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COMPONENTS OF A BUTLDTNG ,t . -

Materials and structural forms dre combined m make up the various parts of a

building, including the load-canying frame, skin, floors, andaqf itiolg.The building

also has mechanical and electrical systems, suih as elevators, heating and cooling

,yr**r, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above

g""""J""0 tt ""syusi.raure

and foundation is that part of a building below ground'

Load.Car ry ingFrame.Unt i l the la te lg thcentury , theex ter io rwa l lso fabuilding were used us bearing walls to support the floors. This construction is

essentiilty a post and lintel type, ana it is still used in frame construction for

houses. Bearing-watl construition limited the height of buildings because of the

enormous wall thicknesses required. In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-

-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction.

Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in

l8Sg.Asaconsequenceofskeletonconstruct ion,theenclosingwal lsbecamecurtainwallsratherthanservingasupportingfunction.Masonrywasthecurtainwall material until the 1930's, when light metal and glass curtain walls were

used. After the introduction of the steel skeleton, the height of buildings co'

ntinued to increase -raPidlY.All tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until world war II' After the

war, the sho-rtage of steet and the improved quality of concrete led to tall buildings

being built of reinforced concrete'

skin.T\eskin of a building consists of both transparent elements (windows) and

opuqu"elements(walls).Winoowsaretraditionallyglass,althoughplasticsarebeing used, especially in schools where breakage creates a maintenance problem' Th

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which are used to cover the structure and are supported by it, are buil

of a variety of materials: brick, precast conclete, stone' opaque glass, plastics, sted

and aluminium. Wood is used mainly in house construction; it is not generally usa

for commercial, industrial, or public buildings because of the ffue hazard.

Floors. The construction of the floors in a building depends on the basl

structural frame that is used. In steel skeleton construcdon, floors are eithe

slabs of concrere resting on steel beams or a deck consisting of -c,og14q!9gste€*irt u .on.rete topplng-. In goncrete construction, the floors are either slabs o30

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concrete on concrete beams or a series of closely spaced concrete beams (ribs)in two directions topped with a thin concrete slab, giving the appearance of awaffle on its underside. The kind of floor that is used depends on the span be-tween supporting columns or walls and the function of the space.

Mechanical and Electrical Systems. A modern building not only contains thespace for which it is intended (office, classroom, aparrment) but also contains spacefor mechanical and elecnical systems that help to provide a comfortable environ-ment. The importance of heating, ventilating, elecrical, and p_lumbing systems in anoffice building is shown by the fact that 40Vo of the construction budget is allocatedto them. Because of the increased use of sealed buildings with windows that cannotbe opened, elaborate mechanical systems are provided for ventilation and air condi-tioning. Ducts and pipes carry fresh air from central fan rooms and air conditioningmachinery. The ceiling, which is suspended below the upper floor construction, con-ceals the ductwork and contains the lighting units. Electrical wiring for power andfor telephone communication may also be located in this ceiling space or may beburied in the floor construction in pipes or conduits.

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STRUCTURAL FORMS IN BUILDING

Structural forms, such as the beam or the arch, have developed through the agesin relation to the availability of materials and the technology of the time. The arch,for instance, undoubtedly developed as a result of the availability of brick. In thetechnology of building, every structure must work against gravity, which tends topull everything down to the ground. A balance must therefore be attained betweenthe force of gravity, the shape of the sructure, and the srength of the material used.To provide a cover over a sheltered space and permit openings in the walls that sur-

round it, builders have developed four techniques consistent with this balance be-

tween gravity, form, and material. These building techniques arc post and lintel,arch and vault, truss and cantilever consrucdon.

Post and lintel. In post and lintel construction, a horizontal beam is placed acrossthe space between wo supporting posts. If the support is continuous, it is called awall; if a series of beams is joined together into a continuous surface, it is called aslab.

Simple rectilinear buildings result from post and lintel construction, which ischaracteristic of much primitive construction as well as of the classical Greek tem-ples. In this type of construction, the post (or column) carries only a vertical weight,or load, and is therefore under compression, and the lintel (or beam) is bent by theloads acting transversely to its axis. Therefore, the post must have compressivestrength, and the beam must have bending strength. Both wood and stone were usedin early examples of this type of construction.

Modern building materials such as steel and reinforced concrete are used to ad-vantage in post and lintel construction. The skeleton frame of a modem steel sky-scmper, for instance, consists of beams and columns in a three-dimensional post andlintel network, or grid.

Arch.T\e arch, which is characteristically a masonry type of construction, un-doubtedly had its origin in Mesopotamia, a land of brick buildings. Arches consistof masonry blocks in the form of a curved line. In principle, each wedge-shaped ma-sonry block cannot fall inward without pushing the others out; thus, the whole archform remains stable as long as a force is applied at the base to keep it from spread-ing. This force is called a horizontal thrust. A continuous series of arches is knownas a vault.

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To resist the horizontal thrust which exists at the base of an arch, the Romansused massive piers or buttresses. In some of the Gothic cattrearJsJich raised thearch high above the nave, flying buttresses over the side aisles were used to coun_teract the thrust.

In modern times, arch construction has been used extensively for bridges, utiliz-ing steel, wood, or reinforced concrete.

?rss. The simplest form of truss is a triangle consisting of three bars. This ele_menmry Euss form undoubtedly grew out of the use of the gabled roof for smallhouses and churches. Each element in a truss is subject to eithei tension or compres_fo.ru

i1 the simpre triangular truss, tle rafters are in compression and the tie rod isrn tenston.

It was not until the 19th century, when mathematical methods of anarysis tecameknown and iron and steel were inroduced, that trusses with a great degree of per_fection and elegance were developed. Modem fusses with a variety of configura-tiors are used to span auditoriums, armories, and convention halls, creating largecolumn-free spaces.

Cantilever. In cantirever construction, building erements are projected outwardfrom a fixed support. An earry kind ofcantirever construction was the corber. In cor_bel construction, each successive layer of stone stands out f:rther from a wall in theform of upside-down steps.

cantilevering buirding erements from a wail or other fixed suppoft permits pro_jecting part of a building beyond the ground-rever consrructron toiain'more livingarea above.

The cantirever is much used in modern buildings as a result of the avairability ofsteel and reinforced concrete. It is a simple matter in a concrete apartment buildingto create a cantilevered balcony when the balcony slab is merely a continuation ofthe interior slab. In a steer-framed buirding, beams can project beyond columns topermit the face of the buirding to be a curtain wail with Iurg" grar. -as.

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION wlhe

The construction of the homes and buildings in which people live and work hasbeen a major industry ever since early human beings first made hus of sticks, mud,and rocks. Methods of building construction have been constaniiy i.froueo s-tniethose first crude structures. Buildings are built as places of residence; for businessoffices, manlilfa-cturing, and storage; and for worship, education, and other purposes.

A building has two main parts, the substructure (the pan below ground) and thesuperstructure (the part above ground). The subbtructure is usually called the foun-dation. It includes the basement walls, even though these may extend above theground. :i""t

' -

( go*r the substructure and superstructure help to rupportih" road (weight) ofthebuilding. The dead load of a building is the total weight of all its par#-Itre live loadis the weight of the fumiture, equipment, stored material, and occupants of a build-ing. In some regions, the wind load of a building is important if the structure is towithstand storns. The snow load and earthquake shocks may also be important fac-

15 tors.

. . r, \ *ol ,-r. Foundations are the chief means of supponing a building. They carry both the.

f^v\t")". " 1 I, dead and live loads. There are three main types of foundations: (1) spread, (2) prer,

f^ ,) '::],.i, ?fld (3) pile/spread foundations are long slabs of reinforced concrere that extenrl

,ti . *\ ;:l'' beyond the outer edges of the building. Such foundations are not so firm as those

q\ \'\ " 20 based on solid rock. The footing areas in contact with the soil must be of sufficientsize to spread the load safely over the soil. Pier foundations are heavy columns ofconcrete that go down through the loose topsoil to a bed of firm rock. This b(fr mayalso be sand or gravel, or it may be firm clay. Pile foundations are long, slender col-

I umns of steel, concrete, or wood. Machines hammer them down as deep as 200 feet25 to a layer of solid soil or rock. Most skyscrapers are supported by rock foundations.

I^* -&\*I\ Beams, girders, and columns support a building much like bones support the

.* \ I - body. They form the skeleton of the superstructure, and bear the weight of the walls

i\" ,:)-' and each floor of the building. Beams and girders run horizontally. Girders are usu-

\ot ally larger than beams" Closely spaced beams are called joists, especially in wooden' 30 buildings. Widely spaced beams used to support roofs are called purlins. Beams

above window and door openings are called,tintels. Slabs are beams whose width is

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" ruogreat€r than their depth. Columns are heavy vertical supports that carry the load of + lWt,\4.'grearcr man mer. oepm. Uolumns are neavy vertical supports that carry the load of { rY" 1 ,1e{^beams and girders. Trusses are triangular supports. Arches are curved supports ttrat o1{ ).il, tusually extend over openings.

There are several types of construction. In bearing-wall construction, the wallstransmit tle load to the foundation. In skeleton construction, all loads are transmit- i.ted to the foundation by a rigidly constructed framework made up of beams, girders ov"la.rl [[and columns. This skeleton carries *re roof, walls, and floors, together with their Yl,,"i,LL.loads. Beming-wall construction is usually most economical for buildings less tt un flitlifour stories high, but skeleton construction is better for taller buildings. All buildings {c F*'^^in the skyscraper class are ofskeleton construction. b*], ,,.t"

Many parts of a building have no structural function. Nonbearing walls and cur- r,J, ",\t"tain walls carry only their own weight and serve to divide the interior of a building

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or to keep out the elements. Interior walls of this type are called nonbearing parti-tions. other nonbearing parts include windows, doors, stairs, elevators, and otherequipment. I r .. r r r. f,r

In one method of construction, called tilt-up consrru.rron,.SH"rgt!*,[tl'flare formed at ground levels. Cranes or derricks then lift theml{o position. i^ ^,,^'

l[ ,1,,.,A method called lift-slab construction may be used for positioning roof and floor &nlfur"nua

slabs. These slabs are formed with concrete at ground level, within the framework

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of the bu'dins. rhev. ar ** t*Jil".place with hvdraulic jacks. , ̂ 1,14 , I,t, un, luo{i,r

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PLANNING A BATH

Most new houses have a bath and a half or two full baths. Many houses have a

bath off the master bedroom and the second bath for the remaining bedrooms' A

four-bedroom house should have two full baths in the sleepin g area. A house built

on several levels should have a halfbath on the living level and at least one full bath

on the sleeping level. It is desirable to have a half bath near the entertainment area;

this could be the living room, family room, or a basement recreation room. As a bath

is planned, one must consider what functions it will serve. In addition to the normal

uses, it may serve as a dressing area, a laundry, exercise room, or sunbathing area.

The manufacturers of bath fixtures produce a widerange of units of various sizes.

Some bathtubs are designed to be open on only one side. Others may be open on two

and three sides. There are tubs that are almost square and fit in the comer. Tubs of

various sizes are used. They may be made of steel, cast iron, or fiberglass. The fiber-

glass unit may have the shower walls as part of it. Prefabricated shower stalls are

generally made of metal or fiberglass. They are made as a single unit and simply set

in place. Showers built on the job are often finished with ceramic tile, terrazzo, or

marble. The sizes can be made to suit the designer. Water closets are either wall-hung

or floor-standing. The bidet is placed beside the water closet. It is used for personal

hygiene. Lavatories are either wall-hung or are built into a base cabinet. The wall-

-hung tauatory requires a minimum of space. However, the base cabinet provides

storage.

A house with one bath should be planned with the bath in a central location.

When a house has more than one bath; the additional baths should be located in the

areas they ale to serve. One factor to consider is grouping the baths and possibly the

kitchen to cenualize the plumbing. Plumbing costs are reduced if second-floorbaths

are located above first-floor baths or the kitchen. However, if a more efficient loca-

tion requires additional plumbing, the location should have priority. A bath for use

by those in several bedrooms should be entered from a hall. Privacy is difficult to

maintain in a bath which can be entered directly from two bedrooms.

Bath fixtures can be arranged effectively in many different ways. A minimum

bath includes the three basic fixtures - bathtub, lavatory, and water closet - placed in

a minimum alea. Some people prefer to use a shower instead of a tub- From these30

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basic plans, other arrangements are developed. The water closet can be located in aprivate compartment. The arrangement makes it possible for two people to use ttrebath at the same time. Two lavatories cost very little extra and allow t*o p"rron, ,ogroom simultaneously. Another efficient arrangement is to place the nrb or showerand the water closet in one compartrnent.The lavatories can then be used whilesomeone else is bathing. A half bath usually contains a water closet and lavatory.when located in an area where formal entertaining occurs, it may need to be expand_ed to include an area for grooming.

A bath should be a colourful, cheerful area. Materials used must witlstand mois-ture and mold. They should be easily cleaned. ceramic tile, marble, slate, specialcarpeting, vinyl materials, plastic and silk wall coverings, and moisture-proof woodpanelling are typical examples. Fixtures come in many colours. They shbuld set thetone of tle room. The colours of other materials must be coordinated with the fixturecolour. A minor should be above the lavatory. Elecnical outlets are needed for hairdryers and elecuic razors. The automatic washer and dryer are common appliancesin today's homes. Good lighting is needed for grooming as well as for general illu_mination. It can also enhance the attractiveness of the room.

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PLANNING THE KITCHEN

The kitchen has received considerable attention from home planners. It has be-come quite mechanized and is planned with close attention to efficiency and a min-imum of walking. Kitchens are planned for food preparations, laundry aitivities, andsewing and mending. Frequently, it is combined with the family room, making amodern version of the former, large, family kitchen with sofa, television, hobbyspace, and other provisions for family activity. The kitchen serves as a snack bar,food storage space, utensil storage space, freezer room, and informal location forbuffet parties.

The basis of kitchen planning is a pattern of work flow for storing, processing,cooking and serving foods, and cleaning up after the meal. The kitchen should bearranged around three appliances - the refrigerator, cooking unit, and sink. These aresometimes referred to as the food storage centre, cooking centre, and preparationand cleanup centre. cabinets are built between these appliances to provide sto.ageand a work surface.

The food storage centre is designed to hold fresh, frozqndried, and canned food.It is located near the outside door for convenience when bringing in and storing gro-ceries. The refrigerator-freezer is the hean of rhis centre. This may be a singte ipptiance or two separate units. The freezer can be located in a less desirable locationbecause it is not used constantly. The refrigerator is used often and requires conve-nient access. There should be at least 305 mm of sountgr space beside the refrigera-tor to hold articles being taken from it. The centre inciudes cabinets to store freshvegetables, dried foods, canned goods, and bakery products.

In the cooking centre, the food is heated, broiled, baked, or fried. It is locatednear the dining area to make serving easier. The cooking units, oven, and possibly amicrowave oven form the heart of ttris area. A variety of units are available. Somehave the surface-cooking and oven as a single unit. others have separate surface--cooking units and ovens. since the surface-cooking unit is used often, it is given'qcentral location not far from the food-preparation and cleanup centre. Separare ov-ens can be placed in a less desirable location since they are not used as much. A hoodshould be planned over the surface-cooking unit to remove cooking fumes and watervapour. space for storage of cooking utensils is needed. often, small appliances,such as toasters, coffeemakers, and broilers, are used in the cooking area. Electricaloutlets must be provided.

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The preparation and cleanup centre is designed for the preparation offoods forcooking and for cleaning up the dishes and utensils after the meal. The sink is thekey uniq however, the disposal, dishwasher, and compactor are involved. The sinkis usually placed next to the food storage centre. This arrangement makes it easy toget the food from storage, prepare it for cooking, and return it to storage until timeto cook it. Some people prefer the sink to be by a window. while this is pleasant, itis not necessary. The sink can be placed on an inside wall, a peninsula, oi an islandcgb3gt The important thing is to give it a central location. some counter space oneach side ofthe sink is needed for stacking dishes or preparing foods. The dishwash-er is located next to the sink.The trash compactor is placed on the otrer side of ttresink. The disposal is placed beneath the sink. The switch to operare it should be farenough away from it so that a person could not have fingers in the unit and turn iton at the same time.

Kitchens are generally arranged in I, L, u and corridor shapes. In addition, pen-insulas and islands are useful. The I-shaped kitchen has cabinets and appliancesalong one wall. It is good for use in small houses or apartments. Needed services canbeplanned in a minimum of space. The L-shaped kitchen has cabines and appliancesalong two walls. This reduces the walking distance often found with I-shaped kitch-ens. The L-shaped arrangement leaves a large, open floor area which can be used fordining. The U-shaped kitchen has cabinets and appliances ananged on three sides ofthe kitchen area. This design effectively reduces the walking distance between ap-pliances. The corridor kitchen has cabinets and appliances on two opposite walls. Itis used when a long, narrow area is avairable for a kitchen. e peniniuta is a sectionof cabinet across the end of the kitchen that has no wall. It formi a divider to the nextroom yet is open on the top. It can be used for a sink, surface unit, food preparationarea, eating counler or any other useful purpose. An island is a section of base cab-inet that is not connected to any wall or other cabinets. It serves the same purposesas a peninsula cabinet.

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