THEHERITAGEOF INDIA SERIESGOTAMABUDDHAA BIOGRAPHY(Basedon the Canonical Books of theTheravadin)BYKENNETHJ.SAUNDERSHON. LITERARY SECRETARY,T.M.C.A.,INDIA,BURMA,ANDCEYLON.PROFESSOROFTHEHISTORYOFRELIGIONS.BERKELEY,CAL.AUTHOROF"THESTORYOF BUDDHISM,""BUDDHIST IDEALS,"EDITOROF"THEBUDDHAS WAYOF VIRTUE,""THEHEARTOF BUDDHISM."ASSOCIATION PRESS(Y.M.C.A.)5,RUSSELLSTREET,CALCUTTALONDON : OXFORDUNIVERSITY PRESS1922TheRightof Translation is Reserved.PRINTEDIN2UQ1ICONTENTSCHAP.INTRODUCTION . .. . . .. .5I. THEEARLYLIFE OF GOTAMA .... ..10II.QUESTANDCONQUEST.... ....21III. GOTAMAAT THEHEIGHTOF HisPOWER.. 394 IV.THEDAILY LIFE OFGOTAMAANDHis DISCIPLES55V. THEOLDAGE ANDDEATHOF GOTAMA . . . . 70VI. THESECRET OF GOTAMA .. .. ..82VII. GOTAMAAS TEACHER .. .. .. ..94INTRODUCTIONAFTER thelapseoftwenty-fivecenturies GotamaBuddhas influence is still amightypowerin theworld.ThatanIndianmonk,embracing povertyand the celibatelife,writingnobook,andsetting upnohierarchy,shouldsoprofoundlyswaythe destinies of a continentis one of the mostimpressivefacts ofhistory.Andthemodernworld,withitspassionatebelief inorganisation and inwealth,maylearn much from Gotama.Yethe is stillstrangelymisunderstood.11There isperhapsnopersoninhistoryinregardtowhom have arisen somany opinionsthat are eitherwhollyorpartly false," saysDr.Hopkins."In Buddhism," saysde la ValleePoussin,"it ispossibletomakebut few statements of which theopposite maynotbeaffirmedandproved."Thesesayings expressverytrulytheconfusion whichstill existsboth as to thepersonofGotama,and as tohis essentialteachingsa confusion duepartlyto thefact that there exists noearly biographyofhim,andpartlyto the still more remarkable fact thatliterarycriticism of Buddhist books has madeverylittleprogress,and that it isverydifficultto-dayto determinewhat are the authenticteachingsof the Founder ofBuddhism.In asense it isveryremarkable that noearlybiographyexists;for circumstances were ideal for theproductionof a lifelike record of Gotamas words andways.Whatthe"faithful hound"Boswellwasto Dr.Johnson,thatAnanda,"thesageof the tireless ministry," mighthavebeentoGotama;for hefollowedhim,as heclaims,"like ashadow,"and haddaily opportunitiesthroughoutalonglife of service tostudyhis6 GOTAMA BUDDHAmaster.Whydid Ananda fail to do thispricelessservice tohumanity?Dr.Oldenberg,towhomstudents of Buddhism owesomuch,arguesthat"theideaofbiographywasforeigntothemind of thatage"and thatwhere we find Gotamaportrayed,as Dr.Anesakihassaid,as"avividhumanpersonality."Withthesewemayclass suchgnomicutterances astheDhammapadaand theItivuttaka,which no doubtcontainmanyauthentic"Logia"ofGotama.The second and third areearlycanonicalworks,thoughprobablyseveralhundredyearshadelapsedbeforetheywere written down.Theycontain evidenceof theprocessof deification ofGotama, yetthere ismuchin themwhichmayberegardedasrealhistory.4. Later and less reliable is thepoeticalBuddhaCarita,composedprobablyin thereignof KanishkabyAsvaghosa,as late as A.D. 100. It is written in Sanskrit,andseemsto aim atfilling upthe details of thestoryofGotamas life until theEnlightenment.Later still is the LalitaVistara,which is alsowritten in Sanskrit and carries us down to his firstsermon at Benares. On this is based Sir EdwinArnoldspoem,"TheLightofAsia,"and scholars areagreedthat it is about as historical asMilton sParadisepoems.5. Still later is theJinaCarita,a Palipoemwrittenin the twelfthcenturyA.D.byBuddhadattainCeylon.6.Lastly, belongingto aliterary periodtwothousandyearsafter the death of Gotama is theMdlalankaraWatthu^knownbest inBishop Bigandetstranslation,TheLifeorLegendofGaudamaBuddha.In these later works theprocessof deification isalmostcomplete,and I havepreferrednot to use themincompilingthiswork.In addition to theseliterarysources we have thegreat sculpturedmonuments ofBuddhism,some of8 GOTAMA BUDDHAwhichare asearlyas thesecondcenturyB.C. and containagreatdealofmaterial forreconstructingtheIndiaofGotamasday. Strangelyenough,theyrecord manyof the incidentsinhis life whichthe modern biographermustregardaslegendary.These earliermonuments, however,whilsttheyspranguptosatisfy"thecommemorativeinstinct,"andwhilsttheyestablish thehistoricityofGotama,containnofigureofhim,but content themselveswithsymbolsillustratingthegreateventsof his life. Portraits andstatues ofhimweremadefromthe firstcenturyB.C.One of the instructions which he seems to havegiventoAnandaashelaydyingis that thepiousworshippershould visit four sacredspotsconnected withhis life : theplaceof hisbirthKapilavatthu;theplaceof hisEnlightenment Bodh-Gaya;theplaceofhisfirstsermon theGazelleParknearBenares;andtheplaceof hispassingaway Kusinagara.1Thesegreateventsare indicatedin Buddhist artbythefollowingsymbols: theElephanttypifieshisbirth,commemorating Queen Mayas dream;the Bo Treecommemorates hisEnlightenment;the Wheelsymbolizes thebeginningof hispublic ministry ;and thestupaor burialmoundhispassingintoNibbana.2Whenweseekforearly portraitsof Gotamathen,we findonly symbols.Yet traditionassignsto himwell-knownfeatures,andwefindhereand there in thebooks, e.g.in the"SongofKassapa"quoted below,indicationsof hispersonalcharacteristicswhichareconsistent with the traditional statues ofhim,and whichhelptostrengthenourconceptionof him as a sereneandgracious figure, loftyofbrow, majesticofmien,witheyesat oncelovingandsearchinga man whoconceivedhistask,aboveall,asthat of a teacher ofmorals.Hisstory,is thatof asingularly graciousand noblelife,andof acharacterwhichremindsus(albeitin fitfulglimpseswhichwegetthroughthe stiff and stilted1Mahai>arinibb_anaSutta,V, 16,22.3Thisis thePaliformofNirvana.INTRODUCTION 9passagesofthe scholasticnarrative)now ofSocrates,now of Francis ofAssisi,now,thoughlessvividly,ofsome Hebrewprophet;for Gotatna combined in hispersonapassionformoralandintellectual truth with agraciouscompassionandsimplicitywhichendearhimtoour hearts.ToDr.Oldenberg,Professor de la ValleePoussin,Dr.Rhys Davids,the BhikkuSilacara,and otherWestern scholars who have made available so muchmaterial for thisstudy,I amgladtoacknowledge myindebtedness: as also to thelongsuccessionof Easterndisciples,known andunknown,who havekepthismemory green.To Mrs.RhysDavids I owespecialthanks forpermissiontoquotesofreelyfrom herbooks.Lastly,I amindebted to theCambridge UniversityPress and to ProfessorRapsonforpermissionto usethemapcontainedin hisAncientIndia.ITHEEARLY LIFE OFGOTAMANeither mother norfathernoranykinsfolkcandotheeservicelikeawell-directedmind.Dhammapada43.BY the sixthcentury B.C.,theAryanandMongolian invadersof Indiahadestablishedthemselvesalongthelowerslopesof theHimalayas,andhadpouredintotheGangesvalley.ItwasalongthisvalleythatearlyBuddhismwastospread,andtounderstand itaright wemustknowsomethingof themingledcivilisationwhichtheyestablished.Politicallyit was like that ofearlyGreece,and thesystemsofgovernmentvaried fromautocratic monarchies toself-governingcommunities.Of the formertypewe learn fromBrahmin,Jain,andBuddhist literature that there weresixteen,and thereweremanysmallerstates,someofwhichweremore orlessfeudatoryto theirlarger neighbours,some independent.Thechiefof thelarger kingdomswere those withwhichearlyBuddhismwasmostconcerned :Kosala,correspondingto themodernOudh,with itscapitaleitherat Savatthi1or atAyodhya;Magadha,correspondingto SouthBihar,2with itscapitalatRajagaha,3andVideha, correspondingtoNorthBihar,with itscapitalat Mithila. Thesekingdomswereseparatedfrom oneanotherby rivers,theGanges dividingVideha fromMagadha,and the Sandaniradividingit from Kosala.1NowSahetMahetontheriverRapti.2Bihargetsits name from themanyViharas or Buddhistmonasterieswhichit atonetimeboasted.3NowRajgir,on whose five hillsreligiousteachers stillgathertheirbandsofdisciples.THE EARLY LIFE OF GOTAMA 11Thekingsof these countries were often related tooneanotherbymarriage ;thuswe find that BimbisaraofMagadhahadamongsthis wives the sister ofAgnidattaPasenadi of Kosala and also"theLadyofMithila."Amongsttheself-governingcommunities was thatof the Licchavinobles, livingin and aroundVesali,who,afterGotamasdeath,came under thesuzeraintyofAjatasattu;but theSakyas,Gotamas ownpeople,werealready tributaryto thekingsof Kosala. Theirchief town wasKapilavatthu,and their totalterritoryprobablycovered some nine hundredsquaremiles,partlyon theslopesof theHimalayas,andpartlyinthe rich rice fields which stretched out like agreatcarpet below, irrigated byabundant streamspouringdownfromthemountain-side,andborderedon the eastbytheRohini,and on the west and southbytheAchiravati.1It ispossiblethat both Licchavis andSakyas,like the modern inhabitants of the Tarai ofNepal,wereMongoliansand that Gotama was not ofAryanstock.2This rich and fertile land was theearlyhome ofGotamaBuddha,a land ofgreat beauty,with themightysnowrampartofHimalaya toweringaboveit,and below it the richgreenof sandal(s&l)trees andyoungoaks,andthe still morewonderfulgreenof ricefields.Hisfather sname,Suddhodana,whichmeans "PureRice," suggeststhattheywereanagricultural people;butthey belongedto theKshatriyaor warriorcaste,andtheearly legendstell of ambitiousplanswhich theChieftain had for his son. At theleast,wemayimaginethathedesiredtheboyto succeed him in the1The Achiravati is now theRapti;the Rohini retains itsancientname. TheseriversmeetnearGoruckpur,100milesnorthofBenares.2See VincentSmith,OxfordHistoryofIndia,p.49. Dr.D. B.Spoonermaintains that Gotama was of Iraniandescent.Perhapsboth these views areright,for there was much intermarriage.12 GOTAMA BUDDHAleadershipof the clan;for theSakyasseem to havebeenledbyahereditarychief,notliketheirneighbours,theLicchavis, byaNayaka,elected to thepost.Butfrom theleadershipof a clan to thepositionof"UniversalMonarch," Chakkavatti^is a farcry;andthelegendthatthiswasthedestinymarkedout for theyoungGotamamaybedismissedasunlikely.Yetit isnotimpossible ;for less than three centuries laterChandraguptaand hishouse, startingfrom smallerbeginningsand with far less ofgeniusthanGotama,achieved thispositionandduringhis lifetime thefoundations of thismighty empirewere laidbythekingsofMagadha.Howeverthatmay be,Suddhodanawasnotakingas thelegendsclaim : in somepassagesin theearlyBuddhistbookshe is calledRaja,butsoareall the Licchavi andSakyanobles;andonlyin theTheragatha commentaryis he calledMaharaja.It isagreedamongstscholars that he was one of numerouspettychieftains. Thathehad aprideof raceworthyof a Scottish laird seemsclear,and even if he hadnohigherambition than that his son should succeedhim,wemaybe sure that heregardedthis as nomeandestiny.TheverynameSakyameans"themighty"!Toillustrate theprideof these border clanswemayquoteanearly legend, probably apocryphal,whichdescribeshow,when theKingof Kosala asked for aSakyainmarriage,the chiefsgatheredin their MoteHallanddecidedthattheycouldnotlowertheirdignitybyallowingone of their freeborndaughterstomarryhim;sotheysentback thebastarddaughterof one ofthembya slave woman.1Life at the house of one of these chiefs would benotunlike thatat a Scottishcastle in the MiddleAges;notonlywas there the sameprideofrace,but therewasmuchthesamefeudalsystem,and much the same1SeeRhysDavids,BuddhistIndia,p.11. Thisinsultled,wearetold,to the sack ofKapilavatthuand the massacre of theSakyasbyVidudabhatowardsthe end of Gotamas life or soonafter hisdeath.THE EARLY LIFE OF GOTAMA 13strange wayfaringlife;scholar andminstrel,nobleandfriar, soothsayerandjester,ascetic andjuggler,wouldpassin afascinatingpanoramabefore theson ofthehouse,andaroughhospitalityawaited all.Theboywasbornprobablyabouttheyear560B.C.at apleasauncebetweenthecapitalof theSakyasandthat of theKoliyas,aclanfrom whom hismother,theLadyMaya,seemstohavesprung.Tomark the siteof thisgardenof Lumbini apillarwas erectedbytheEmperorAsoka about 244 B.C. with theinscription,"Herethe ExaltedOnewasborn."Amongstthemany legendsof his birth andearly-daysthere is one which seems reasonableenough ;ittellshowthe oldmanAsita came to see thebabe,andforetoldagreatfuture for him. Anotherlegendtellsthathismotherdiedsoonafter hisbirth,andthat itwashersister,theLadyPajapati,Suddhodanas secondwife,whobroughthimup.Hewas calledSiddhattha,thatis,"DesireAccomplished,"but hisfamilyname wasGotama,a name derived from one of the ancientfamiliesofrishis or seersof Vedictimes.1Wecanimaginethe littleboy,who seems to havebeen a son of Suddhodanas oldage, brought upwithloving care,and evenspoiled byhisdotingaunt andherwomen. Heprobablylearnedearlyanimperioushabit,andthelegendsare lavishintheirdescriptionofhispamperedchildhood andyouth: "I woregarmentsofsilk,andmyattendants held a white umbrella overme,"he usedto tell hisdisciplesin afterdays.Ashewalked out thus wemaybe sure that theboyseyesandearswerebusy!His mind would be formedvery largely bythethingshe saw in theeverydaylife of hispeople.Livinginthemidstof aruralcommunity,hewouldget1It is not clearwhya warrior clan should have had aBrahminfamilyname. SeeOldenberg,Buddha,E.T., pp.413,414. Dr.RhysDavidssays:"It is a curious fact that Gautamaisstill thefamilynameoftheRajputchiefs ofNagara,thevillagewronglyidentified withKapilavastu by Cunningham"(Buddhism,p.27).14 GOTAMA BUDDHAtoknowthe life of thevillagesdotted aboutamongstthe ricefields,and of thejungle,and thelegendsattribute tohimanearlyloveof the animals for whominlater life hewastodososignala service.Huntingwasperhapsthe chiefsportof the Kshat-riyas,and sacrificeskeptthe Brahminsbusy.Itmaywellhavebeensomevictim of the chase or of the altarthat first kindledinhimas aboythedivinecompassionwhich still makeshismemorysofragrant.Inthelong sunny daysof_summerhe wouldplay,perhapswith his cousins Ananda andDevadatta,certainlywith his friendKaludayin,the immemorialoutdoorgamesof hiscountry, chariot-races, wrestling,running, hunting,a kind of"hopscotch,"andmanyotherscommonto-dayin India;andin the wetseason,marbles, dice,chess, "tip-cat,""spillikins,"andmanymore.1Ortheywould sit and listen in theflickeringlamplightto thelegendsof ancientIndia, celebratingthedeeds of heroesandofgods ;or somevillageUncleRemus would tell them old folkloretales, manyofwhichwein theWestknowiny^sopand LaFontaine,andwhichindaystocomeGotamawasto turntogoodaccount.Stories, too,therewere of a more fearsomekind,ofghostsandgoblins,or ofred-eyed ogresseswho stole and atechildren,or let looseplaguestodevastate whole districts. And often asthey passedsomedark treetheywouldmakealittleofferingto thespirithidingthere,whomightbe in a badtemper,andwho must needs bepropitiated.Ortheywould taketheirpartintheceremonyoffeedingthehungryspirits,"Petas" whothrongedthe thresholdsoftheir oldhomes,orjibberedhungrilyat crossroads.2Thus fearplayeditspartin theirearly training,anda furthertingeofmysteryandhorrorwasaddedtoit at thesightof self-inflictedtortures,common thenas nowin India. The ascetic with his terrible1Cullavagga, I,13; Tevijja Sutta,II; Dialoguesof theBuddha,RhysDavids, II,9-11.2Cf. The Heart ofBuddhism, p.48(fromthe KhuddakaNikaya],THE EARLY LIFE OF GOTAMA 15emaciatedbodyanddistorted limbswouldmakea keenappealto theimaginationof thechild,andperhapsanindelibleimpression shapinghis after life. Of suchasceticism hespokein oldage,and hisdescriptionof what he himself enduredmaywell serve as apictureofsome Indian S&dhuwho arrested his attentionas aboy;asindeed itmightportraytheSannyastofto-dayi1"I have fedmybodyonmosses,grasses,cowdung.I haveliveduponthewildfruitsandrootsofthejungle,eatingonlyof fruit fallenfromthe trees. I haveworngarmentsofhempandhair,as also foul clouts fromthecharnelhouse,ragsfrom dustheaps.I havewrappedmyselfin the abandoned skins and hides of animals;coveredmynakednesswithlengthsofgrass, bark,andleaves,withapatchof somewildanimals maneortail,with thewingofan owl. I was also aplucker-outofhair andbeard, practisedtheausterityofrootingouthair fromheadandface. I tookupon myselfthe vowalwaystostand,never to sit or lie down. I boundmyself perpetuallytosquat upon my heels, practisedtheausterityof continualheel-squatting.A thornsidedone was I;whenIlaydowntorest,it waswiththornsuponmysides. . . ."I betookmyselfto a certain dark and dreadfulwoodandin thatplacemademyabode. And there inthedenseandfearsomeforest suchhorrorreigned,thatthe hair ofwhomsoever,notsense-subdued,enteredthatdreadplace,stoodonendwith terror."Such scenes wouldhelptoquickenhisalreadyluxuriantimagination,and to make him sensitive;mighttheynotplantinhimaphobia,which later led toaone-sided insistenceuponthesorrowandpainof life ?Butwhilst his emotionswerebeingthusstirred,hismindwasalsobeinginstructed. Wecannot doubt thathesat at the feet ofsomeIndianguruandlearnedfromhimsomethingofthe earlier Vedas and of the centralteachingsofcontemporaryHinduism.Probablyit was1DialoguesofGotama,tr.bySilacara, I,97-99.16 GOTAMA BUDDHAnotvery much,1but itgaveapermanentcast to hismind,so thatlater he neverquestionedsuch doctrinesas those of Karma(actionand itsresult)and Sam-sara(transmigration)2doctrinesprobably taughthimalmost ininfancy bythose about him in his father shousehold,andre-emphasized byhisguru,who at theageof tenorelevenwouldinitiatehim,givinghim thebow-string girdle,the madderundervest,and thedeerskinrobe of thewarrior,andinstructinghim eachyearfromJulytoOctober inVediclore.Atothertimesheandhisfriends wouldsitandlistento somewanderingscholarexpoundinghissysteminthecourtyardof thefamilyhome,andwouldnote,half-consciously,thegood-humouredtolerance with whichhiselderslistenedeventhoughtheydidnotunderstand.Andafter thegood manwasgone,hewouldjoinin thekindlyfunpokenathim,andlaughat some name suchas"eel-wriggler," "hair-splitter,"3or "weaver oftrifles"whichtheywouldcoinfor him. But the idealof a Buddha or Wise Teacher who wouldgivehispeople peacethiswould,nodoubt,be mentionedbysomemoreearnestsoul,and it seems to have found alodgingin themindof theyoungSiddhattha.OftheBrahmins,too,and of theirclaims,he wouldlearnmuch;oneviewfromhisguru,anotherfrom hisKshatriya relations,"who esteemed the Brahminhighlywhilsttheyesteemed themselves morehighlystill";andwouldspeakof them much as a mediaevalbaronin theWestmightspeakoftheclergyof hisday,good worthy folk,butnot,for the mostpart,of noblebirth. Orperhapshis father would take him to thecourt ofMagadhawhen he went topay homage,and1Dr.Oldenberg arguesthat"in thetrainingof nobles inthose lands which were butslightlyattached toBrahminism,moreattentionwaspaidtomartialexercisethan toknowledgeoftheVeda,"and that "Buddhists have not attributed Vedicscholarshiptotheirmaster"(Buddha, E.T.,p.100).2Though,as weshallsee,hewasthefirst tomaketheKarmadoctrinereasonableandethical,and heprofoundlymodified thedoctrineofSamsara.8Dialogues,137,138,THE EARLY LIFE OF GOTAMA 17here,too,he would learn that thegreat kingsdid notaltogetherrelishthegrowingpowerandclaimsoftheseBrahmins,butwereeverreadytobecomepatronsofanywho setupa rivalteaching.He would exult in thegreatrock fortress ofGiribajja,and the new town ofRajagaha,thenprobablystillbeingbuilt bothsymbolsofKshatriyadomination.Orhemayhavegoneto Savatthi or to theopulentand dissoluteVesali,whose rich nobles he laterdescribedas"like ahostofgods."It isinterestingtospeculate uponhow suchjourneyswereaccomplished.Probablytheywouldaccompanysomemerchantcaravanasitpassedalongone of thegreattrade routes of theday,routeshewastouse sooftenin thelong yearsofhiswanderingsas areligiousteacher.Wecanimaginetheboywide-eyedwithexcitement,andrevellingin thislong sunny picnicfromKapila-vatthualongthe footof themountainstotheneighbourhood ofVesali,and then south to theGangesandRajagaha.Thelong caravan,with its loaded camelsandthrongofservants,wouldpass through Kusinara,Pava,andNalanda namesfamousin afterdaysbecauseof their association with him and his Order. Of thetwolatter,onewasto become thecapitalof amightyBuddhistempire,the otherthe seatof oneof thegreatBuddhist universities.Or, they mayhavegone uponapleasantrivertripontheGangesor theJumna.1Arrivedatoneoftheroyalcities he would see thekingashe ispicturedin ancientsculpturesat Bharhutandelsewhere,seated orstandingin his four-horsechariot,andaccompanied bytheroyal elephants,thearchers,thecavalry,theinfantry,and all thebusythrongofcourtiersandcourt servants. A list of suchisgiveninanearlynarrativetellingof the visit ofKingAjatasattutoGotamasixty*years later,andasProfessorRhysDavids haspointed out, theyare all"justthesortofpeopleemployedabout acamporpalace."Inthepalace itself, probablya two-storiedbuildingwith1SeeRhysDavids,BuddhistIndia,p.103.18 GOTAMA BUDDHAanupperapartmentfor thewomenandopencourtyardsbelow,theboywould watch thegamblers dicing,andlearn how thekings got plentifulrevenue from theirwinnings.Orhewouldlisteneagerlyto thelatesttalesofsometerriblepunishmentinflictedbytheautocrat,orof some ambitiousprojectforsubduinganeighbouringstate. That thesekingswere oftentyrannicalin theextremeissuggested byseveralpassagesin the Buddhistbooks,which describe monstroustortures inflictedfor sins suchastheft,highwayrobbery,andadultery:"Then the rulers causethem to be seized and condemn them to variouspunishments,suchas,to befloggedwithwhips,sticks or switches;to have theirfeet cutoff;or to haveboth their hands and their feetcutoff;tohave their ears cut off;to have their nosecut off;or to havebothearsandnosecut off. ... Ortheyare bastedwithboiling oil,torn topiecesofdogs,impaledalive,orbeheaded;andsotheycomebydeathordeadlyhurt."1Theboywould discover,too,thegrowing rivalrybetween thegreatstates ofMagadhaandKosala,whichhasbeencalled theleading pointin thepoliticsof theday;forthekingdomofKosalahad maderapidprogress,and agreat strugglewas imminent between it andMagadha.He could nothelp learningthat the rivalkingsattachedgreat importanceto theallegianceofsuchclans as theSakyasand Licchavis;it was indeedbythehelpof the latter that thekingofMagadhaeventuallyobtainedsupremacy.Nodoubt, therefore,theboyand hiscompanionswouldbehonourablyentertained,andmadefree ofroyalhospitality;andtheywouldtake their share as befittedyoungnobles intheroyal sports. Then,asthe caravanmade itsway homewards,there would be much discussion of the rivalkingdoms,and asthey gatheredroundthecampfire atnightssomegraybeardwouldtell1Thiskind ofthingwasevendonelateronintheinterests ofBuddhismby Ajatasattuafter his conversion(DialoguesofGotama,tr.bySilacara, I, 110).THE EARLY LIFE OF GOTAMA 19of thegloriesof the Chakkavatti that idealkingwhowastorule inrighteousness, lovingandgreatlyloved.Thustheboygrewup,proudofrace,stronginbody,quickinimagination,notuninstructedinVediclearning,andalive to thepoliticaland social movements of hisday.Induecoursehe wasmarried,and entered into theresponsiblitiesof hisstation, withsomeshare, nodoubt,in the administration of his father s affairs.Perhapshenowbeganto takepartindiscussions with the wanderingsophists ; certainlyhe wasaccumulating experiencesandideaswhichdrovehimforthtobecomehimselfawandering ascetic,andeventuallya teacherpreeminentamongstthem all. The form of thegreatdiscoverywhichmadehimBuddhasuggeststhat hewasnotunfamiliarwiththemedicalsystemsof hisday,anditmaywellbethat from some courtphysiciansuch asJlvaka,whois mentioned in the books and who afterwardsministered to hisphysical needs,1he learned thecurrent theories ofdisease,and the methods of itstreatment.How best could he serve hispeople? We can imaginehimin thesedaysofearly manhood,gazingoutwithlongingover therichplainsandclusteringhamletsof his father sdomain till apassionate patriotismfilledhimwithyearningto serve thesepeoplethat he lovedandtowinforthemsomeabiding happiness.Like thecultured Indianboyofto-day,he would have idealslargeand a littlevague,apassionate aspirationbutdimlyunderstood;like otheradolescentshewaspotentiallyaknight-errant. Gradually,ashegrewto mansestate,these ideals would take form andshape.Andit isperhapsthisprocesswhichiscommemoratedintheoldlegendof avision2whichthegodssent him;vividpicturesof oldageand disease anddeath, culminatingin that of ayellow-robed Sannyasi, seekingfreedom1In avery thorough way! See SacredBooks of theEast,XVII,191.2Described inAnguttara Nikaya, I, 145,as a series of"thoughts"or "ideas."20 GOTAMA BUDDHAfromthemall.Such,atany rate,was the resolve towhichhismusings brought him,and which at theageoftwenty-nineheresolutelycarried out. A Chakka-vattitYes, perhaps,but of a kind new to hispeopleor familiar to them as the Wise Teacher Buddhawhoseswayismadepossiblebyachangeof heart andmind."Untothis I cameAndnotforthrones : theKingdomthatI craveIsmorethan manyrealms and allthings passTochangeanddeath."\Thelegendtells thatashetore himselffromthetiesofhome, messengerscame to him from his wife schamberannouncingthe birth of his little son."CallhisnameRahula,abond," he^ried,"forhereisanotherbond which I must break." India has for more than2,500yearsacclaimed this as an heroicsacrifice,muchasthe ChristianChurch,inspiteof2,000yearsofChristianity, still,for the mostpart,admires the readinesswithwhichAbrahamsetaboutofferinguphisonlyson.Yettheconscience ofto-daycanapproveneither;andshoulda visionurgethe modern father to takeeithe^-^step,hewouldrefuse to believe hissenses;for the Godwhomwehavelearnedtoknowbothin East and West,-couldnotignoretherightsofwife or child.TheyoungGotama,like the oldAbraham,was thesonofapatriarchal age,amanof histime,and is to bejudgedaccordingly.Itdoesnot lessen our venerationforhimas aman,but it mustbe set in the scales ofanyfair-mindedbiographer againstthe tremendous claimswhich hisdisciples verysoonbeganto make on hisbehalf.+>**A-IIQUESTANDCONQUEST"Whilelife isgoodtogive,Igive,and goToseekdeliveranceandtheunknownLight."TheLightof Asia."IN theprimeofmy yonth,Odisciples,a black-hairedboypassingintomanhood,againstthe willof mysorrowingparents,I shore offhair andbeard,andputtingon theyellowrobe went out fromhome,vowedhenceforwardto thewanderinglife."In thesequiet words Gotama,nowbecomeSakyamuni,theSolitaryof theSakyas,isrecordedtohavedescribedone of thegreatevents ofhistory,an eventbigwithmeaningfor untold millions. There isamongsttheAjantafrescoes anexquisite pictureof him at thisturning-pointin his life. Itbelongsto the seventhcenturyA.D. andcannotbe called aportrait ;but it isnotable for amajestyand a sorrowful tenderness thatremind us of da Vincisstudyof theyouthfulChrist.It is thus that the Buddhist world has treasured thememoryofonewho"outofcompassionformankind"enduredunspeakableausterities inseeking salvation,or freedomfromrebirth.Thespiritof thisgreatadventure is thusfinelydescribedbyFieldingHall :V Hewenttoseekwisdom,asmanyaonehasdone,lookingfor the lawsofGodwithcleareyestosee,withapureheart tounderstand,and aftermany troubles,1Itseemsprobablethatthisaltruisticmotive became articulate later;theyoungGotarna wasprimarilyconcerned withwinninghisown freedom.22 GOTAMA BUDDHAaftermanymistakes,after muchsuffering,he came atlast to the truth.\"EvenasNewtonsoughtfor thelaws ofGodin themovementof thestars,in thefallingof astone,in thestir of thegreatwaters,sothis Newtonof thespiritualworldsoughtfor the secrets of life anddeath, lookingdeepintotheheartofman,markingitstoil,itssuffering,its littlejoys,witha soul attunedto catchevery quiverof the life of the world. And as to Newton truth didnotcomespontaneously,didnot revealitself to him athis firstcall,buthadto besoughtwith toil and weariness,till at last hereached it where it hid in the heartof allthings,so it was with theprince.He was notbornwith theknowledgeinhim,but had to seek it asother men do. He wasted time and labourfollowingwrongroads, demonstratingto himself the foolishnessofmany thoughts.But neverdiscouraged,hesoughton till hefound,andwhathe found hegaveas a heritageto allmenforever,that theway mightbe easierforthemthanit hadbeenfor him."1^HewentfirsttoRajagaha,theroyalcityofMagadha,toteacherswhomitmaywellbehehadalreadyvisitedas aboy,or whosefamehadreachedhiminhis father shome."Thusvowedtohomelessnessandseekingthehighest,even thewayofpeace,I went where theascetic Alara Kalama dwelt and thus addressed him:FriendKalama,I would lead the life of a recluse asyour pupilandfollower,andvery swiftlyIlearned,Odisciples,whathehadto teach."21TheSoulof aPeople,H.FieldingHall,pp.20,21.2ThatearlyBuddhism owed much to theSamkhya systemhas beenarguedbyGarbe and others. But thesystemisprobablyof a later date : and that GotamaowedthisknowledgetoAlara Kalama isunlikely.Itis, however, significantthat theJapanese legend saysthat Alaragaveto him "two staves"whicharethemarkofasceticsoftheSamkhyaSchool.MajjhimaNikaya, I,163-65. Lakshmi Narasusays quite confidently,"Hewasevidentlya follower ofKapila,thereputedfounder of theSamkhya systemofphilosophy"(EssenceofBuddhism,2ndEdition,p.6).TheBuddha Carita(SacredBooksoftheEast, XLIX)givesafairlyfullsummaryofhisviews asreconstructedbyAsvaghosa.QUESTANDCONQUEST23Itprobablydid notamounttomuch;andtheyoungIndian noble wasalready familiar,wemaybesure,withthe currentIndiansystemsofreligion.Welearnofsixty-twodifferent schools ofthoughtinthe India ofhisday,andtheKshatriyasfrom whomhe came werekeenlyinterested in thesewandering teachers,oftenprovidingquiet placesofrefugeforthem,andalwaysglad,aswehaveseen,whentheycombated thegrowing ascendencyof the Brahmins. What was it thatAlaraKalamataughthim? Itisdescribedas the"realmofnothingness>J1andas "theeight stagesof meditation."2And that is all we know about it.Probablyhissystemwas one of asceticmeditation,and hisdoctrine that the soul can be set free from thebody.Thoughhe wasurgedto become fellow-leader withAlaraof hiscompanyofascetics,Gotama turnedaway,reflectingthat thisteaching"did not lead to thesupreme goal,butonlyto the realm ofnothingness,"and went on to anotherteacher, Uddaka,thediscipleorson ofRama,withnobetter success. So he left therockhewnhermitageson the hillsides ofRajagaha"thoroughly dissatisfied,"3and came to the town ofUruvela. "And there Ispieda beautiful andquietspotamongthe trees of theforest,with a clear riverflowing past them,and with fields andpasturelandsaroundthem.Here,thought I,is apleasantandfittingplacefor mental effort."The river seems to have been theNeranjarathemodernPhalguand here five mendicant hermitsjoined him,and with him for sixyears practisedsuchextreme asceticism thattheywere worn to skin andbone. AGraeco-Indianstatue ofGandhara,terrible initsrealism,showsthegreatteacher at the limit of hisstrength,and he seems himself to have left a word-picturewith hisdisciples:"Like wasted witheredreedsbecame allmylimbs,like acamel s hoofmyhips,1Ibid.3Jdtaka, I,65-69.3Discourses ofGotama,tr.by Silacara, II,99(fromtheMajjhimaNikaya}.24 GOTAMA BUDDHAlike awavyropemybackbone,andasin aruined housetheroof-tree raftersshowallaslope,soslopingshowedmyribsbecauseof theextremityoffasting.As in adeepwellthewaterygleamfarbelow isscarcelyto beseen,so inmyeye-sockets,thegleamofmy eye-balls,farsunken, well-nigh disappeared,and as a severedgourduncookedandleftout in the sun becomes rottenandshrunken,sohollowandshrunken became the skinofmyhead. WhenI touched the surface ofmy bellymyhand touchedmy backbone,and as I strokedmylimbs thehair,rotten at theroots,cameawayinmyhands."1Suchheroic measures are not uncommon inIndia,andhadGotamasuccumbed to them it would beonlyone more added to thelongtale of her self-immolations. He almost didsuccumb,so that messengershurriedto Suddhodanato tell him that his sonwasdead. Butwith|splendidsanityhe realised at theeleventh hour that self-torture was not the road toEnlightenment,thathehadbeen"tryingto tie the airinto knots."2Thoughit meantparting companywithhisdevoteddiscipleswholeft him"when he was mostin needofsympathy,"he took food and returned to amore normalwayof life.*He ceased to be atapasa(self-torturer)and became aparibbajaka (wanderer).The books attribute toMara,the EvilOne,alongingwhichnowassailedhimtoreturnto wife and child andtoresumeatrulynormallife.Attheendof these six terribleyears,of which wehave no detailedknowledge,thegreat dayof hisEnlightenmentwas at hand.Turningaside to agreatgroveof trees closebythe river(the placeis nowcalledBodh-gaya),hesleptin thisshade, defeated,discredited,and abandoned;andtheretruthcametohim.Whilsthewasmusingthe fire kindled: albeit a firewithmorelightthanheat! Ona clear stilleveninginthe month ofMay,at the time known in India as"cowdust,"whenthe air isgoldenandthe heat of thedayhasbeguntoabate,he sat at the foot of the1Ibid.,p.104.2Jataka, I,67.QUESTANDCONQUEST25bo-tree1and, settinghisteeth,once more made aresolution which afterwards he commended to hisfollowers:"Though skin, nerves,and bone shouldwasteaway,andlife-blood itself be driedup,here sit Itill I attainEnlightenment."The sun had not setbeforevictorywaswon,and the intuition which is thegospelof Gotama Buddha had dawned on his mind."Whenthisknowledgehadarisen withinme,myheartand mind were freed from thedrugoflust,from thedrugofrebirth,from thedrugofignorance.Inme,thusfreed,aroseknowledgeandfreedom,and I knewthat rebirthwasat anend,and that thegoalhad beenreached."2Therebrokefromthelipsof the seeker asongofvictorywhich still stirs adeepchord inus,andis oneof thegreatpaeansofreligiousliterature :"Manyahouseof lifeHathheldmeseekingeverhimwhowroughtTheseprisonsofthesenses,sorrow-fraught ;Sorewasmyceaseless strife !Butnow,Thoubuilderofthistabernacle Thou!I knowthee ! NevershaltthoubuildagainThesewalls ofpain,Norraisetheroof-treeofdeceits,norlayFreshrafters ontheclay ;Brokenthyhouseis,andtheridge-polesplit:Delusionfashionedit !SafepassI thencedeliverancetoobtain."8Thussereneandjoyfulhesat,as the brilliant Indianmoonrose,andthestarscameout,and wood and riverwerebathed in silverlight.His mental state is welldescribedin theLegendoftheBurmeseBuddha."Mental exertion and labour were at an end.Truthin itseffulgentbeautyencompassedhismind andshedover it thepurest rays.Placed in that luminous1TheFicusReligiosas,nexquisiteand muchlovedtree,atoncemajesticanddelicate.Accordingtoanotheraccountit wasatdawnthathebecameBuddha.aMaha-saccakaSutta : DiscoursesofGotama,E.T., I,107.8Dhammapada,153-54. Sir Edwin Arnolds translation.The "builder" is of course Tanhacraving,which builds andrebuilds"thehouseoflife,"i.e. thebody.26 GOTAMABUDDHAcentre,Phra1saw allbeings entangledin the web ofpassions,tossed over theragingbillows of the sea ofrenewedexistences, whirlingin the vortex of endlessmiseries,tormentedincessantlyand wounded -to thequickbythestingofconcupiscence,sunk into the darkabyssofignorance,the wretchedvictims of anillusory,unsubstantial,and unreal world. He said then tohimself : In all theworldsthere is noone but ssewho,j^knows how to breakthroughthe web ofpassions,tostill the waves that waftbeingsfrom one state intoanother,tosave them from thewhirlpoolofmiseries,toputan end toconcupiscenceand break itssting,toVdispelthemist ofignorance bythelightoftruth,andtherebylead them to the true state of Neibban.Havingthusgivenvent to thefeelingsofcompassionthatpressedon his benevolentheart, Phra, glancingover futureevents, delightedincontemplatingthegreatnumberofbeingswhowould avail themselves ofhispreachings,and labour to free themselves from theslaveryofpassions.He counted the multitudes whowouldenter thewaysthat lead to thedeliverance,andwouldobtaintherewards to beenjoyed bythose whowillfollowoneofthoseways."2Inaword,he had attained an ecstaticjoy,thejoyofvictoryafterlong struggle,ofinsightafterlonggroping,andprobablyof altruism afterlongsearch forself-emancipation."Insight arose, ignorancewas dispelled;darkness was doneawayandlightdawned.There satI, strenuous,aglow,andmasterofmyself."Gotama hadbecome anArahat?seeing clearly,hebelieved,thewaytoputanendtorebirth,andconsciousthat hisownrelease fromrebirthhadcome.1Phra is one of the Burmese titles forGotama,who iscalled GaudamainBurma.2Pp.98,99.3Maha-saccakaSuttainMajjhima Nikaya: adialoguewiththeJaincontroversialistSaccaka,whichendswith ahightributetoGotamas calmness and to the coherence and clearness of hisargumentascomparedwithrivalpreachers.4I.e. one whohadsnappedthe bonds of rebirthby lonely-effort,attainingfreedomfromsufferingand lust.QUESTANDCONQUEST27The content ofreligious experienceis inlargemeasure determinedby upbringingand environment.Thepeaceand coolness of thatquietscene became tohimforeverassociatedwiththegreat spiritual victoryhehadwon;andhehadnodoubtpondereddeeplysuchcurrentsayingsof hispeopleasthegreatprayerof theSatapathaBrahmana: "From darkness lead me tolight:fromdeath to life."It is fromthis source thatheseemsto have derivedthe termsSamana,which describes the ascetic recluse-life hehadbeenliving,andArahat,which describes thestate ofemancipationwhich he had now reached. Heclaimsaccordinglythat he hadpassedfrom heat tocoolness,fromdarknesstolight,andfromdeath tolife,orimmortality ;and the wordAmata,ambrosia ordeathlessness,became asynonymfor Nibbana. Wecannotdoubttherealityof thisexperience;for thejoyandfervour of it senthimout on alife-longmissiontohispeople,and the achievements oftwenty-fivecenturies of Buddhismarebaseduponit.WithGotamasinterpretationof it it is not soeasytoagree.Whatdidhemean byNibbana? Noquestion,even inBuddhism,hasbeensovariously answered,andBuddhists,evenofthe orthodox Theravadatradition,ofBurma andCeylon,are to thisdaydivided betweenthreeinterpretationsi11.Completeextinctionofbeing ;2. Extinction of the fire oflust, anger,andinfatuation;3. Ahavenof bliss.It is notthepartof abiographerto dealfullywithlaterdevelopmentsof his hero steachings:but it isclearlyhisdutytoattempta statement of what socentral adoctrine seemsto havemeantto its author.In the firstplaceit must beemphasizedthatQotamahadhisowndoctrine of thenature of the self;theunique thingin hispsychologyis the doctrine ofAnatta. He considered the self to be a stream of1ForafullerdiscussionseeAppendixII.28 GOTAMA BUDDHAconsciousness(Vinnana}of which successive momentsare related to oneanother,andyetdiffer from oneanother"flashpointsofintelligence, cinema-films,thaumatrope figureswelded into anapparent unity."JThus,whilst he took over the current belief of hispeopleintransmigration,heprofoundlymodifiedit,teachingthatnosuchthingas the"soul"exists in thislife,but that it and successive lives arepartof acontinuous stream;and that the individual who is"reborn" is therefore neitherthesameas theonewhopreceded him,nor is heanother;he is in factpartof astream whose direction is determinedpartly by past,partly by present activity,Kamma. Kamma is whatdetermines rebirth: \tisKamma alone which"passesover." Thisteachingwe shall have to consider inmore detaillater,but it must begraspednow ifGotamas doctrine ofNibbanais tobeunderstood.Inthe secondplaceit mustbeemphasizedthat evenin thishighanddifficultregionGotama was "a son offact" and a teacher of morals. When hespokeofNibbunahewastryingtodescribe hisownexperience,and, beingamoralteacher,he strove to describe it inethical terms. Whatheintendedtoholdupas thegoalwasanexperiencewhich hehimself hadknown,and ofwhich the main characteristics werejoyandpeace.Thedyingout ofTanha, cravingthat was Nibba.ua.Hissense of thesupremevalue of thisexperiencewasthespurwhich drove him on to a life ofunremittinglabour;he was convinced that he hadsomethingtoimpart,for lack of which hispeoplewereperishing.Hecalls himself Buddha theEnlightened ;Jina theVictor;and"Vira"theHero;all inamoralsense;but "his favourite name for himself henceforward isTathagatahewhohas reached thegoal ;2and it wasto thisgoalthat he wasalways urging others,agoalonlytobereachedbymoraleffort,asummumbonumofwhich the characteristics arecalmness, insight,and1BuddhistPsychology,C.A.F.RhysDavids,p.14.aUsuallytranslated"Blessed One."QUESTANDCONQUEST29serenejoy,the end of thesoliciting^ofcraving^Tothephilosophicalitmightsuffice totalk ofthecessationof the fluxofbeing;but thiswouldnotdo forordinaryfolk."Coolnessand rest" these are the attractionswhichit offers to thelaity.IAs the fierce Indian sunmakesthe tiredbodylongfor rest in some coolshade,so to thespirittiredbythelong struggleof countlesslives,and tormentedby desire,Nibbana offers an"alluringvision" of rest andcoolness.^Howfarawaythis austere andsimpleideal seemsfromtheelaborateanddifficultexplanationsofBuddhistscholasticism! Whether Gotamahimself,forced intothe arenabyrivalteachers,wasobligedto use theweaponsofmetaphysicis notclear,butit seemscertainthat he cannot have left histeachingabout Nibbanaquitesonaively simple.Theearlybookscertainlymakeit clear that it wasonlywithin certain well-defined limits that heindulgedinmetaphysical explanation."Onething onlydo Iteach, Omonks,sorrowand theuprootingof sorrow ":that issurelyan authentic word of theteacher,whichdefines the limits of hispurposeand is the centralthingin his ethics. When the monkMalunkyaputtagrumbledbecausehe had not answered suchquestionsaswhetherthegoodmancontinues toexist afterdeath,andthreatenedtoleavetheSangha,Gotamaasked himmildly:"Whenyou joinedourcompanydid Iagreeto elucidate suchpoints,or didyouask for such elucidation?" and closed the discussion with thedrycomment:Anyonewho shouldsay,I will not lead thereligiouslife under the Blessed One until heexplainsall thesepoints well,hewoulddiebeforehegotthatexplanation."2Inotherwords,\heinsists thathis offertomenis toheal theirmoraldisease,not tosatisfytheir1Mutti, deliverance,andSanti,peace,are favouritesynonymsforNibbana;andSihibhuto, cooled,is afrequent epithetoftheArahat.2Majjhima Nikaya,I426,quoted byde la Vallee Poussinin his HibbertLectures,TheWaytoNirvana,perhapsthe besttreatmentofthewholesubjectyetpublished,30 GOTAMA BUDDHAintellectualcuriosity.1But within this circumscribedarea he does seem to havedevelopedapsychologicaldoctrine of the self thedoctrine ofAnatta andtothisextenttohave satisfiedmenscuriosityaboutNibbana.Whentheypressedhimas to to whetherannihilation ofgreed,hatred,andlustcarriedwith it annihilationoftheself,he seems to have answered: "Itdepends uponwhatyoumeanbytheself. Ifyoumean some sort ofsoulapartfrom theaggregatesor Khandhaswell,no suchthingexists in this life. Ifyoumean theprocessofbecoming,the stream of metal throbs withTanha and Kamma as itsliving core,then that iscertainlyannihilated in Nibbana. Sabba anatta;allthingsare withoutany underlyingself or soul.Howcan thatbe annihilated which has never existed?It is Tanhawhichgivesthedelusionofexistence. Howshall that notbe annihilated which is the source of allour sorrow?"In otherwords,we cannot describeNibbanauntilwehavemasteredthe true nature of theself;andthere is noself in the usual sense! Even sowecandescribeNibbanabestby negatives! It is theabsence of evil : no less it is the absence of toil andheatandsorrow.2Thefirststepis togetridofwrongnotions ofself,and from this there will follow theconquestofegoismandthe attainmentofpeace.3ProfessordelaValleePoussin does not hesitate tosaythat Gotamataughtonethingto theelect,andanotherthingto thesimple.Hemaintains that to theelecthewasfranklya rationalistteachingannihilation,andgivesusthefollowinginstructive simile :1OnatleastfourpointsGotamarefused todogmatize:1. Is theworldeternal?2. Isit infinite?3. Arebodyand soulidentical ?4. DoestheArahatexist after death?Buddhism became more and more a"middleway"betweendifferentmetaphysicalpositions.2Cf. Section XVoftheDhammapada.3 "I see no othersingle impediment,Omonks,which sohindersmankindastheimpedimentofignorance.. . . Allmisfortunesarerooted inignoranceandcraving"(Itivuttaka,14-40).QUESTANDCONQUEST31"A Buddha is atiger,or rather atigress.Thistigresshastotransporthercub,andaccordinglytakesit intohermouth;she holds it between her double setof teeth. But for theteeth,the cubwould fall;but ifthe teethwere tobetightly closed,it wouldbecrushed,Inthe samewayaBuddhasavesbeings,transportsthemacross the ocean oftransmigration, bytheparalledteachingofpermanenceandimpermanence,Self andSelflessness,bliss ofNirvana,and annihilation in Nirvana.Permanence, Self,bliss of Nirvana: somanyfalsehoods. Usefulfalsehoods: but forthemonewouldgive upthereligious trainingtowardsdeliverance.Impermanence, selflessness,annihilation: somanytruths.Dangeroustruths like aserpentwith ajewelin its hood : itrequiresa clever hand to take thejewel.In the samewayfew men are able to avoidbeingcrushedbythese sublime and terrible truths.Selflessnesswronglyunderstood would lead to thewrongview that there is no survival;thedoctrineof annihilation in Nirvana wouldoriginate despairordistrust."Therefore, Sakyamunihasbeen obscure on thesepoints,and did not avoid somecontradictions; and,when aninquirerwas boldenoughto ask for aplainanswer,heplainlyanswered: You shall notknow.Cela nevousregardepas"1I amnotpreparedtogoas far asthis,for Ibelievethatheremainedto theendof his life anagnosticas towhatfull Nibbanareally meant,satisfied himself withhisownmoralexperience,andconvincedthat to all hispeopletherewasanexperience sufficientlyvital andrealtocarrythem on into thatBeyond,whose nature it isimpossibletodescribeexceptinnegativeterms,becauseit will be likenothingwhichwehaveknowninthislife.Asalover finds itimpossibletodescribe theinwardnessof hisexperiencetoanyexceptonewho has sharedit,so Gotama musthavestriven in vaintomakeNibbanaalivingrealitytotherankandfile ofhispeople.They1TheWaytoyirvana,p.137,32 GOTAMA BUDDHAfor theirpartnodoubtinterpretedhisteachingaccordingto their ownpreconceptionsand needs. That isthe fate of allgreatteachers. Doubts as to thepossibilityofenlighteningthem were his firsttemptation.Duringamonthofmeditationwhichfollowed hisgreatexperience,the Devil assailed him in the form ofdepressionanddoubt,whether what he had sohardlywoncouldbehandedonto aworld which wouldsurelyfind these lessons both difficult and distasteful.1IntechnicallanguageGotamawastemptedto remain aPaccekabuddha(aBuddhafor hisownsake)rather thanto become a Sammasambuddha(universalBuddha,teaching all).LikeElijahhe was overwhelmed witha sense of loneliness anddejection,but to him alsotherecamea still smallvoicewhichnervedhimfor hishightask.The records tell us that Brahma himself cametoreassurehim,andto rekindlehisdeepcompassionforhumanity."Open,Owiseone,thedoorofEternityPreach,Othoustainless,thetruththouhastfound.Thouwhoartsorrow-free,preachto thesorrowing,Standingaloft letthemhearthegladsoundI"Certainit is thathebracedhimselffor thetask,andsetoutcalmandconvinceduponhisgreatmission.ThatGotamathus"hadcompassionon the world"andcamedownfromthe"terracedheightsofwisdom"tohelpthose"toilingontheplans"is in itselfenoughtojustifytheBodhisattva idealwhichcamegraduallytosupersedethat of theArahat.2Hesoughtfirst his old teachers atRajagaha,butfoundthattheyweredead,and then walked 100 milesor more in anorth-westerlydirection to Benares in1Mahavaggar 1,5,2. For Marastestimonyto Gotamasfaultless behaviourduringthe sevenyearsthat hedoggedhisfootsteps,seeSacredBooksoftheEast, XII,71.2This is the chief difference between the Theravada orearlyandtheMahayanaorlaterBuddhism. Thelattermaintains,notunreasonably,that Gotama was more Bodhisattva thanArahat,i.e. that altruismwasstrongerin him than self-culture,QUESTANDCONQUEST33orderthat his fivedisciples, purifiedbylongasceticism,mighthavethe firstopportunityoflearningthegoodnews. OnhiswaytheJainasceticUpakamethimandthus addressed him:"Placid and serene isthycountenance. Who isthyteacher?" To whom herepliedintheseverses :"All-conqnerorI,knowerofall,Fromeverysoil andstainreleased,Renouncingall,fromcravingceased,Self-taught ;whomshouldIMastercall ?ThatwhichIknowI learnedofnone,Myfellow is notontheearth.OfhumanorofheavenlybirthToequalmethereis notone.Itrulyhaveattainedrelease,TheworldsunequalledteacherI.Aloneenlightenedperfectly,I dwellineverlastingpeace.NowtoBenaresTownIpressTosetthe Truth-wheelwhirlinground.In this blindworld IgotosoundThethrobbingdrumof deathlessness.""Itmaybeso, friend,itmaybeso,"said thesceptical Upaka,and went on hisway.For he hadbeentaughttolookuponVardhamanaas the trueJina,orconqueror,andthis"Wheel"ofGotamas makes abigclaim.1Afterwanderingfromplacetoplace,Gotama cameto Benares. The five monks saw himcomingandagreedamongthemselves to snub him as arenegade,but his radiant countenance and the serenedignityofhisbearingwonthem over. He bade them nolongeraddresshimas"friendGotama"butasTathagata,andhebegantoinstructthem,givingto them theteachingknownasDhammacakkappavatanaSutta"Therollingof the victorious wheel" or "Theestablishingof theKingdom"as it is sometimes renderedbyWestern1Discourses ofGotama,tr.Silacara, II,14. Other recordsmakeUpakaa BrahminoranAjivika.34 GOTAMA BUDDHAwriters.1The "Discourse of the MiddleWay"wouldbetterexpressits contents. Wehaveonlyan abbreviated version ofit, disappointingin itsdry brevity,andhardly worthyof the occasion. It was a notableone!"History,"it has been wellsaid,"knows nochapterssobeautiful and noble as those which tell ofthecomingof thegreat prophetsand founders ofreligionstothe menoftheirtime. ThestoryofIsaiahinJerusalem,of Socrates inAthens,of Zoroaster on theuplandsofIran,of Gautama in the deerparkofBenares on all theseimmortalstories there liesalightbeyondthelightof time.Theytell howgreatnewthoughtsof the eternalthingscametomenthroughthehumanmediumofanoblepersonality,howlikemagnetstheydrew to the new teacher the flower of the nobleyouthof thetime,whofollowedtheMaster"Learnedhisgreatlangauge,caughthis clearaccents,Madehimtheirpatterntoliveandtodie."Theyoneand all tell also of thegreat rightsofthespiritthatfollowed the adventof the new teacher.Allthingsare atodds,saidEmerson,when Godlets a new thinker looseupontheplanet."2SuchwasGotama,and it isclear,inspiteof themeagrereports,that he had a new andstirring messagetodeliver,and that it constrained andupliftedhim. Itwas in this exalted mood that hepreachedhis first"sermon."It wasclearlyborn of his own heroicexperience,andin it he sets forth hisreligionas a Golden Mean.As alyre givestherighttoneonlyif thestringisstretched neither toomuch nor toolittle,so is it withthe life of man. So hetaughtthemlater,when his1"To setrollingtheroyalchariot wheel of a universalempireof truth andrighteousness"is Dr.RhysDavidsrendering (Buddhism,p.45).In his Hibbert Lectures Dr,Davids has shownvery convincinglythat Gotama fulfilled theChakkavattiideal, yettranscended and sublimatedit,much asJesusdidthat of theMessiah.2D. S.Cairns,The Reasonableness of the ChristianFaith,p.167.QUESTANDCONQUEST35mindhadhadtimetoworkuponhisexperience.Nowhegavethem thefollowing keyto truth: "Twoextremes arethere,Obrethren,which the reclusemust avoidthe life ofpassionand ofsensualityonthe onehand,a low andpagan way, ignobleandprofitingnothing,andon the other handself-tortures,which is alsoignobleandunprofitable,as well asverypainful.Thepathwhich I have discovered is apathwhichopenstheeyes, givesunderstandingand leads topeace,toNibbana. It is the NobleEight-FoldPath."Hethengoesonto tellthemof the FourNobleTruths,inwhichhetraces theoriginofsufferingtocravingforsuchthingsasgratificationof the senses or forthejoysof life afterdeath,or forprosperityin this world;andshows howsufferingcanonlybeput awayif suchcravingis first killed out. It is to attain thisgoalthat"nobleyouthleavehomeandgoforth to the homelesslife,and thewayto it is the MiddlePath,"/.*?,the"NobleEight-Fold Path," RightViews,Right Aspirations, Right Speech, Right Conduct, RightMeans ofLivelihood,RightEffort,RightMindedness,andRightRapture.Ofthis sermonProfessorRhysDavids has written :1Thereis notawordabout God or thesoul,not aword about the Buddha. It seemssimple,almostjejune ;sothinandweakthat one wonders how it canhaveformedthe foundationfor asystemsomightyinits historical results. But thesimplewords arepregnantwithmeaning.Theirimplicationwas clearenoughtothe hearers to whomtheyare addressed."1Yetwecannotbutwishthat somefuller record hadcomedownto us.Thoughthesewordscameout oftheheartof thegreatexperience,andtherefore,meagreasthey are,carried conviction to the five who hadsuffered allthingswithhim,yetone cannot doubt thatGotamaspokemorefully andwithawealthofillustrationandcommentwhichhasnotbeenpreserved.And thisis true ofmanyof his discourses which arereportedto1EarlyBuddhism,p.53 .36 GOTAMA BUDDHAhave hadan immediateresponsein the"conversion"of his hearers."Religioniscaughtrather thantaught"andit wasoften thecontagionof his ownjoyrather than the substance of histeachingwhich wontheirallegiance.Weare topicturehimcalm andserene,with a noteoftriumphandjoywhich was its own bestapologetic.Countless statues ofhim,conventionalised nodoubt,showhimstandingor seatedthus,teachingwiththecertaintyandprecisionof amodernteacher ofscience,andoccasionallyone is to be foundwith thequizzicalsmileof a Socrates. To those whoarguedheprovedaremorselessantagonist,but mostcapitulatedwithout astruggle,charmedbyhiswinsomenessandconvincedbyhislogic,ormoreoftenbyhisanalogies.Hisgreatdiscoveryseemstobeanapplicationofthecurrentmedicaltheoryof hisdayin the moralsphere,and it carriedimmediate conviction. In fact it seemssosimpleas tobealmostaxiomatic: if thereissufferingthere is acause forit;togetat the disease we mustgetat its cause.Sufferingis causedby cravingof awrongsort : togetrid of thiscravingwe mustbusyourselveswithrightmoralconduct.Thesecond"sermon"is saidtohave beendeliveredfourdays later,to the same fiveascetics,and is called"TheAnatta-lakkhanaSutta"^ It took them astagefurther : andtheybecameArahats,firstKondana,andlater the other four. This sermon sets out to combatthe "soul" theories of theordinaryman. Mendesirewronglybecausetheythinkwrongly.The firststagein the Path isright thinking.Gotama shows howemancipationcomesthrough right thinking;let themapplyto the "soul" or "self" aprocessofanalysis:theywillfind that it is madeupof somanyqualitiesandcharacteristics,somanysensationsandpreceptions,andtherefore has no realbeingthat we should desire tobereborn."Thinkyou, Omonks,that form ispermanentortransitory,or thatsensation, perception,isper-1Vinaya,I,14; SamyuttaNikaya, III,66,QUESTANDCONQUEST37manentortransitory?" "Theyaretransitory,"repliedthe five. "And of that which istransitoryandevil,andliable tochangecan it besaid,4This ismyself,mysoul?"Nay,trulyitcannotbesaid,thefiveargued.Inthiswayheproducesin hisdisciplesafeelingof disgustorcontempt."What is the self but a bundle ofattributes ?"Hereplacestheemotionofdesireforlifebytheemotionofdisgust.Thismethodwascarried toa fine art as thesystem developed,until meditationingraveyardsanduponskeletonsbythewaysideisrecommendedasareadymeansofsecuringsuch detachment and aloofness from thethingsof sense as willleadonto freedom.Is it notthemereskeleton of a sermon which hascomedownto us? But the "thirdsermon,"preachedto thelaycommunityonamountain-side nearGaya,ismorelikepreaching,and less like a classroom lecture;possiblybecausetheaudience now consisted of certainyoungnobles,andothers,mostlytheinstructed"monkswithmattedhair,"orJatilas,fire-worshippers,whohadadded themselves to hiscompany,andneededdifferenthandling.Theoccasionof it wasaconflagrationwhichbrokeout in thejunglesas theteacherwasseatedwithhisdisciples"on theElephantRock nearGaya,withthe beautifulvalleyofRajagahastretched out beforethem."3It is known as the"FireSermon,"Aditta-pariyayaSutta,andis one themosttypicaland famousof Buddhistutterances :"Allthings,Omendicants,areaflame,theeyeisaflame,formsareaflame, impressionsreceivedbytheeyeare aflame;andall sensations thatarise fromtheseimpressionsreceivedthroughtheeyeare aflame. Andwhat is theflame ? It is theflameoflust,ofanger,andof infatuation; birth,oldage,death,mourning,anddespair;all are set on fire with thisflame."Sohegoes on, takingthe other senseorgansin turnandincluding the mind amongstthem, showingthatallthe1MaMvagga,I,21.(Forthe full text of the sermon seeWarren,BuddhisminTranslations, pp.351-53.)38 GOTAMA BUDDHAworld is a conflagration,tillheleadshis disciplestodisgustfor senseimpressionsand to detachment from desire.11Sois thediscipleshorn ofdesire,so is hefreed,andsoheknowsthathe is free;heknowsthat theprocessofbecomingis at anend,that he has attained to thepure life,that hehasdonewhathadtobedone,and hasputoffmortalityfor ever."3Thisandsimilarpreaching wassosuccessfulthatthenumberof Arahats grewveryrapidly.Notall werelikethe teacherand the five ascetics who afterlongstrivingfound release : apartyofyoungnobles who wereveryworldlywereconvertedenblocastheyweresportingin theforest,andsoonthereweresixtyArahats.Theseafter aperiodof instructionGotamasent outonapreachingtour:*Goforth,hesaid,ona journeythat shall be for thegoodofmanyand for theirhappiness. Goforth incompassiontowardstheworldforthewealofgodsand men. Go forth inpairs,but to eachhis ownwork. Teachthe beneficent Law;reveal theholylife tomen blindedwith thedust of desire.Theyperishfor lackofknowledge.Teachthemthe Law."2Wemay questionthissendingof men sorecentlyconverted. ButGotamaseemstohaverealisedthattheyoungconvertneedssomeexercise of thewill,andthatthere is nosurerwayoftestingone s beliefs thanbyattemptingto teach them tosimplefolk. And themoreimportant partof theirmessagewas a call torighteouslivingwhichit needednosubtletyof mindnorany traininginmetaphysicto understand. If themassescouldnotunderstandNibbana,theycouldatanyrate set outupontheEight-FoldPath. And whoshouldteach them soappealinglyasfellow-voyagerswhobelievedthattheythemselveshadfoundbothchart andcompass?1RhysDavids,Buddhism,p.59. Mrs.RhysDavidsprefersto translate Tanhaby"craving";Iagree.2Samyutta Nikaya, I,105. In Sacred Books of theEast,XIII, 112,it is stated thattheyweresent out"onebyone."IllGOTAMAATTHEHEIGHTOF HIS POWERThefragranceoftherighteoustravels farandwide.Dhammapada54."Hisprogresswasatriumphofgladness."E.W.Hopkins.THATtheteachingofthe first Buddhistmissionarieswaseagerlywelcomed seems clear;fortheywerefilled withjoyandconviction,and the times werefullyripefor the moralteachingthattheyhad togive.Ithas been contended that it waschiefly amongstthenobilitythat thisteachingfoundacceptance,and thereasonhasbeensuggestedthatthewarriorsandrajasofthedaygavethenewreligionareadyhearingbecause itwassetupinoppositionto theBrahmins,and becausethey recognisedin Gotama one of themselves. "Hespoke," says Hopkins,"toglad hearers,who heardrepeatedloudlynowas areligioustruthwhatoftentheyhad saiddespitefullyto themselves inprivate"i1andProfessorOldenbergfindsinearlyBuddhism a decidedpredilectionfor thearistocracy.2Nodoubtthesewereelementsinthe success of thenewreligion,but it was at heart a democratic movementand it wasnotessentiallyanti-Brahmin: into theSanghaBrahmins, kings,warriors,cultivators,andmenandwomenoflowcaste,andof nocaste,wereequallywelcomed.3,Preachingwas in the vernaculars of Ma-1Hopkins,Religionsof India, p.304.2Oldenberg,Buddha,E.T., p.157.3Mahavagga,I,15.40 GOTAMA BUDDHAgadhaandKosala,andlayfolk could understand muchofiti^The two firstlay discipleswereTapussaandBhallika,merchants;andUpali,abarber of the courtoftheSakyas,wasveryearlyordainedandattainedapositionofleadershipintheSangha.Heis indeedcreditedwith themainshare incompilingtheVinayaor code ofdisciplinefortheneworder.Amongstthe first converts were three brothersKasyapa,1fire-worshippersorJatilas,and two othersdestinedtobecomeleaders :SariputtaandMoggallana,bothBrahmins,whilstAnandaandDevadattawerebothof the warrior caste;sothatevenin its inner circle theSangha wasfairlyrepresentative.Thefactthat GotamahimselfpromotedSariputtaandMoggallanatopositionsofleadership suggestshowfarhewas fromdesiringtoorganisean anti-Brahmincampaign.Yet there is noquestionabout the frankness with which he dissectedandridiculedBrahminclaims tosupremacy.Thetraditionalstoryof the conversionof these twofriendsseemsprobableenough. Theywerewanderingascetics, disciplesofSanjaya,and hadpromisedoneanotherthathewho should first find salvation(AmataorAmbrosia)would tell the other. Oneday SariputtasawAsajji,oneof Gotamas first fivedisciples,on hisbeggingground;struckbyhis noble andcalmbearing,heaskedhimwhowashisteacher,andwhathetaught."There is agreat sage,a son of theSakyas,who hasgoneforthto the homeless life;he ismy teacher,andit is hisdoctrine Iprofess,"saidAsajji,andquotedthisverse :"ThatallthingsfromacausearesprungThishaththeTeachershown:Howeachshall toitsendingcomeThistoohehathmade known."OnhearingthisSariputtaattained"to thepureeyeforthe truth"or,in otherwords,was converted to theBuddhistfaith ! Thatthe universe isorderlyand that2Cf.Majjhima Nikaya,AssaldyanaSutta andTevijjaSuttaofDighaNikaya,bothquotedin fullbyDr.T.RhysDavids,Hib-bertLectures,II.GOTAMAATHEIGHTOFHISPOWER 41there is akeyto itsworkingsthis is tomanyminds agospelindeed. Hehurriedoff toMoggallana,told himthathehadfoundAmbrosia,andtheywerebothadmittedto the Order.1About a week afterwardsMoggallanadozedwhenheshouldhavebeenmeditating,andGotamadrilyreminded him that"Torporis not the same asAryansilence."2Butthetwofriends maderapid progress:they becamepillarsofthe Sangha;and somepartsofthe Abhidhamma,thescholasticsectionofthe Buddhistbooks, are,I thinkunjustly,attributed to them.3Anothergreatconvertof theseearly dayswasMahaKassapa, who,like hismaster,hadgiven upa beautiful wife andapositionof wealthandinfluence to seek awayof salvation;it is he who is recorded to havecalledthe first BuddhistCounciltogetherafter Gotamasdeath,andis thereputedauthorof thispoeminpraiseof themaster[andofhimself]:"InthewholeofBuddhasfollowing,SavingalonethemightyMastersself,Istandtheforemostin asceticways:NomandothpractisethemsofarasI.TheMasterhathmyfealtyandlove,Andall theBuddhas ordinanceis done.LowhaveI laid theheavyloadIbore,Causeforrebirth is foundinmenomore.Forneverthoughtforraiment,norforfood,Norwhereto rest doththegreatmindaffect,Immeasurable,ofourGotama.Nomorethanspotlesslotus- blossomtakesAmarkfromwater;toself-sacrificeContinuallyprone,hefromthesphereThreefoldofnewbecomingis detached.Theneckofhimis like thefourfoldtowerOfmindfulnesssetnp; yea,thegreatSeerHathfaithandconfidencefor hands; above,Thebrowofhimisinsight; noblywise,Heeverwalkethin cool blessedness."41Mahavagga,I,23(SacredBooksoftheEast,XIII,144, 145).2TforagdtM.OCLXlU.8AndtoSariputtais attributed the Niddesa orcommentaryon theSuttaNipata.*Mrs. RhysDavids,Songsof theBrethren,pp.367,368(Thera-gatha,CCLXI).42 GOTAMABUDDHAIn this tributetoiGotamawe note theimpressionwhichhemadeuponhiscontemporaries;jnotonlyishisasceticismpraised,and his noble wisdom andgreatpowersofmind^butKassapaattributes tohimfaith,andconfessesto apersonalloyaltyand devotion which theMasterkindled in him. We cannot doubt that it wasthis,even more than histeaching,which nerved theseearlyfollowers andgavethemthe sense ofjoyandofwell-beingwhichrings throughtheir verses. ThatKassapawent to extremes of asceticism seems clear :there is anothersongof hiswhichisperhapsthemostgruesome thingin allreligious literature,and whichreveals therevolting lengthto which Buddhist detachmentcouldgointhoseearlydaysofenthusiasm:"DownfrommymountainlodgeIcameonedayAndmademyroundfor almsaboutthestreets.AleperthereI saweatinghismeal(Andaswasmeet,thathemighthaveachance),In(silent) courtesyI haltedat his side.Hewithhishand allleprousanddiseasedPut inmybowlamorsel;ashethrew,Afingermortifying,brokeandfell.LeaningagainstawallI atemyshare,Norat thetimenorafterfeltdisgust.ForonlyhewhotakethastheycomeThescrapsoffood,medicinefromexcrement,Thecouchbeneaththetree,thepatchworkrobe,Standsasa maninnorth,south, east,or west."1Such wasKassapa ;and we shall see later whatwerethequalitiesforwhicheach of the other leadersof theSaiighawas most honoured. But there weremanyotherearlyconvertsnotsoeminent: therewas,forinstance,Yasa,ayoung noble,whovery earlyinhisministrycame to Gotama and became anArahat,whilsthisfather, mother,and wife becamelayadherents. TheMah&vaggatells us that Yasa wasbroughtupingreatluxury;andthat, disgustedat thesightofthesleepingwomen of theharem,hecametoGotamacrying:"Alas! What sorrow! Whatdanger!"TohimGotamafirst talked about the merit obtainedby1SongsoftheBrethren,p.362(Theragatha,CCLXI).GOTAMAATHEIGHTOFHISPOWER 43almsgiving:,the beauties ofmorality,heaven,the evilsofvanity,and the dust of desire. Whenhe saw thatthemindof thenobleyouthwasprepared,hepreachedthemoreessentiallyBuddhistic doctrine ofsuffering,itscause,and thewaytoescape.And because Yasawas fit for suchinstruction,wearetoldthat,"asacleanclothabsorbs thedye,"he absorbed theteachingthatwhatsoeverissubjecttobirth is alsosubjectto death.Had he been lessprepared,Gotama would havebeencontent to leadhimmuchmoregraduallyfromtheelements to the arcanaof histeaching.It isquiteclearthat to themasseshecontentedhimselfwithpreachingasimple moralitylike that embodied in the edicts ofAsoka,andthatonlyas individuals showed themselvesreadyfor the more difficultteachingdid heimpartit."Firststudytheperson," saysa BuddhistproverbofJapan,"then teach the Law."jGotamasfamilywere alsoamongstthe earliestconverts.Duringthese sixlongyearsofpainfulsearch andfinalvictory,reportshadreachedthe old Chief atKapi-lavatthu.Impatientto seehisson,hesentmessengerstohimatRajagaha.OneafteranothertheycameunderthespellofGotama,andforgottheirmessagesin thegreatnessof their enthusiasm for thenewteacher;butatlastKaludayin,a formerplaymateof Gotama andnowMinister ofState,wassenttourgehis return. Onthe full-moondayofPhalgunhecame,andurged that,in thisperfect weather,when"the trees are crimsonwith blossom and the hourbigwithhope,"Gotamashouldreturn.1Heprevailed;and in theearly springthecompanyset outforKapilavatthu,ajourneyof 400miles,whichtheyaccomplishedbyslowstages.Travellingaboutsevenmiles aday,andenjoyingthebeautyofthe freshfields andfloweringgroves,theycame to thelittlecity.The"Legendof the Burmese Buddha" describesthebeautyoftheIndianspringtide,adelightfultimefor*Theragatha,CCXXXIII(SongsoftheBrethren,p.249).44 GOTAMABUDDHAone of thepilgrimage-picnicsdear to the Indianheart,andputsinto the mouthofKaludayinthese words:"The cold season isover,the warm season hasjust begun: this is now thepropertime to travelthroughthecountry ;naturewearsagreenaspect ;thetrees andthe forests are in full blossom;the roads arelinedtorightand left with trees loaded withfragrantblossoms and delicious fruits;thepeacock proudlyexpandshismagnificenttail;birds ofeverydescriptionfill the air with theirravishingandmelodioussinging;at this seasonheat andcoldareequally temperate,andnature isscattering profuselythesechoicestgifts."3Men, women,and children cameout from thecitytogreetthewandererandfoundhimrestinginagrove.Very tenderly,butvery firmly,he dealt with his oldfather,whocomplainedthat thismendicant life wasnolife for the sonofan illustrious line;far different wasthe custom ofkings. "This,"saidGotama,"is thecustomoftheBuddhas,andto theirlineage doIbelong";and inaversereminded his father that thegoodmanwinshappinesshereafter as well as in this life.2EventuallySuddhodana wasconvinced,and became alay-adherent.Aftersupperthe women of the householdcame andpaidhimhomage, exceptthe PrincessYasodhara,whofelt,notunreasonably,that it was forthe wandererto seek her out. We are toldthat,accompaniedbySariputtaandMoggallana,he went intofind herandshe,runningtomeethim,laid herheaduponhis feet. Yet there was some bitterness in herheart,andshe is said tohaveaskedpassionatelyfortheinheritance of the little Rahula. "I willgivehim amoreexcellentinheritance,"said the ascetic and badeMoggallanashave hishead,and admit him to theSaiigha?After thistheysetoutagainforRajagaha.1P. 170.2Dhp.168.3SacredBooksoftheEast, XIII,208,209. The admission ofchildrenled toseriousmisunderstandingsat a laterdate,and itis laiddownin theVinayathat it wasnottocontinue,exceptwiththe full sanctionof theboysparents(cf. MaMvagga,!,48),GOTAMAATHEIGHTOFHISPOWER 45On theway,in themango groveofAnupiya,hemet a number of theSakya princes, amongstthemAnanda,Anuruddha,andDevadatta,hiscousins,all ofwhomwere destined toplayagreat partin his life;either then or latertheywere all admitted to theSangha.ArrivingatRajagaha,the teacher wasgreeted byAnathapindika,merchantofSavatthi,withamunificentgiftof amonasteryofeightycellsandotherresidenceswithterracesandbaths,andacceptedhis invitation toSavatthi. There was a"fragrancechamber" forGotamahimself,and here he tookuphis abode. Inacceptingthis or asimilargiftGotama is said to haveutteredthefollowingthanksgivingi1"Herecoldandheatnosojournmake;Hereravenous beastsnoentryfind,Norstingingfly,norcreepingsnake,Winters coldrainnor summersscorchingwind.Hereis aplacetoconcentrateThethoughts,todwellserene, apart,Where menofinsightmeditateSuchhabitationscharmtheSagesheart !Thesearechoicegifts:therefore, yewise,Havingyourownbest wealinmind,Letsacrededifices riseTolodgetheholyBrethrenofmankind.RaimentandfittingdrinkandfoodAndamplebeddingnowprepare!Theseoffer totheBrotherhood;LettheminturntheRighteousLawdeclare.Soshallyourmiseryremove,Andyebepurgedofeverystain,GoodnessandTruthyell learntolove,And,loving,shall thelonged-forGoalattain !"Laypatronssuch asAnathapindika playedagreatpartinthespreadof the Order. AnotherwastheLadyLatertheordination ofanycandidateundertwentyyearsofagewas forbidden(Ibid., I, 49)for it did not tend to"convert the^unconverted or toaugmentthe number"(ortheprestige"oftheconverted").1The Heart ofBuddhism,p.31.(Translatedfrom Culla-vagga, VI,1).446 GOTAMABUDDHAVisakha,whoalsodweltatSavatthi,andwhoseems tohavebeenformerlyadiscipleof the Naked Sect ofJains,but who nowgavethegreat monasteryofPubbarama to theSangha.ThecourtesanAmbapali1wasalso agenerouspatroness.HertownwasVesali;andwefind anobleemulationbetweenthe chief townsofthedistrict for the honouroflodgingthemonks.The next threerainyseasonsthey spentin theBambooGroveatRajagaha,andweare told that in thefifth^seasonGotama,then atVesali,mediated betweentheSakyasand theKoliyas,to both of whose chieffamilieshewasrelated,in adisputeover the waters ofthe riverRohim,andspoketo them variousparablesprovingthat hatred does but breedhatred,and thatfeudsperpetuatethemselves anelementarytruth notyet learned,it wouldseem, bythe statesmen of thegreatChristiannations :"Badfolkbywrathareoverthrown,Aswhenanavalanchecomesdown."Thus war was averted. Sogreatlywas Gotamaalreadyesteemedin the councilchambers ofkings ;soconvincingwas the sweet reasonableness of histeaching!About this time it seems that women were firstadmittedto the Order. On the death ofSuddhodana,hiswife,thelady Pajapaticamewith thewivesofotherSakyachiefsandurgedthattheyshould not be left tomourn alone;but should be admitted to the Order.Thisrequestseems to havepuzzled Gotama,whorefusedit threetimes,for heheld the ideas of womenwhich were usual in the India of hisday.2But theladieswereimportunate ; theycutoff theirhair,putontheyellowrobe,tookbegging bowls,and set out tomeethim;andso,withbleedingfeet,andtravel-stained,1Sacred Books of theEast,XVII,p.105. This courtesanseemstohavewieldedgreatinfluence. She has beencomparedtoMadamePompadour.2Womenare likened in theItivuttaka orLogiaof Gotamatocrocodilesanddemonswhowaitfortheswimmerin thestreamof life.GOTAMAATHEIGHTOFHIS POWER 47thesehigh-bornwomencameto Vesali. The first tomeet them wasAnanda,whose wife wasprobablyamongstthem,andhebesoughtGotamato_ admit themto theSangha. Againherefused,tillAnanda,withmoreintelligencethanusual,asked him whether therewasany spiritualdefect in women topreventtheirattainingevento theGoal,Nibb&na. Gotama was toohonest to fence with thisquestion,but hegave waywith sorrow andmisgivings."Let them besubjectand subordinate to thebrethren,"he commanded."Even so their admission means that the GoodLawshall notendure for athousandyears,butonlyfor fivehundred. Foraswhenmildew fallsuponafieldofricethat field isdoomed,even so when women leave thehousehold life andjoinanorder,that order will notlongendure. Yetaswater is heldupbyastrongdyke,sohave I establisheda barrier ofregulationswhich arenottobetransgressed.":Intakingthisstep,Gotama knewhewastakingrisks,yetit seemed inevitable;and was on the whole welljustifiedbyevents:thoughthe nunsprovedfretful attimes andthoughthere were instances of immoralconduct, yetsome of them such asDhammadinna,Sukha,andKhemadidnobly,reaching equaleminencewiththegreatmonks. Thus we find theladyKhemateachingthekingof Kosala andwinningGotamasapprovalforherclearandaccuratehandlingofthevexedquestion,"Does the BlessedOne, havingenteredNibbana,still exist ?"Like St. Francis ofAssisi,Gotama had now twoOrders of"religious"men andwomen, givingtheirwholeattentionto theGoodLaw;andathird Order oflay people, including kingsandwarriors, who,whilstcarryingontheirordinary duties,keptasimplifiedruleoflife,andgaveof their substance andenergyto the1Cullavagga, X,16. Is theprophecycontained in thesewordsduetoamomentaryfit ofdepressionin the serene andoptimisticGotama,or is it theworkof alaterhand,writingat atimewhenthe"goodlaw"wasalreadyin decline?2Oldenberg,Buddha,E.T.,pp.278-80.48 GOTAMA BUDDHAspreadingof the faith. AndinreturnitseemsclearthattheSanghagavethemsoundandpracticaladvice;thusatVesaliGotamaseemstohavetaughttheVajjiansthatit isrightconduct thatexaltsapeople ;solongastheymeetinconferenceanddwellinconcord,solongastheyrespectwoman,above all solongasthey supportandprotecttheSangha^solongwillthey prosper,andgoforward. Butlikea Hebrewprophethewarnsthemofimpendingdisaster.1Theywere notungrateful,buttheyallowed dissension tospring up amongst them,and soon afterwardsAjatasattu conqueredthem anddestroyedtheircity.It is nottobesupposedthat allwentsmoothlywiththenewteaching ;or that Gotamas serene course hadno dark moments. In the firstplacethepeopleofMagadhaseemtohavecomplainedbitterlythat hewasmakingorphansandwidowsof them all :"He causesfathers tobegetno children;and wives to becomewidows;andfamilies tobecome extinct."5Besidessuchcriticismandoppositionfromwithout,Gotamawasclearly subjecttotemptationsfromwithin,whichthebooksnaivelyattribute toMara,the Princeof DarknessandDeath. Afterhisillumination,as wehaveseen,cametemptationsto succumb to acynicalestimateofmankindandtokeephisdiscoveryto himself.Later came other insidioussuggestions ; once,forexample,whilehewasmeditatingalone inahuton theHimalayas,thethoughtcametohim:"Howmuchgoodthetruly righteous king might do, rulinginpeace,inflictingnopain, seeingthat no manoppresshisneighbour."Hotfoot uponthisthoughtcameMara,whoreminded him of his miraculouspower bywhich hemightturn all theHimalayasintogold,but to himGotama,nowcompletelymaster ofhimself, replied:"Andpraywhatprofitwoulditbetothesagetopossessamountainofgold?"3Yetthese twotemptations,to1MahdparinibbanaSutta.3Mahavagga,I,24(SacredBooksoftheEast, XIII,150).8SamyuttaNikaya^I.GOTAMAATHEIGHTOFHISPOWER 49becomeagreatrulerandto usemiracle insetting upa"theocracywithout aGod,"were no doubtvery real;theyresemblethetemptationswhich assailed Jesus ofNazarethat thebeginningofHispublicministry,and itmust have neededgreatheroism in each case toputthemaway. Maywe not find in thetemptationofGotama a recurrence ofearlyambitions to become aChakkavatti,ambitions now refined andspiritualized?And othertemptations, too,he must have knownaboveall,theyearningto leave acontraryand criticalworldto roll on toperdition!Thereweredisputes again,evenwithintheSangha;andoutside it thereweremanyrivalteachers,who didnotlookfavourablyuponthegrowingenthusiasmforthenewreligion,andsomeofwhomevenresorted togrossattacksuponGotamas moral character.1Not unnaturally, Sahjaya,the former teacher ofSariputtaandMoggallana,resented their defection. Another rivals_ectwhom Gotamastronglycondemned were theAjivikas,whotaughta determinism which seems tohave leddirectlyto immoral conduct;theirchief,MakkhaliGosala,he described as a "badman,"whowouldcatch hisdiscipleslike fish in order todestroythem.2Another sect was that of Mahavira Vardha-mana,known as theJains,a sect which hadmanypointsofresemblancewithhisownteaching,butwhosemembers were much more ascetic and believed intherealityof the soul and in itspersonal identityafterdeath. Gotamas attitude to these rival sects issummedupin theMajjhima Nikdya,where he dividesasceticsoutsidehisownfollowingintoeightclasses,fourof which are"incontinent," amongstthesebeingtheAjivikas,whilst four are"unsatisfying," amongstthese1For thequaint storyof thegirlCinca see The Heart ofBuddhism,pp.155,156.aIn theAnguttara NikayaGotama calls the doctrine ofMakkhalithe"worstof doctrines" : it is like the hair shirt itsauthorworeroughtothetouch,unpleasantto the smell ! Anaccount of histeachingisgiveninDialoguesof theBuddha,1,71.50 GOTAMABUDDHAbeingtheJains.1AndthoughGotamabade his followers show noangerif these rival teachers attackedthem,yethemade itveryclear that hestronglydisapprovedof some anddespisedothers. We are toldthat these rivalteachers, findingnosupportinMaga-dha,whoseking, Bimbisara,befriended the BuddhistSangha (seeingin itsteachingofunityasplendidaidtostatecraft),went off toKosala, hopingto win thepatronageof itsking,the PasenadiAgnidatta,2but hetooeventuallyjoinedGotama.ThisPasenadihasasectionof theSamyuttaNikayadevoted tohim,and is one of the mostinterestingfiguresofGotamasday.Theyseemtohavemetfirstquite earlyinGotamasministryon the occasion of agreatanimalsacrifice,whenthecompassionof the teacherwasdeeply stirred,andhespokeout as theprophetof anewrighteousnessand thepriestof a new and moreseemlysacrifice.And all hisdayshe was achampionof "our littlebrothers"whommen sothoughtlesslyandwantonlytorture andslay."Nowat this time agreatsacrifice wasarrangedtobe held for theking,the Kosalan Pasenadi. Fivehundredbulls,five hundredbullocks,and asmanyheifers, goats,and rams were led to thepillarto besacrificed,andthenthe slaves and menials and craftsmen,hectored aboutbyblows andby fear,made thepreparationswith tearful facesweeping."Nowanumberofalmsmen,havingrisenearlyanddressedandtakenbowl androbe,entered Savatthi foralms. . . . And after their returnthey soughtthepresenceof the Exalted One and told himof thepreparationsfor the sacrifice.1In theBrahmajalaSutta ofDigha NikayaGotamaenumeratessixty-twocurrentphilosophiesandsaysthat allwhoattemptin thosewaysto reconstruct thepastor todecide the future are"like fishcaughtin a net. Howevermuchtheyplungeandflounder,theyare the moreentangled"(Dialogues, I, 319).3Pasenadiseemstohavebeenatitle,notaname.GOTAMAATHEIGHTOFHIS POWER 51"Thenthe ExaltedOne,understandingthematter,utteredin thathourthese verses :"Thesacrifices called"theHorse,"theMan,ThePeg-thrownSite,theDrinkofVictory,TheBoltsWithdrawn,andall themightyfuss :Thesearenot rites thatbringa rich result.Wherediversgoatsandsheepandkineare slain.NevertosuctTa riteasthatrepairThenobleseerswhowalktheperfectway.Butriteswhereis nobustlenornofuss,Areofferingsmeet,bequestsperpetual,WTherenevergoatsandsheepandkineareslain.TosuchasacrificeasthisrepairThenobleseerswhowalktheperfectway.These aretheritesentailinggreatresults.Thesetothecelebrantareblest,not cursed.Th oblationrunnetho er;thegodsarepleased.mLike Samuelhe insistedthat theoffering-ofright-eousness(dhammapuja)is better than theofferingofmaterial sacrifice(amisapuja).AtanothertimeGotamawasdistressed at thestoryofcaptivestakeninone ofAgnidattaswars,andat thebonds which still held thekinghimselfcaptive: thelove of self andof the world.Thestoryof thekings conversionis worthquotingin full."Thus have I heard: The Exalted One was oncestayingnearSavatthi,at the Jeta Grove in Anatha-pindikas Park. Nowtheking,the KosalanPasenadi,cameinto thepresenceof the ExaltedOne,and afterexchanging greetingswith him andcomplimentsoffriendshipandcourtesy,sat down at one side. Soseatedhe said tothe ExaltedOne:; *DoesMaster Gotamaalso make no claim to beperfectlyandsupremely enlightened? If there beany one, sire,towhomenlightenmentmightrightlybe1Samyutta Nikaya,in Mrs.RhysDavids TheBook of theKindredSayings,pp.102,103. Gotama does not seem to havecondemnedsacrifice initself;but"better even than a bloodlesssacrifice isliberality. . . and thehighestsacrifice of all is toenterNibbdna,sayingI return no more to earth"(KutadantaSutta,DighaNikaya,143).52 GOTAMA BUDDHAattributed,it is I. Iverily, sire,amperfectlyandsupremelyenlightened/ButMasterGotama,there arerecluses andBrahminswhoalso,likeyourself,have each their order ofdisciples,their attendantfollowers,whoareteachers ofdisciples,well-known andreputed theorisers, highlyesteemedbythepeopleI meanPurana-Kassapa,Makkhali of theCowstall,theNiganthaNatasson,1SanjayaBelatthi sson, Kaccayanaof thePakudhas,Ajitaof the Hairblanket. Nowthey,when I haveasked this samequestionofthem,have not laidclaim toperfectandsupreme enlightenment.Howcan this be? For(as comparedwiththem)MasterGotamaisyounginyears,and is a novice inthe life ofreligion/;There are fouryoungcreatures,who are not tobedisregardedordespised,becausetheyareyouthful.Whatare the four ? Anobleprince,asnake,afire,analmsman(bhikkhu). Yea, sire,these fouryoungcreaturesare notto bedisregardedordespisedbecausetheyareyouthful."Hence withthesefour theserpentandthefire,Theprinceofhighestate,thesaintlyfriarLetthewiseman,hisowngood-willinsight,Conducthimselfasseemlyis andright."When thesethingshad beensaid, King Pasenadi,theKosalan,spokethus to the ExaltedOne:Mostexcellent,Lord,mostexcellent! Just as ifa man wereto setupthatwhichhasbeenthrowndown,orweretorevealthatwhichis hiddenaway,orweretopointouttherightroadto himwhohasgone astray,orweretobringalampinto the darkness so that thosewhohaveeyescouldseeexternalforms evenso, Lord,hasthe truthbeenmadeknowntomeinmanyafigurebythe ExaltedOne.I,evenI, Lord,betakemyselftothe ExaltedOneasmyrefuge,to theNorm and to theOrder.MaytheExaltedOneacceptmeas afollower,1Nataputtawasthefounderof theJainSect,whosememberscallhimbothJina(conqueror)andBuddha,GOTAMAATHEIGHTOFHISPOWER 53asone whofrom thisdayforth aslongas life endureshastakenhisrefugetherein.Soweremanylesser folkconverted: notsomuchbyargumentasby good-humoured analogyor theargu-mentum adhominem. "You areyourself young,OKing," saysGotama in effect to thePasenadi, "whydespisemeformyyouth?"Andnotawordmorewasneeded norefutationofthe otherteachers,no vindicationofhisownDhamma,butonlyaserene,authoritativeclaim,politelywrappedupin acompliment!Thisis thewayto deal withkings.But withphilosophersandrivalteachershe tookanotherline.King Agnidattabecame thelife-longfriend andsupporterof theSanghaand,like thegreatAsokaafterhim,seems to have been chastenedbycontact withthem till hegaveupanimalsacrifices,and evensparedhisenemy Ajatasattu,afterdefeatinghim in battle."Although,"hereflected,"thisking injuresme whohavedonehimnowrong,yethe ismynephew.Whatif I takeawayhisarmyandleavehimhis life ?"Andwe find the Buddhist chronicleravowing"That theKingofKosala,Pasenadi,is a friend and anintimate,yea,anactivepromoterof all that isgood."WhilstofAjatasattuweread that"Heis the friendand intimateof allevil,andan active associate."But we areanticipating.The sinisterplotsofAjatasattuand Devadattabelongto thestoryofGotamas oldage,andmustbe told in a laterchapter.Duringthegreater partof his lifetime it wasBimbisara who ruled inMagadha;hisQueenKhemawasconvertedinspiteof herself in the sixthyearofGotamasministry;andhisdatesareknownwitha fairmeasureofcertaintyfrom543to 491 B.C. Their sonAjatasattucomesonthe scene when Gotama is aboutseventy yearsold.ThechronologyofGotamasministryupto theageoffiftyhas beencarefully,if notvery convincingly,1Samyutta Nikaya,in Mrs.RhysDavids TheBook of theKindredSayings, p.95.54 GOTAMA BUDDHAworked out in some of thebiographies,such as thattranslatedby BishopBigandetunder thetitle,The LifeorLegendofGaudama,and for want of more certainknowledgethegeneral sequenceof eventsmaybeacceptedas therearranged.But it is monkishchronologyfor the mostpart,concerned with suchthingsaswhen theSanghawent intoretreat,and even thisskeleton failsus fortheperiodof his life between theagesoffiftyandseventy,whichare,as theBishopsays,"an almostcompleteblank."It seems as if a late editor had collected all theavailable material and used ituptooquickly! It iscertain that the wholestoryhas been edited and re-editedby monks,until inJapanwe have acompletechronologyworked out;eachyear beingrememberedbysomediscourse,andeacheraconcerned with averydefinitedevelopmentofdoctrine,until at the end ofhis life Gotama reveals afullyworked out Mah&-yanagospelinthefamousSaddharma-pundarlka\ Morescientific biographymustselect fromtheavailablematterwhatis best calculated togivea trueimpressionof itshero,andwhat is leastimprobableand fabulous. Butuntil thewholeof the Buddhistworksare accessible tousanduntilmuchmoretextual criticismhasbeendone,biographyin the strictest sense is notpossible.IVTHEDAILY LIFE OFGOTAMAAND HIS DISCIPLESInblisswedwellamongstmen ofhatred,hatingnone.Dhammapada197.SMILEDonbykingsandgrowingrapidlyinnumbersand inpower,theSanghahad to beorganised.Thiswas agradual process,for Gotama seems to haverealised the value of adisciplinewhichsprangout ofactualexperience.Intheveryearly dayswhen therewereonlysixArahats, theyseem to have wanderedfromplacetoplaceat all seasonsof theyear ;but thisledtocriticism,for in the wet weather the land teemswith insectlife,and theyoung cropsare alsoeasilydamaged! So thepeople complained, saythe Mah&~vagga^and reminded them that birdsgoto theirnests and even "heretics" have a "close season."Gotamaaccordingly, followingapractice alreadyrecognizedin other"Orders,"instituted the BuddhistVassa or"Lent,"whichhasever sincebeenobserved.Towards the end ofMayor thebeginningof June(themonthofAshaglha),the Indianskyisheavywithblackclouds,and manseyesturnlonginglytowardsthem asthey pile up uponthehorizon,now litbyflashes oflightning,nowhangingdark andbigwithrain.2Then at lastthey break,and agreat sighofthanksgivingseemstogoupfromthewearyland.1Mahavagga,III(SacredBooks oftheEast,XIII,298, 299).2Thebreakingoftherainsvaries inthenorth-west it is aslateastheendofJune;sotheMahavagga givesalternatedates,eitherthedayafterthe fullmoon ofAshadha,or a monthlater,forthebeginningof Vassa.56 GOTAMA BUDDHADuringthis seasonwe are toimagineGotama andhisfollowersleadingthe"strenuouslife of meditation"inquiet placeslike the Vulture Peak of the BambooGroveatRajagaha,or inthegarden givento thembyAnathapindikaat Savatthi. In the"Songsof theBuddhistBrethren" wereadalso ofmonksandnuns insolitary retreat,andtheir love of nature is revealed insomeofthese, thoughit isalwaysas abackgroundforreligiousmeditation thattheythinkof herbeauties."Thoseuplandgladesdelightfultothesoul,Wherethekarerispreadsitswilderingwreaths,Wheresoundthetrumpet-callsofelephants ;Thosearethebraeswhereinmysouldelights.Thoserockyheightswithhueof darkblueclouds,Wherelies embosomedmanyashiningtarnOfcrystal-clear,coolwaters,andwhoseslopesThe herdsofIndra coverandbedeck :Thosearethebraeswhereinmysouldelights.Likeserriedbattlementsofblue-blackcloud,Likepinnaclesonstatelycastlebuilt,Re-echoingtothecries ofjunglefolk :Thosearethebraeswherein mysouldelights.Fairuplands,rain-refreshedandresonantWithcrested creatures criesantiphonal.LoneheightswheresilentRishisoftresort :Thosearethebraeswhereinmysouldelights.. . .Freefromthecrowdsofcitizensbelow,Butthrongedwithflocks ofmanywingedthings,Thehomeofherdingcreatures ofthewild;Sucharethebraeswherein mysouldelights.Cragswhereclearwaterslie,arockyworld,Hauntedbyblack-facedapesandtimiddeer,Where neathbrightblossomsrunthesilverstreams :Sucharethebraeswhereinmysouldelights.ForthatwhichbringsmeexquisitedelightIsnotthestrains ofstringandpipeanddrum,Butwhen,withintellect wellpoised,intent,IgaintheperfectvisionoftheNorm."1But theSanghaas a whole led thecorporatelife;even ifthey separatedinto smallgroups theycametogetherat stated intervals;and retreat would endwith mutual confession andexhortation,known asPavaranZ.Theragatha,1062-1071,Mrs.RhysDavids translation.DAILYLIFEOFGOTAMAANDDISCIPLES 57Then,whenthewetseasonwasoverand all naturerejoiced,masteranddiscipleswouldmingleonce morewith thebusy throngof men. Thedaywas mostcarefully planned.1Risingat dawn Gotama wouldgoout either alone or with hfs~ followersi ~To""villagerortown, collectingalms. Hewould then break hisfast,andwoulddiscourse to themonks,andgivethem exercises in meditation suited to their attainments.Theywouldthen leavehim, goingoff each to his favouritespottomeditate,whilstGotamawould liedown on hisrightside"in the lionposture"in aquiet chamber,orbetter still in the cool shade of theforest,andrest notsleeping, yetnotpractising systematicmeditation.Thenthepeoplewould come to him forpreachingoradvice."Whenhehadtakenpityonthem,"hewouldbatheandspendaperiodinmeditation in the cool oftheevening.And in the first watch of thenighthewouldanswer thequestionsof thedisciples,orpreachto them. Afterthatwemustsupposeheslept! It is ,characteristic of themonkishrecords thattheyaccountforeveryoneofthetwenty-fourhourswithoutallowingtime for this. And after hisdeath it was one of thetenetsoftheMahasanghikaSchoolthathehad no needofsleep.ThattheSanghagrewsorapidlywascertainlynot"]due to the ease of the life Gotama offered men. We,get manyglimpsesof theirausterityasthey slepton ;the bareearthwith nocoveringbut theyellowrobe;11Cold,master,is thewinternight;the timeof frost iscoming; roughis thegroundwith thetreadingof thehoofsof cattle;thin is the couch ofleaves,andlightis theyellow robe;the winter wind blowskeen";21Cf.theaccountinH.C. WarrensBuddhisminTranslations,fromBuddhaghosasCommentaryonDlghaNikaya.Amorepoeticalbut lateraccount is inSumangalaVilasinl,translatedbyDr.RhysDavidsin hisAmericanLectures.Thestudent whocomparesthe two accounts will note thegrowthofthe miraculouselement.2Anguttara:Sukhasayama Sutta, III, 4, 5,where Gotamaclaimsthat,roughashisbedmightbe,hesleptcalmandpeaceful,unlikekingsandworldlings.58 GOTAMA BUDDHAsaid adweller in Alavi ashesaw the teacher seated inthe midstof theSinsapaForest absorbed in meditation.Often, however, theywouldstoptoenjoythehospitalityofkings,andgradually theyacquired manypleasant gardensandmonasteries,such as theBambooGroveatVeluvana,givenbyBimbisara:"Nottoo far fromnoryettoo near thetown,wellprovidedwithentrancesandexits; easilyaccessible toallpeoplewhoinquireafterit,with not too much ofthe bustle of lifeby day, quiet by night,far from thecrowds ofmen,aplaceofretirement,aplaceforsolitarymeditation ... in thesegardenswere theresidences of theBrethren, houses, halls, cloisters,storerooms,surroundedbylotuspools, fragrant mangotrees and slender fanpalmsthat lifted theirfoliagehighover alllands,andbythedeep green foliageofthenyagrodhatree,whoserootsdroppingfrom the airto earth become newstems,with their coolshadyarcadesandlea