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Knowledge Structure:

sociological and functional linguistic perspectives

J R Martin

Department of Linguistics University of Sydney

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textual

interpersonal

ideational

fi eld

tenor

mode

genre

knowledge structure

SFL Sociology of knowledge

[Bernstein]

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1. Field

- activity sequence

- taxonomy (classification & composition)

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FIELD (after Martin 1992) - a field is a set of activity sequences oriented to some global institutional purpose, alongside the taxonomies of participants involved in these sequences (organised by both classification and composition)

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- activity

"In parts of the earth beneath the crust... heat accumulates to such an extent that it does cause local melting of rocks to form a molten mass called magma. This molten material is under such enormous pressure that some of it is forced into any cracks and crevices that might form in the upper solid crust of the earth, and in surrounding solid rock. Some of this molten material can actually cool and solidify without reaching the earth's surface; in other cases molten material is pushed right through the earth's surface and forms a volcano. When molten material is forced out to the earth's surface it is called lava." [Messel 1963: 12.1, 40.4-8]

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- TAXONOMY (classification)

igneous

sedimentary

metamorphic

extrusions

intrusions

clastic non-clastic

rocks

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igneous

sedimentary

metamorphic

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- TAXONOMY (composition)

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2. Knowledge in science

- activity

- classification

- composition

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Clouds have their origins in the water that covers 70 per cent of the earth's surface. Millions of tons of water vapour are evaporated into the air daily from oceans, lakes and rivers, and by transpiration from trees, crops and other plant life.

As this moist air rises it encounters lower pressures, expands as a result, and in doing so becomes cooler. As the air cools it can hold less water vapour and eventually will become saturated. It is from this point that some of the water vapour will condense into tiny water droplets to form cloud (about one million cloud droplets are contained in one rain-drop). Thus, whenever clouds appear they provide visual evidence of the presence of water in the atmosphere.

- activity: cloud formation...

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There are ten main cloud types, which are further divided into 27 sub-types according to their height shape, colour and associated weather. Clouds are categorised as low (from the earth's surface to 2.5 km), middle (2.5 to 6 km), or high (above 6 km). They are given Latin names which describe their characteristics, e.g. cirrus (a hair), cumulus (a heap), stratus (a layer) and nimbus (rain-bearing). It's an interesting fact that all clouds are white, but when viewed from the ground some appear grey or dark grey according to their depth and shading from higher cloud.

- taxonomy: classification

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- images also portray composition...

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We can pursue composition further into the realm of physics and atomic structure. There we learn that water is a V-shaped molecule, known chemically as H2O (meaning two hydrogen and one oxygen atom bonded together into a molecule). Pushing further we might find that water molecules are symmetric, with two mirror planes of symmetry and a 2-fold rotation axis...

- uncommonsense composition...

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2.1 SCIENCE TAXONOMIES classification & composition are:

- comprehensive - deep - precise

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1 High-level clouds o 1.1 Cirrus o 1.2 Cirrocumulus o 1.3 Cirrostratus o 1.4 Contrail2 Medium-level clouds o 2.1 Altostratus... o 2.2 Altocumulus o 2.3 Nimbostratus3 Low-level clouds o 3.1 Stratocumulus o 3.2 Stratus o 3.3 Cumulus4 Vertically developed clouds o 4.1 Cumulonimbus

- subclassification of major cloud types...

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altostratus clouds, which form when "a large air mass is condensed, usually from a frontal system, and can bring rain or snow”

altostratus duplicatusaltostratus lenticularisaltostratus mammatusaltostratus opacusaltostratus praecipitatioaltostratus radiatusaltostratus translucidusaltostratus undulatus

- further subclassification...

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Kingdom (animalia - obtain food, mobile...

Phylum (chordata - with hollow dorsal nervous system

Sub-phylum (vertebrata - with a backbone

Class (mammalia - with hair & mammary glands

Order (primates - with grasping hand

Family (hominidae - man-like reasoning

Genus (homo - ...

Species (sapiens - ...

- living things...

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types of mammals

... - the egg laying mammals called monotremes - the pouched mammals called marsupials - the higher mammals called placentals ...

contrast common sense categories (relatively shallow, fuzzy, segmental):

food (meat, fish, fruit, vegetables...) pets (cats, dogs, birds...) gardening (trees, shrubs, flowers, grass, vegetables...) pests (insects, vermin...) threats (snake, spider, crocodile, shark, bear...) ...

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- uncommon sense composition

{based on technologically assisted perception - probing & recording instruments, including of course writing}

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2.2 Technicality

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There are ten main cloud types, which are further divided into 27 sub-types according to their height shape, colour and associated weather. Clouds are categorised as low (from the earth's surface to 2.5 km), middle (2.5 to 6 km), or high (above 6 km). They are given Latin names which describe their characteristics, e.g. cirrus (a hair), cumulus (a heap), stratus (a layer) and nimbus (rain-bearing). It's an interesting fact that all clouds are white, but when viewed from the ground some appear grey or dark grey according to their depth and shading from higher cloud.

- technicality arising from classification & composition...

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Warm fronts. When a warm air stream meets a colder air mass, the warm air, being less dense, slides up over the cold air and the temperature falls. Condensation generally ensues. The surface between the two air masses is inclined at a smaller angle than is the case for a cold front. Warm fronts are rare in Australia.

The approach of a warm front is heralded by the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds, known as cirrus cloud. As the front approaches, the clouds become lower and thicker, culminating in masses of heavy rain clouds. The weather usually clears quickly after the front has passed. However, a warm front is commonly followed, after an interval which may be anything up to a day or more, by a cold front. [Mesel 1963. 7.7]

- technicality arising from activity...

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Warm fronts. When a warm air stream meets a colder air mass, the warm air, being less dense, slides up over the cold air and the temperature falls. Condensation generally ensues. The surface between the two air masses is inclined at a smaller angle than is the case for a cold front. Warm fronts are rare in Australia.

The approach of a warm front is heralded by the appearance of

high, white, wispy clouds, known as cirrus cloud. As the front approaches, the clouds become lower and thicker, culminating in masses of heavy rain clouds. The weather usually clears quickly after the front has passed. However, a warm front is commonly followed, after an interval which may be anything up to a day or more, by a cold front. [Mesel 1963. 7.7]

- technicality constructed by definition...

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Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions.

Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass.

The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction.

- technicality constructed by definition...

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- explaining (implication sequence) Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions. Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass. The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction. - causality (nominal, conjunctive, verbal, prepositional, adverbial) [for the reasons, if, the resulting clouds, as a result of, how, causes]

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The amount of water vapour present in a sample of air

is called

the humidity.

The amount of water vapour actually present in the air, expressed as a percentage of the amount needed to saturate it at its temperature,

is called

the relative humidity.

In a low pressure area -

often called

a depression or simply a “low”, ...

- definitions (constructing technicality)...

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- it is important to keep in mind that technical terms are more than just words... their role in building uncommon sense classification, composition and activity in science is crucial!

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3. Humanities knowledge (history)

3.1 classification & composition

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taxonomy (uncommon sense borrowed) - some borrowed classification e.g. police:

South Australian Police, Australian Federal Police... e.g. asylum seekers:

Indochinese, Vietnamese, Afghans, Iraqis, Iranians...

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- some borrowed composition for entities...

e.g. government agencies

(note acronyms DIMIA, DFAT, DEET, HREOC):

DIMIA Dept of Immigration, Mutlicultural & Indigenous AffairsDFAT Dept of Foreign affairs & TradeDEET Dept of Employment, Education and TrainingHREOC Human Rights & Equal Opportunity Commissionetc.

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& instantial classification (not technicalised)

... Mr Ruddock... The minister moves on to outline three competing visions for Australia’s population in the century ahead. The first scenario is the high-immigration model favoured by some business groups, which call for Australia’s net migration intake to be set at 1 per cent of existing population per year... The second scenario is net zero migration, the model pushed by sections of the environmental movement and by groups such as One Nation, which say that Australia should take just enough migrants to replace the number of people who permanently depart the country each year... The minister’s final forecast is reassuring – according to him, if we hold fast to the current government policy, Australia’s population will increase gradually for the next forty years before settling comfortably at around 23 million... [Mares, P 2001 Borderline: Australia’s treatment of refugees and asylum seekers. Sydney: UNSW Press (Reportage Series) 141-142]

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BUT activity is tuned into uncommonsense composition (marking time) - development of uncommon sense composition hierarchy

sequence in time (‘before this’, ‘and then’):

On 29 August the Tampa entered into Australian territorial waters approaching Christmas Island. → The prime minister told parliament that ← the captain had

decided on this course of action because ← a spokesman for the asylum seekers ‘ had indicatedthat they would begin ju mping overboard if medical assistance was n ot

provided quickly’. → Captain Rinnan gave a different reason for this de : ‘ cision Weweren’t seaworthy to sail to In .donesia There were lifejackets for onl 40y peo .ple The sanitary co nditions were terrible.’ → The SAS came aboard and took o ver Tampa. →

An Australian Defence Force doc tor was given 4 3 minutes to make a medical assessment ofthe 4 33 asylum seekers. → He reported, ‘Four persons required IV (2

urgent including 1 woman 8 mo nths pregnant) .’ → Captain Rinnan was surprised at the prompt medical ,assessment because ← his crew had already identified ten

people who were barely conscious lying in the sun on the deck of the ship. → The prime ministerthen made a finely timed ministerial statement to parliament insisting

that ← ‘nobody – and I repeat nobo dy – has presented as being in need ofu rgent medical assistance as would require their removal to the Australian mainland or to

Christmas Islan’d . → One hundred and thirty- one fortunate asylum seekers were granted immediate asylum by the New Zealand governmen . t → The ,rest ← ha ving

been transported to Naur , u waited processing under the evolving Pacific Solution. [Brennan 200 3: 4 2 -43 ]

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The first wave of 2,077 Indochinese boat people came to Australia in 54 boats between 1976 and 1981. In that time, Australia was to resettle another 56,000 Indochinese through regular migration channels. The first boatload of asylum seekers arrived in Darwin harbour on 28 July 1976. The five Vietnamese had made the 6,500-kilometre journey in a small boat. At the end of that year another two boats arrived carrying 106 people who were screened for health reasons and then flown to Wacol migrant hostel outside Brisbane. When the third Vietnamese boat of the first wave arrived, there was some media agitation about the threatened invasion by boat people. One Melbourne newspaper reported that ‘today’s trickle of unannounced visitors to our lonely northern coastline could well become a tide of human flotsam’. The paper asked how the nation would respond to ‘the coming invasion of its far north by hundreds , thousands and even tens of thousands of Asian refugees”. The invasion never occurred. In 1978 the Communist government in Vietnam outlawed private business ventures. Tens of thousands, mainly ethnic Chinese, then fled by boat. The outflow of Vietnamese boat people throughout the region gave rise to great moral dilemmas in the implementation of government policies. Countries such as Malaysia would periodically declare that their camps were full and they could take no more boat people. They would even threaten to shoot new arrivals on sight. Alternatively, they would provide them with food, fuel and repairs so they could set off for another country. Meanwhile Vietnamese officials were profiting by charging the boat people high departure fees. Camps were filling around Southeast Asia. There was no let-up in the departures from Vietnam. In the end there was a negotiated agreement involving Vietnam, the countries of first asylum such as Thailand and Malaysia, and the resettlement countries, chiefly the United States, Canada and Australia. In 1982 the Australian government announced that the Vietnamese government had agreed to an Orderly Departure Program. Australian immigration ministers Michael MacKellar and Ian MacPhee were able to set up procedures for the reception of Vietnamese from camps in Southeast Asia as well as those coming directly from Vietnam under a special migration program. With careful management, they were able to have the public accept up to 15,000 Vietnamese refugees a year when the annual migration intake was as low as 70,000.

- setting in time...

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Beyond the episodes signalled by these temporal circumstances is another broader layer of time in this chapter of Brennan’s book. As the first wave at the beginning of [3.3] indicates, there are more waves to come; text [3.3] is in fact Brennan’s recount of the first of four waves of boat people around which he organises a chapter titled ‘Four waves, Tampa and a firebreak’: “The first wave of 2,077 Indochinese boat people came to Australia in 54 boats between 1976 and 1981 [p 29]... The second wave of boat people commenced with the arrival of a Cambodian boat at Pender Bay near Broome on 25 November 1989 [p 32]… The third wave of boat people arrived between 1994 and 1998…These Vietnamese and Chinese boat people were the last victims of the Comprehensive Plan of Action which proposed the compulsory repatriation back to Vietnam of those left in the camps around Asia [p 40]… The fourth and biggest wave of boat people in modern Australian history could not be so readily categorised as non-refugees or as refugees who had their claims determined elsewhere. In late 1999 boat people started arriving from Afghanistan, Iraq and Iran via Indonesia [p 40].”

- named phases of time...

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The first wave of 2,077 Indochinese boat people came to Australia in 54 boats …

At the same time the government set up a Special Humanitarian Program…

The In the first year, there were 20,216 offshore refugees…

Within eight years there were only 1,537 under the offshore refugee category…

Initially it was assumed that there would be only a few hundred of such onshore cases a year…

In 1985 the High Court…decided that ministerial decisions…were reviewable by the courts…

The second wave of boat people commenced with the arrival of a Cambodian boat…

The third wave of boat people arrived between 1994 and 1998…

The fourth and biggest wave of boat people in modern Australian history could not beso readily categorised…

The first boatload of asylum seekers arrived in Darwin harbour on 28 July 1976.

At the end of that year another two boats arrived carrying 106 people …

When the third Vietnamese boat of the first wave arrived, there was some media agitation…

In 1978 the Communist government in Vietnam outlawed private business ventures…

In the end there was a negotiated agreement…

In 1982 the Australian government announced that the Vietnamese government had agreed…

In 1978 the government set up a Determination of Refugee Status (DORS) Committee…

In the early 1980s the committee considered fewer that 200 applications a year...

In 1982 the government decided that even offshore cases would be decided on a case by case basis…

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Once time is packaged as a thing it can be named; and where proper names become established for phases of history, they do transcend the text/s which created them and enter into the field as technical terms.

Examples include Tampa, Mabo, The Sharpeville Massacre, The Long March, the Depression, The First Gulf War.

In short then we can say that the ‘technicality’ of history has to do with activity not participants, but that activity is reconstructed as a participant that gets named and potentially technicalised as part of an uncommon sense composition taxonomy.

- so, in history...

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3.2 historical explanation...

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In history, reasoning is typically realised within rather than between clauses; events are nominalised and related to one another via agency and circumstantiation. e.g. The outflow of Vietnamese boat people throughout the region gave rise to great moral dilemmas in the implementation of government policies

- explaining...

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Realising cause inside the clause enables historians to fine tune causality by deploying verbs which elsewhere literally construe material and verbal activity (argue, act, attract, spark) but here enact finely differentiated types of cause and effect relations. This indefinitely enhances historians’ resources for explaining how one event affects another and is one important sense in which written language elaborates the meaning potential of a language. Nominal, prepositional and verbal realisations of cause inside the clause are typical of historical accounts (and of explanations as we shall see below). Manne begins text [3.8] in just these terms…

The Howard government’s unwillingness to apologise determined the nature of its response to other recommendations contained in Bringing them home.

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[3.8] [7] The Howard government’s unwillingness to apologise determined the nature of its response to other recommendations contained in Bringing them home. Because it refused to consider the present generation of Australians legally or morally responsible for the mistakes of the past, it refused altogether Bringing them home’s recommendation for financial compensation for members of the stolen generations. Because it thought the policies of child removal had been lawful and well-intentioned, it treated almost with contempt the arguments in Bringing them home which suggested that in removing Aboriginal children from their families by force previous Australian governments had committed serious violations of the human rights treaties they had signed or even acts of genocide. Because, nonetheless, it accepted that the Aboriginal children who had been taken from their families had suffered serious harm it was willing to allocate modest sums to assist members of the stolen generations with psychological counselling, family reunion, cultural projects, oral histories and so on.

cause inside the clause

cause between clauses

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causal verbs (circumstantial relation): The wide reporting of the violence had caused concern to grow among the politically powerful missionary societies in Britain The narrow selection of sources results in a profound ignorance of the basics of Va n Diemanian economy, society and... which in turn leads to a series of elementary errors. The wide reporting of the violence had caused concern to grow among the politically powerful missionary societies in Britain

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Pushing this one step further, nominalising the causal connection as impact: Only when the level of killing became such a prominent public issue from 1827 onwards, with such a dramatic impact on profit, colonisation and the operation of the penal system, did Arthur change tack (cf. the level of killing impacted on profit etc .): the level of killing …from 1827 onwards with such a dramatic impact on profit, colonisation and the operation of the penal system

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- co-opted action verbs (taking advantage of Agent Process Medium structure) The over-reliance on the government’s own records grossly distorts Windschuttle’s understanding of the realities of frontier life for two reasons. ‘very considerable difficulties arise from the insufficiency of stationery’. Government record keeping improves somewhat with the arrival of Sorrell in 1817 the detention in remote places were contributing to more regular bad decision making at the primary stage the savings from not holding unlawful arrivals in protracted detention… could be devoted to increased surveillance of all overstayers in the community This (= increased surveillance of all overstayers in the community) would facilitate the orderly departure from Australia of overstayers

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Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions.

Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass.

The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction.

- comparing science...

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- causality between clauses...

if it is humid

condensation of water vapour will take place.

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This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier,

The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front.

Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions.

Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass.

noun

verbprepositional

adjectival

- causality within clauses...

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Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier,

A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler because ‘the temperature of an expanding air mass falls because it uses heat energy to expand’

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Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type.

This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. So usually cumulous clouds form.

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Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions.

This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs because cold front conditions occur.

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Cold fronts. ...

Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass.

Fig. 7.7 shows how a warmer, humid air mass rises and (water vapour) condenses because a cold front (arrives).

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The arrival of a cold front

is marked (cf. is heralded)

by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction.

- evidence of...

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Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions.

Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass.

The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction.

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- like history, science tends to construct causal relations inside the clause; this facilitates packaging up the relevant causes and effects

- unlike history, science does not exploit this resource to introduce finely nuanced types of cause

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4. Nominalisation (grammatical metaphor)

- e.g. sociology...

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Consider a situation where a small holder meets another and complains that what he/she had done every year with great success, this year failed completely. The other says that when this happened he/she finds that this 'works'. He/she then outlines the successful strategy.

Now any restriction to circulation and exchange reduces effectiveness. Any restriction specialises, classifies and privatises knowledge. Stratification procedures produce distributive rules which control the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire. Thus both Vertical and Horizontal discourses are likely to operate with distributive rules which set up positions of defence and challenge.

- Bernstein changing gears...

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- writing as we speak (another Basil Bernstein example)

Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a

cover, and peeps through its slit.

participants as nouns:lavatory, walls, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring,

paper

qualities as adjectives:stark, bare, pristine, white, square

processes as verbs:imagine, are painted, sits, is folded, hangs, is hidden, peeps

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- writing as we speak (another Basil Bernstein example)

Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a

cover, and peeps through its slit.

participants as nouns:

lavatory, wall, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring, paper

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- writing as we speak (another Basil Bernstein example)

Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a

cover, and peeps through its slit.

participants as nouns:lavatory, walls, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring,

paper

qualities as adjectives:stark, bare, pristine, white, square

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- writing as we speak (another Basil Bernstein example)

Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a

cover, and peeps through its slit.

participants as nouns:lavatory, walls, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring,

paper

qualities as adjectives:stark, bare, pristine, white, square

processes as verbs:imagine, are painted, sits, is folded, hangs, is hidden, peeps

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In the second lavatory there are books on a shelf, pictures on the wall, and some relaxing of the rigours of the first. In the third lavatory there are books on the shelf, pictures on the wall, and perhaps a scattering of tiny objects. In the fourth lavatory the rigour is totally relaxed. The walls are covered with a motley array of postcards, there is a wide assortment of reading matter and curio. The lavatory roll is likely to be uncovered and the holder may well fall apart in use.

nominalising (processes as things):

some relaxing of the rigours of the first[not organised as strictly]

a scattering of tiny objects[tiny objects are scattered (about)]

in use[when used]

- towards writing as we write...

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We can say that as we move from the first to the fourth lavatory we are moving from a strongly classified to a weakly classified space; from a space regulated by strong rules of exclusion to a space regulated by weak rules of exclusion. [Bernstein 1975: 153]

'cause in the clause' (nominalised processes as Agents):

a space regulated by strong rules of exclusion

- written explanations...

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Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a cover, and peeps through its slit. In the second lavatory there are books on a shelf, pictures on the wall, and some relaxing of the rigours of the first. In the third lavatory there are books on the shelf, pictures on the wall, and perhaps a scattering of tiny objects. In the fourth lavatory the rigour is totally relaxed. The walls are covered with a motley array of postcards, there is a wide assortment of reading matter and curio. The lavatory roll is likely to be uncovered and the holder may well fall apart in use. We can say that as we move from the first to the fourth lavatory we are moving from a strongly classified to a weakly classified space; from a space regulated by strong rules of exclusion to a space regulated by weak rules of exclusion. [Bernstein 1975: 153]

- drifting from exemplification to theory (Maton’s semantic gravity)...

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- Bernstein’s explanatory drift...

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the pay-off - definitions ( taxon o my building te ch nicali t y; Halliday / Martin 20 0 3 ) ...a Vert ical disc o urse (Token/term)

takes the fo rm of (= )

a coheren t , explic it and s ystemat ically pri ncipled s tr uc tur e , hiera rch ically organised as in the scie nces, o r it takes t he form of a series of specialised languages with specialised modes of inter rogati o n and sp e cialised criteria fo r the prod uc tion and circulati o n of te xts as in the so cial scie nces and humanities. (Value/definition)

A Horizo ntal dis cou rse (Token/term)

entails ( = )

a set of strategies wh ich are lo cal, segme ntally organised, co ntext sp e cific and dependent, for maximising e nco unters wit h pers on s and habitats. (Value/defiition)

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the pay-off - explanations (Halliday 1998, 2004; Martin & Wodak 2004)

Consider a situation where a small holder meets another and complains that what he/she had done every year with great success, this year failed completely. The other says that when this happened he/she finds that this 'works'. He/she then outlines the successful strategy.

Now any restriction to circulation and exchange reduces effectiveness. Any restriction specialises, classifies and privatises knowledge. Stratification procedures produce distributive rules which control the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire. Thus both Vertical and Horizontal discourses are likely to operate with distributive rules which set up positions of defence and challenge.

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Now any restriction to circulation and exchange (Agent)reduces effectiveness (Medium)

Any restriction (Agent)specialises, classifies and privatises knowledge (Medium)

Stratification procedures (Agent) produce distributive rules… (Medium)

distributive rules which (Agent)control the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire (Medium)

...distributive rules which (Agent)set up

position of defence and challenge (Medium)

- finely tuned causality...

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5. Types of knowledge structure

- science

- social science

- humanities

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A Horizontal discourse entails a set of strategies which are local, segmentally organised, context specific and dependent, for maximising encounters with persons and habitats....This form has a group of well-known features: it is likely to be oral, local, context dependent and specific, tacit, multi-layered and contradictory across but not within contexts. [Bernstein 2000:157] ...a Vertical discourse takes the form of a coherent, explicit and systematically principled structure, hierarchically organised as in the sciences, or it takes the form of a series of specialised languages with specialised modes of interrogation and specialised criteria for the production and circulation of texts as in the social sciences and humanities. [Bernstein 2000:157]

- a sociological perspective

83

A hierarchical knowledge structure is "a coherent, explicit and systematically principled structure, hierarchically organised’ which ‘attempts to create very general propositions and theories, which integrate knowledge at lower levels, and in this way shows underlying uniformities across an expanding range of apparently different phenomena" (1999a: 161, 162).

A horizontal knowledge structure is defined as "a series of specialised languages with specialised modes of interrogation and criteria for the construction and circulation of texts" (1999a: 162), such as the disciplines of the humanities and social sciences: eg for linguistics - SFL, LFG, RRG, cognitive linguistics etc.

L1L2L3L4L5L6L7...Ln

84

Wignell, in press, argues social sciences are better characterised as warring triangles, since they model themselves on science:

Compared with the humanities where technicality and the drive to integration via general models and propositions is less strong:

L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 ...Ln

85

Muller, in press, proposes verticality to describe how theories progress - via ever more integrative or general propositions (cf Bernstein's strong/weak internal gammar)...

...or via the introduction of a new language which constructs a ‘fresh perspective, a new set of questions, a new set of connections, and an apparently new problematic, and most importantly a new set of speakers’ (Bernstein: 162).

L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 Ln

86

...and Muller proposes grammaticality to describe how theoretical statements deal with their empirical predicates (cf. Bernstein's strong/weak external grammar). The stronger the (external) grammaticality of a language, the more stably it is able to generate empirical correlates and the more unambiguous because more restricted the field of referents.

L texts

data ‘testing’

‘interpreting’

87

SFL's main contribution to date has been to identify grammatical metaphor as the critical linguistic resource deployed to construe vertical discourse... with respect to both taxonomy (uncommon sense classification): ...a Vertical discourse (Token) takes the form of (=) a coherent, explicit and systematically principled structure, hierarchically organised as in the sciences, or it takes the form of a series of specialised languages with specialised modes of interrogation and specialised criteria for the production and circulation of texts as in the social sciences and humanities. (Value) A Horizontal discourse (Token) entails (=) a set of strategies which are local, segmentally organised, context specific and dependent, for maximising encounters with persons and habitats. (Value)

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...and with respect to explanation (implication sequencing as cause in the clause): Consider a situation where a small holder meets another and complains that what he/she had done every year with great success, this year failed completely. The other says that when this happened he/she finds that this 'works'. He/she then outlines the successful strategy. Now any restriction to circulation and exchange reduces effectiveness. Any restriction specialises, classifies and privatises knowledge. Stratification procedures produce distributive rules which control the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire. This both Vert ical and Horizontal discourses are likely to operate with distributive rules which set up positions of defence and challenge. (Benrstein 158). Now any restriction to circulation and exchange (Agent) reduces effectiveness (Medium) Any restriction (Agent) specialises, classifies and privatises knowledge (Medium) Stratification procedures (Agent) produce distributive rules… (Medium) distributive rules which (Agent) control the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire (Medium) ...distributive rules which (Agent) set up positions of defence and challenge (Medium)

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Note that one function of technicality is to kill off grammatical metaphor, distilling metaphorical discourse in definitions generating abstract 'things' which can be assembled into uncommon sense structures of various kinds... ...a Vertical discourse (Token) takes the form of (=) a coherent, explicit and systematically principled structure, hierarchically organised as in the sciences, or it takes the form of a series of specialised languages with specialised modes of interrogation and specialised criteria for the production and circulation of texts as in the social sciences and humanities. (Value) A Horizontal discourse (Token) entails (=) a set of strategies which are local, segmentally organised, context specific and dependent, for maximising encounters with persons and habitats. (Value)

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...and which can be deployed in explanations: Consider a situation where a small holder meets another and complains that what he/she had done every year with great success, this year failed completely. The other says that when this happened he/she finds that this 'works'. He/she then outlines the successful strategy. Now any restriction to circulation and exchange reduces effectiveness. Any restriction specialises, classifies and privatises knowledge. Stratification procedures produce distributive rules which control the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire. This both Vertical and Horizontal discourses are likely to operate with distributive rules which set up positions of defence and challenge. (Benrstein 158). - this process of technicalisation, whereby the knowledge engendered by grammatical metaphor is subsumed as abstract terms (as technical Tokens in definitions) is the linguistic reflex of Muller's verticality

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- the subsuming distillation of grammatical metaphor as technicality is recursively deployed as we can see form the multiplicity of technical terms in definitions (Value)...

The Subject is the interpersonal clause function which changes sequence with the Finite to change MOOD between declarative and interrogative and is referred to by an anaphoric pronoun in mood tags. [Jim teaching]

cf. relative lack of technicality in Bernstein’s defining Values

A Horizontal discourse entails a set of strategies which are local, segmentally organised, context specific and dependent, for maximising encounters with persons and habitats....This form has a group of well-known features: it is likely to be oral, local, context dependent and specific, tacit, multi-layered and contradictory across but not within contexts. [Bernstein 2000:157]

- degrees of technicality (re verticality)

linguistics

sociology

92

- knowledgeactivity& taxonomy (classification; composition)

- grammatical metaphordefining& explaining

- horizontal & vertical knowledge structuresverticality ( )grammaticality (‘testable’ propositions/instantiation)

L1 L2 L3

93

5. SFL as a knowledge structure

- warring triangle (‘social science’)

- relatively strong verticality (technical; extravagant hierarchies/complementarities)

- relatively strong grammaticality (e.g. realisation, instantiation, individuation...)

text

94

- BASIC SFL PARAMETERS SFL hierarchies - rank (composition - whole to part ) delicacy (classifica t ion - gene ral to speci f ic) reali s ation (stratification - abstract to con crete ) in s tantiati o n (me t astabi lity - system to ins t ance ) individu a tion (coding o rientation - reservoir to repertoi re ) g ene s is (logogenesis/ont ogenesis/phylogenesis) …

95

SFL complementarities - metafunction (ideational/ interpersonal/textual) axis (system/structure) agnation (typology/topology) perspective (synoptic/dynamic) modality (verbiage/image etc.…) …

96

determiner noun verb determiner noun

clause

Actor Process Goal

nominal group verbal group nominal group

Deictic Thing Event Deictic Thing

the police scattered the crowd

clause

group

word

- e.g. rank hierarchy

97

- e.g. metafunction complementarity

98

- verticality, hierarchy & complementarity

hierarchy complementarity complementary hierarchies!

99

- the subsuming distillation of grammatical metaphor as technicality is recursively deployed as we can see form the multiplicity of technical terms in definitions (Value)...

The Subject is the interpersonal clause function which changes sequence with the Finite to change MOOD between declarative and interrogative and is referred to by an anaphoric pronoun in mood tags. [Jim teaching]

cf. relative lack of technicality in Bernstein’s defining Values (and concomitant group/phrase & word rank complexing!)

A Horizontal discourse entails a set of strategies which are local, segmentally organised, context specific and dependent, for maximising encounters with persons and habitats....This form has a group of well-known features: it is likely to be oral, local, context dependent and specific, tacit, multi- layered and contradictory across but not within contexts. [Bernstein 2000:157]

100

- deep taxonomy...

101

my basic tools…

metaf unct ion

strat um

ideational interpersonal textual

genre

Martin & Rose 2005

orbital/se rialstructure

prosodicstructure

periodicstructure

register

Martin 1992

field -

activitysequences,participanttaxonomies

tenor -

power, solidarity

mode -

action/reflection,monologue/dialogue

discoursesemantics

Martin & Rose 2003

ideation,externalconjunction

appraisal,negotiation

identification,internalconjunction,informationflow

lexicogrammar

[verbiage] Halliday &Matthiessen 2004

[image] Kress & vanLeeuwen 1996

transitivity;nominal groupclassification,description,enumeration

mood, modality,polarity,comment,vocation;nominal groupattitude, person

theme andinformation;tense anddeixis; ellipsis &substitution

graphology/phonology

Halliday & Greaves inpress…

tone sequence formatting,emoticons,colour; tone,voice quality,phonaesthesia

punctuation,layout; tonality,tonicity

- multiperspectival text analysis

102

textual

interpersonal

ideational

fi eld

tenor

mode

genre

system

text

system

text

system

text

reservoir

repertoire

reservoir

repertoire

reservoir

repertoire

instantiation

individuation

realisation

‘overdetermined grammaticality’

103

6. Deploying SFL - formulating knowledge structures

e.g.

- history as taxonomy (partial; shallow); compositional construals of time

- history as activity (sequence in time, setting in time, cause in the clause)

- featuring extensive grammatical metaphor, very little of which is subsumed in technicality

104

serial time

episodic time

individualparticipants

genericparticipants

autobiography

biography

historicalrecount

personalrecount

- genre perspective...

exploring the topologies of genres a field affords...

105

time focus

cause focus

simplecause

complexcause

historicalaccount factorial

explanation

consequentialexplanation

historicalrecount

106

external cause

internal cause

one sidedargument

multi-sidedargument

exposition

challenge

discussion

historicalexplanation

107

field time

temporal

biographical

historical

first person

third person

autobiographicalrecount

biographicalrecount

historical recount

causal his torical acc oun t

expla in

argue

inputs

outcome s

fac torial ex planation

con se que ntial ex planation

one -s ided

multi-s ided

promote

rebut

ex po si tion

challe ng e

disc ussi onuncommo n

se nse

com monse nse

text time

- typological perspective...

108

sequencein time

settingin timestory to history

recount to account

account to explanation

explanation to argument

exposition through discussion

time

causechronology

rhetoricexternal

cause

internalcause

one sided

multi-sided

- learner pathway...

109

For horizontal knowledge structures (e.g. history), are we...

- adding verticality?

- adding grammaticality?

- adding a new language (a more ‘vertical’ one!)?

- engineering a metasemiotic system (a system which takes another semiotic system as its content plane)?

110

For hierarchical knowledge structures (e.g. science), are we...

- subtracting verticality?

- subtracting grammaticality?

- horizontalising by adding another (less vertical) language?

- engineering metasemiotic a system (a system which takes another semiotic system as its content plane)?

111

And how is it that our metasemiotic deconstructions seem to facilitate a more democratic apprenticeship...?

enabling a visible pedagogy...

with metasemiosis deployed for

- curriculum planning

- designing pedagogic interactions

- and as a lingua franca for teachers & students

112

7. Implications

- field and genre in a model of social context

- SFL readings of Muller’s verticality & grammaticality

- the role of metasemiosis in pedagogic discourse

[F Christie & J R Martin [Eds] 2007. Language, Knowledge and Pedagogy: functional linguistic and sociological perspectives. London: Continuum]

113

Bernstein, B 1996 Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity: theory, research, critique. London: Taylor & Francis. [Revised Edition 2000]

Christie, F & J R Martin [Eds.] 2007 Language, Knowledge and Pedagpgy: functional linguistic and sociological perspectives. London: Continuum.

Coffin, C 2006 Historical Discourse: the language of time, cause and evaluation. London; Continuum.

Halliday, M A K 2004 The Language of Science. London: Continuum (Vol 5 in the Collected Works of M A K Halliday J Webster Ed.). London: Continuum.

Halliday, M A K & J R Martin 1993 Writing Science: literacy and discursive power. London: Falmer (Critical Perspectives on Literacy and Education).

Halliday, M A K & C M I M Matthiessen 1999 Construing Experience through Language: a language-based approach to cognition. London: Cassell.

Halliday, M A K & C M I M Matthiessen 2004 An Introduction to Functional Grammar. (3rd Edition) London: Arnold.

Martin, J R & D Rose 2003 Working with Discourse: meaning beyond the clause. London: Continuum.

Martin, J R & R Veel (eds.) 1998 Reading Science: critical and functional perspectives on discourses of science. London: Routledge.

Martin, J R & R Wodak (eds.) 2004 Re/reading the past: critical and functional perspectives on discourses of history Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Muller, J 2000 Reclaiming Knowledge: social theory, curriculum and education policy. London: Routledge (Knowledge, Identity and School Life Series 8).