrivesLearned Drives

ConflictConflict e.g., Approach-Avoide.g., Approach-Avoid

attempt to operationalize Freudian attempt to operationalize Freudian concepts in behavioral terms and to test concepts in behavioral terms and to test empiricallyempirically

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Learning by ObservationLearning by Observation

Higher animals, Higher animals, especially humans, especially humans,

learn through learn through observing and observing and

imitating others.imitating others.

The monkey on the The monkey on the right imitates the right imitates the

monkey on the left in monkey on the left in touching the pictures touching the pictures in a certain order to in a certain order to

obtain a reward.obtain a reward.

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Bandura's ExperimentsBandura's Experiments

Bandura's Bobo doll Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) study (1961)

indicated that indicated that individuals (children) individuals (children)

learn through learn through imitating others.imitating others.

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Imitation OnsetImitation Onset

Learning by observation Learning by observation begins early in life. This begins early in life. This

14-month-old child 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV imitates the adult on TV

in pulling a toy apart.in pulling a toy apart.

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Mirror NeuronsMirror Neurons

Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.are active during observational learning.

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Take home messageTake home message

learning without behaving or learning without behaving or reinforcementreinforcement

acquisition vs. performanceacquisition vs. performance

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Applications of Observational Applications of Observational LearningLearning

Unfortunately, Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies Bandura’s studies

show that antisocial show that antisocial models (family, models (family,

neighborhood or neighborhood or TV) may have TV) may have

antisocial effects.antisocial effects.

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Modeling ViolenceModeling Violence

Research shows that viewing media violence leads Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.to an increased expression of aggression.

Children modeling after pro wrestlers

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Positive Observational Positive Observational LearningLearning

Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.models may have prosocial effects.

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AssessmentAssessment

Samples vs SignsSamples vs Signs

Functional Analysis (SRC) (SORC)Functional Analysis (SRC) (SORC)

e.g., socializing Anne.g., socializing Ann

ABAB designABAB design

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Evaluating the Behavioral Evaluating the Behavioral PerspectivePerspective

ContributionsContributions

Problems/CriticismProblems/Criticism