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Land-Use Planning

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Outline• Need for Planning• Historical Forces• Rural to Urban Shift• Urban Sprawl

– Contributing Factors– Problems with Unplanned Growth

• Land-Use Planning Principles– Urban Planning Issues– Smart Growth

• Federal Government Land Use Issues

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The Need For Planning• Between 1/3 - 1/2 world’s surface

altered by humans.– Most land-use decisions are still based

primarily on economic considerations or short-term needs rather than on unique analysis of the landscape.

– Once land has been converted to intensive human use, it is generally unavailable for other uses.

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Historical Forces That Shaped Land Use in

North America• Land Use in the United States:

– 47% - Crops and livestock– 45% - Forests and natural areas– 5% - Intensive human use

• Differs greatly from original conditions experienced by immigrants from New World.

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Historical Forces That Shaped Land Use in

North America• First U.S. colonists converted

landscape to farming, and then to towns and cities.

• Waterways provided primary method of transportation.– Allowed exploration and development of

commerce.– Early towns usually built near water and

at transfer points between water systems.

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Water and Urban Centers

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Rural to Urban Shift• North America remained essentially

rural until industrial growth began in last 1/3 of 1800’s.

• Industrial Revolution– Industrial jobs to be found in cities.

• European Immigrants– Congregated in, and subdivided cities.

• Offered variety of cultural, social, and artistic opportunities.

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Migration from Central City to the Suburbs

• Industrial Revolution led to polluted, undesirable waterways.– As roads and rail transport became more

common, many left the waterway areas.• Agricultural land surrounding towns was

converted to housing.– Land began to be viewed as a commodity, not as a

non-renewable resource to be managed.

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Suburb Migration• As land prices in the city rose, people

began to look for cheaper areas away from the city.– 1950 - 60% urban population lived in

central cities.– 1990 - 30% urban population lived in

central cities.

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Rural-to-Urban Population Shift

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Suburb Migration• Convenience and personal automobiles

escalated decentralized housing patterns and diminished importance of mass transit. – Decreased energy efficiency.– Increased cost of supplying utility services.

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Suburb Migration• Urban Sprawl - Pattern of un-planned

low density housing and commercial development outside of cities.– Land-Use Practices:

• Zoning ordinances that isolate employment and shopping services away from housing locations.

• Low-density planning aimed at creating automobile access to increasing expanses of land.

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Suburb Migration• Three types of urban sprawl:

– Development of exclusive wealthy suburbs adjacent to the city.

– Tract Development - Construction of similar residential units over large areas.

– Ribbon Sprawl - Commercial / industrial buildings line highways connecting housing developments to central city. • Megalopolis - Merge of cities into large, urban

areas.

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Regional Cities

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Factors That Contribute to

Sprawl• Lifestyle– Increased wealth of population.

• Decentralized housing pattern is possible because high rate of automobile ownership allows ease of movement.

• Economic – Building on agricultural land less expensive.– Tax laws encourage home development.

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Factors That Contribute to

Sprawl• Planning and Policy– Historically, little coordination of effort.

• Large number of political jurisdictions.– Zoning ordinances prohibit land use mixing.

• Specify minimum lot and house sizes.– Government subsidies.

• Local governments pay some costs of extending services into new areas.

– Alleviates costs to builders.

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Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth• Transportation

– Little thought to transportation corridors.– Establishment of new corridors stimulates

growth in nearby areas.• Reliance on automobiles has required constant

road building.– In Los Angeles, 70% of city’s surface area dedicated to

automobiles.• Average person in U.S. spends 9 hrs/wk in an

automobile.

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Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth• Air Pollution

– As traffic increases, so does air pollution.• Low Energy Efficiency

– Automobiles are inefficient transportation.– Decentralized cities - longer commutes.– Stop and go traffic patterns.– Single family homes less efficient.

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Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth

• Loss of Sense of Community– In many areas, people do not routinely

walk through their neighborhood.• Death of Central City

– Currently less than 10% of people work in the central city.• Less income to support public services.

• Higher Infrastructure Costs– Extension of municipal services.

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Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth

• Loss of Open Space– Oftentimes open space planning left out

of development plans.• Loss of Farmland

– Flat, well-drained land ideal for both farmland and urban development.

– Partial transformation often leads to whole transformation.

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Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth

• Water Pollution Problems– Large impervious surface areas lead to

high runoff and potential flooding.• Floodplain Problems

– Many cities located on floodplains.• Flat, nutrient rich.

– Development increases economic losses.• Many communities have enacted floodplain

zoning ordinances.

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Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth

• Wetlands Misuse– Many have been drained, filled, or used as

landfills.• U.S. has lost 53% of wetlands since the

European immigration began (Not including Alaska).

– Wetlands play crucial role in reproductive phase of many organisms.

» Provide sediment filtration.

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Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth

• Other Land-Use Considerations– Geological Status

• Earthquake-Prone Faults• Unstable Hillsides• Fire-Prone Areas

– Climate• Water Shortages

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Land-Use Planning Principles

• Land-Use Planning - Evaluating needs and wants of a population, as well as land characteristics and value, and various alternative solutions to land uses before changes are made.– Basic rule should be to make as few

changes as possible.

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Land-Use Planning Principles

• Evaluate and record unique geological, geographic, and biologic features.

• Preserve unique cultural or historical features.

• Conserve open space and environmental features.

• Calculate cost of additional changes required to accommodate altered land use.

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Land-Use Planning Principles

• Plan for mixed uses in close proximity.• Plan variety of transportation options.• Set limits and require managed growth

patterns with compact development.• Encourage development in areas with

existing infrastructure.

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Mechanisms for Implementing Land-Use

Plans• Establish State / Regional Planning Agencies.– More effective than larger agencies due to

more logical natural boundaries.• Purchase Land or Use Rights.

– In many cases, owner may be willing to limit future uses of the land.

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Mechanisms for Implementing Land-

Use Plans• Regulate Use

– Zoning - Designating land for specific uses.• Often planners

represent business or developing interests.

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Special Urban Planning Issues

• Urban Transportation Planning– Four Goals

• Conserve energy and land resources.• Provide efficient / inexpensive transportation.

– Target populations.• Provide efficient transportation opportunities to

suburban residents.• Reduce urban pollution.

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Urban Transportation

Planning• Problems with Mass Transit– Only economical along heavily populated

routes. – Extremely expensive to build / operate.– Often crowded and uncomfortable.– U.S. government encourages personal

autos by financing highways, maintaining cheap energy policy, and not funding mass-transit projects (hidden subsidies).

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Problems with Mass Transit

• Mass transportation systems are often under-funded and difficult to establish because mass transit is:– Economically feasible only along heavily

populated areas.– Less convenient than private automobiles.– Extremely expensive to build and operate.– Often crowded and uncomfortable.

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Decline of Mass Transportation

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Urban Recreation Planning

• Nearly 3/4 of N.A. population lives in urban areas.

• Until recently, urban parks were considered an uneconomical use of land.

• Facilities not conveniently located may be infrequently used.

– New outgrowth of urbanization is the development of urban nature centers.

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Re-Development of Inner City Areas

• Many industrial cities are plagued by high cost of cleanup and renovation of brownfields. – Vacant industrial and commercial sites.

• Brownfield Development - Degree of clean-up required to support intended use of the site.

• Another important focus is remodeling abandoned commercial buildings into shopping centers, cultural facilities, and high-density housing.

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Smart Growth• Smart Growth recognizes benefits of

growth.– Advocates emphasize developing “livable”

cities and town.• Quality of environment directly affects quality of

life.

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Smart Growth• Smart Growth Principles

– Mix land uses.– Take advantage of compact designs.– Create range of housing opportunities.– Create walkable neighborhoods.– Foster distinctive, attractive communities

with a strong sense of place.

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Smart Growth Principles– Preserve open space and critical

environmental areas.– Strengthen development of existing areas.– Provide variety of transportation choices.– Make fair, cost-effective decisions.– Encourage community and stakeholder

collaboration in development decisions.

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Federal Government Land-

Use Issues • Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act– 1960 - Divided use of national forests into

(4) categories:• Wildlife Habitat Preservation• Recreation• Lumbering• Watershed Protection

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Federal Government Land-

Use Issues• 1872 Mining Law– “Miners” allowed to purchase mineral

extraction rights to public land for $5.00 per acre and keep rights as long as minimal maintenance continued.• Encouraged mining and mineral supplies.

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Federal Government Land-

Use Issues• Outdoor Recreation– Many people want to use the natural

world for recreational purposes as nature can provide challenges lacking in day-to-day life.• Conflicts develop because some activities

cannot occur in the same place at the same time.

– Groups argue that because they pay taxes, they “own” the land and have a right to use it.

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U.S. Federal Recreational Lands

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Outdoor Recreation• Agency Control

– Several U.S. agencies allocate and regulate the lands they control.• Conflicting Roles

– Forest Service » Logging vs. Recreation

– Bureau of Land Management » Grazing vs. Recreation

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Review• Need for Planning• Historical Forces• Rural to Urban Shift• Urban Sprawl

– Contributing Factors– Problems with Unplanned Growth

• Land-Use Planning Principles– Urban Planning Issues– Smart Growth

• Federal Government Land Use Issues

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Be sure to read about wetlands loss in Louisiana (291) & aesthetic pollution

(296)