· why? because it is used instead of the n ame of the person sp eaking. of what person 1s “...
TRANSCRIPT
ELEMENTS
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
PUBLISHED B"HERM ON ‘
E . H I BB A R I )
BOSTON , MASS.
U . S . A .
COP"R I G H TED ,1905 ,
B"H E R M O N E . H I B B A R D ,
BOSTON ,MASS.
”
X7w“
PREFACE.
THE aim in this brief treatise is to make grammar an in tellectual
exercise , to show, by the construction an d analysis of easy senten ce s ,
the power of the severalr
classes of words in modifying the sen se,to
show that the sen se is not contained in one mass,but that one word
suggests the Object of wh ich we are speakin g , another describes the
object , an other asserts something of the Object , and another qualifies
the assertion in respect to time , place , and mann er . The sentences
in stanced are , it is true , very simple , and the sen se very obvious . They
are inten ded for illustrations and are better even for adults than
senten ces where the re lations are lessn obvious .
The best illustration of a principle is in its simplest an d most trans
parent form , a fact not always recogni z ed by teachers . The Object is to
furn ish guidan ce in a plain an d simple form ,and trust to the judgment
of the teacher to carry out and exemplify more fully principles but
partially developed in the following pages .
H ERMON E . H I BBA RD .
BOSTON , June , 1905 .
T H E
ELEMENTSOFENGLISH GRAMMAR .
What is the use of language ? To exp ress
thought .
H OW is thought exp ressed in words ? By com
bining them .
H ow many words are n ecessary to ex press an
idea or thought? There must be two , at least.
If I say, John wa lks ,”do I express an idea ?"es . o ,
What do words joined so as to express an idea
form ? A senten ce .
H owmany words , then , are n ecessary to make a
sen tence ? Two .
What are the p rincipal parts Of a sentence ?
There must be one word which is the n ame of a
person or thing ; and another which tells what is‘
said or asserted of that p erson or thing .
John walks .
What word is here used as the name of a p erson
or thing? John .
”
6
What word i s used to tell what is sa id or assertedOf it ? Walks .
”
I s this a sentence ?"es .
Why? Because it exp resses an idea .
NouNs A ND VERBS .
Boys study.
What word is the name of the p erson s of whomwe are speaking ? Boys .
”
What word tells what is sa id or asserted of the
boys ? Study .
”
What are words used as n ames called ? Nouns .
What word is a noun in this sentence ? Boys .
Why ? Because it is used as a name .
What are n ames of p articu la r person s and placescalled ? P rop er n ouns .
What are general names called ? Common noun s .
What are words used to assert or afiirm somethingO f a noun called ? Verbs .
What word is a verb in the sentence above ?
Study.
”
Why? Because it is used to afi rm something of
boys .
Children p lay.
What word is used as a name in this sentence ?
Children .
”
What is it called ? A noun .
Why? Because it is used as a n aine .
Whatword is used to a sser t or afiirm something
about children ? Play.
”
What is it called ? A verb .
Why ? Because it is used to afi‘lrm something Of
children
Charles studies his lessons at school .
What words are used as n ames in this sen ten ce ?
Charles ,”
lessons ,”and“school .
What , then , are they called ? Noun s . Why ?
What word is used to a ssert or afiirm something
of Charles ? Studies .
What is it called ? A verb . Why?
Examp les .
1. Words are like arrows .
“
2 . The teacher closed the W indows and doors .
3 . Follow some pursuit with zeal .4 . Father bought my sled , but the kn ife was a presen t from
G eorge .
5 . Honor thy father with thy whole hear t, and forget n ot the
kindness of thy mother .
6 . Reason , eloquen ce , and art prove dangerous in the“hands of
bad men .
7. Truth and error,V irtue an d vice , are things of an immutable
nature .
1. Charles to Boston . An na from school .
3 . A n honest man the n oblest work Of G od .
4 . A good boy his paren ts . 5 . M en G od .
6 . Charles his book .
8
has studied the lesson.are useful animals . 2 .
gave me a book . 4 . should obey the ir paren ts.
will soon wither . 6 . Does confer happiness P
A DJECTIVE S .
G ood bogs study.
What is the word good used for in this sen
tence ? To descr ibe boys .
I n what respect does it describe them ? I t tells
their character.
If I say white men ,in what respect does
white describe the men ? I n regard to color .
I n what respect would young”describe men ?
I n regard to age .
“Tall ? ” With regard to height.
Large ? I n regard to si z e .
What are the words called that descr ibe n oun s ?
A djectives .
Large streams flowf rom little fountains .
Whatword describes streams in this sentence ?
Large .
”
I n what respect? I n respect to siz e .
What, then , is“large ” called? A n adjective .
Why? Because it descr ibes a noun
What other adjective is there in this examp le?
Little .
9
Why ? B ecause it describes the'
noun“foun
tain s .
STATEMENT .—A djectives describe noun s .
R emar k — The three adjectives, a,an , and the, are called
A r ti cles .
1 . Two horses
2 . Two la rge horses ran .
3 . Two large black horses
I n the first sen tence , what . word is used as a
n ame ?
What is it called ?
What word is used to affirm or assert something
about the horses ?What is it called ?
What word descr ibes horses ? Two .
In what respect does —it— d escribe them ? A s to
number ; it t ells howmany horses ran .
Then what is it called ? A n adjective .
Why? Because it describes a noun .
I n the second sentence , what word describes the
noun horses as to siz e ?
Then what is it called ? Why?
I n the third sen ten ce , what word is used to de
scribe the horses as to color ?
What is it called ? Why?
Examp les .
1 . Solomon is called a wise man . 2 . Industrious men work .
3 . G eorge had four sweet apples . 4 . H e lived twen ty years .
10
Evil commun ications corrupt good manners .
Swift instinct leaps ; slow reason feebly climbs .
The gay summer droops into pallicl autumn .
Ambition scoffs at useful toil and homely joys .
There are vacan t seats in our earthly homes.
Lonely and lovely is the silen t glen .
H is lazy limbs in listless languor laySoft winds murmured with low and pensive sound .
horses. cows . dogs .
trees . birds . houses .
ideas.
White SevenTall SublimeSour Cold
G reat SmallYoung New
collen t BlackMerciful
A DVERBS
The horses then ran swiftly away.
What is the word “swiftly ”used for ? To tell
how the horses ran
‘Vhat is “away used for ? To tell where they
ran .
What is “then used for ? To tell when theyran .
What are“swiftly, then ,
and “awaycalled ? A dverbs .
What , then , are adverbs used for ? To describe
verbs
In what respect do they describe verbs ? They
tell how,when or where an action is p erformed .
11
Very good boys studyfa ithfully.
I n this sen tence , what word describes “boys ” ?G ood .
What , then , is the word good A n adjective .
What is very”used for ? To in crease the force
of the adjective good .
”
What p art of speech is very A n adverb .
Some boys“study less fa ithf ully.
What p art of sp eech is faithfully” ? A n adverb.
Why ? Because it describes or qualifies the verb
study .
What is the use Of the word less
To d imin ish or lessen the force of the adverb
faithfully.
”
What is less calledL _A_n_adverb .
What, then , mayan adverb be used for ? I t may
be used with a verb to tell how, when , or where an
action is performed ; or with an adjective or adverb
to increaseor lessen its force .
STA TEMENT . A dverbs describe or qualify verbs ,
adjectives , and other adverbs .
They have a lways labored most successfully.
What is the word successfully used for ? To
tell how they have labored .
What part o f speech is it ? A n adverb .
12
What word does 1t describe or qualify ? The verb ,
labored .
”
What is theword mos t used for ? To in crease
the force of the word successfully.
”
What part of speech is used to increase or lessen
the force Of , an adverb ? A n adverb .
What part of speech, then ,is most
A n adverb . Why?
What is the word always used for ?
when they labored .
What part Of speech is it? Why ?
What, then , do adverbs qualify ?
Examp les .
1. Boys sometimes act rather foolishly .
2 . We never shal l submit .3 . H e studied so diligen tly that he will most certain ly gainprize .
4 . I have seen him there lately5 . When
,where
,and how he did it
,be best can tell .
6 . Moun tain an d valley are equally agreeable .
7. The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion .
1 . Time flies3 . Charles studies very5 . George applied himselfmost6 . G eorge applied himself faithfully .
7. Anna came then we expected . 8. They say
2 . Charles studies diligen tly .
4 . The horse ran fast .
13
PREPOSITIONS .
Wea lthy men should give liberally.
Men of wealth should give liberally.
I s there any difference in the meaning of these
sentences ? NO .
H ow are the men described in the first sen tence ?By the adjective wealthy.
”
H ow are they described in the second ? By the
phrase of
What is the word wealth A noun .
Does it convey an idea to say, M en — wealth
should give”? No .
What word must be p laced before wealth to
connect it with men Of .
”
What is the word of called ? A p reposition .
Why? Because it ‘
is“‘
pt aced before a noun to
connect it with another word .
Men of wealth should give liberally.
film of wea lth should give with liberality.
DO these sentences convey the same meaning?"es .
What word tells how they should give , in the first
sen tence ? The adverb liberally.
”
What tells how they should give , in the secondsentence ? The phrase with liberality .
Would it convey an idea to say, Men Of wealthshould give liberality ? No .
14
What word must be placed before liberality to
connect it with the verb givee”? With.
”
What, then , is with called ? A preposition .
Why? Because it is placed before a noun to
connect it with another wordWhat, then ,
‘
is a preposition ? A word’
p laced
before a noun to connect it with some other word .
STATEMENT . Preposition s connect words .
H e lately camefrom college .
What noun in this sentence ? College .
What word connects it with the verb came ” 9
From .
”
What part of speech is from Why?
What may prepositions connect ?
TABLE OF PREPOSITIONS
around , between,
from,
at, betwixt, in,
athwart , beyond , into,before , by , of
,
behind , concerning,on ,
below , down, over ,
beneath , during, since ,
beside , except,
through ,besides, for
, to,
Examp les .
1 . John has returned to the city .
2 ."ou may coast on my new sled .
3 . Take truth for thy creed , and G od for thy Guide .
15
4 . Speak gen tly to the little child .
p
5 . There is a pleasure in the pathless woods .
6 . Honor thy father with thy whole heart , and forget not the
kindness of thy moth er .
7. Can you be misled by such arguments
1. George has gone Indiana .
2 . Louis Napoleon usurped the throne Fran ce .
3 . Anna rode home a
‘
carriage .
4 . Charles was sitting a chair .
5 . youth we sometimes trifle health .
6 . The blue waves cur l the gale .
7. I am monarch all I survey .
8 . H e leadeth me the still waters . H e maketh me to lie
down green pastures .
CONJUNCTIONS .
John r uns . William walks .
H owmany assertion sat’é
‘
here made ? TWO .
Does John runs make comp lete sense ?"es .
Does William walks ” make comp lete sen se ?"es .
If you wish to make these two assertion s in the
same senten ce , what word must you sup p ly ?A nd .
”
What is and used f or ? To connect the sen
tenoes .
What are words called which conn ect sentences ?
Conjunction s .
What , then , is and A con jun ction .
Why? Because it connects two sen tences .
16
John wen t to Boston . James went to Boston .
H ow many assertion s are here made ? Two .
What word may be supplied to connect these
senten ces ? A nd .
”
What is and A conjunction .
Why?’ Because it connec ts sen tences .
What parts of each sen ten ce are alike ? Went
to Boston .
”
H ow, then , can the same assertions be made rin a
shorter way? John and James wen t to Boston .
”
What , then , is and used for in this
To connect the sentences and shorten the e
H ow is the expression shortened by us
con junction ?
John wen t to Boston . John r eturned .
What word must be supplied to put
assertions in one sen tence ? A nd .
”
What part of the sen tence may be om
and”is supplied ? John before
Why? Because it is the same in both sen
John will go. James will go .
What word must be supplied to connec
senten ces , and assert that only one of the
n amed will go ? Or .
”
I s it now asserted that John will go ? NO .
I s it asserted that James will go? No .
I s it asserted that one or the other will go
18
I s it asserted of him that he is diligent ?"es .
What word con nects these two assertion s ? Be
cause fi’
What, then , is because A con junction .
Why ? Because it connects sentences .
Does it shorten the expression ?
Charles might have been a useful and hap p y man .
What is the con junction in this example ? “A nd .
”
What two senten ces does it con nect ? Charles
might have been a happy man ,
” with “Charlesmight have been a useful man .
”
What words are alike in these two asser tions,a nd
consequen tly n eed not be repeated ? ’ “Charlesmight have been a man .
What word must be used to save the repetition ?A nd .
”
What part of speech is it ?Why ?
Examp les .
Some rivers are wide and deep .
Charles is here , but An na is not .
G eorge looked for h is ball , but he could not fi nd it .The horse ran with a chaise , and broke it.Henry might learn , if he would study .
The boys will come,though they may be late .
I shall be satisfiedI saw the boy ,
called him to me .
George Charles will do the errand .
The boy loved play , he could not work .
you leave it behind .
19
5 . Steam servesman,
also destroys him.
6 . The horse chaise will be mine .
7. John James will catch harn essthe horse .
8 . The boy fell in to the water , was drowned .
PEONOUNs .
The gen tleman bought a book, and gave the book to
William .
H ow may this sentence be changed so as not to
rep eat the word book By us ing the word it”
instead of “book thus “The gen tleman bought
a book and gave it to William .
”
What p ar t of speech is book A noun .
What word is here used in its p lace? I t .
What isa word called which is used 1n stead of a
noun ? A p ronoun .
What p art Of sp eech is the word it A p ro
noun .
Why? Because it is used in stead of a n oun .
Peter learn s Peter’s lesson s if the lesson s a re not too
difiicult for P eter
H ow may this sentence be changed so as to p re
vent rep etition? Peter learn s his lesson s if they
are not too d ifficult for him .
”
What words are pronoun s in this sentence ?
H is ,”“they ,
”and him .
”
What noun is“his used for ? Peter’s .
20
What noun is they used for ? “Lesson s .
What noun is him used for ? Peter .
”
What, then , is a pronoun ? A word used instead
of a noun .
I saw the man who sold a horse to you .
What is I used for ? In stead of the name of
the speaker .
What is“you used for ? In stead of the n ame
of the person spoken to .
What part of speech would these names be ?
Noun s .
What part of speech , then ,are I and you
Pronouns .
What is the word“who used for ? In stead Of"uthe noun man .
”
What, then , is who called ? A pronoun .
Why? Because it is used instead of a noun .
A nna found my p en cil, and p ut it on her desk .
What noun is “my ”used to rep resen t ? The
name of the speaker .
What noun is “it used to represen t ? Pen
cil.”
What noun is “her used to represen t?“A nna .
What are words used 1nstead of noun s called ?
Pronoun s .
2 1
What , then , are“my,
”“it , and her called ?
Pronouns .
Examp les .
1. I thank thee for the word it nerves my arm .
2 . I will use you for my mirth .
3 . Weigh well thy words before thou givest them brea th .
4 . Here is your kn ife which I borrowed .
5 . Before I gave the thongs to you , they were min e ;handed them to you , they were yours .
INTERJECTIONS
A las the remedy came too late .
What is asserted in this sentence ? That the
remedy came too late
I s the word alas necessary to make the asser
tion ? NO
Do you understand the speaker to regret that the
remedy came too late?"es .
Whatword conveys that idea to you? A las .
Does it assert that the speaker regrets it? No .
Does it imp ly it ?"es .
t at , then , is alas used for ? To imp ly the
emotion of regret.
What are words used to imp ly emotion or feelingc alled ? Interjection s .
What is alas A n interjection .
Why? Because it imp lies emotion , and is not
connected with the sentence .
22
TAB LE OF INTERJECTIONS .
bravo , halloo, ho,
fie, hark , hurrah ,
ha, hey, hush,
ha, ha, ha, heyday, huzzah
,
hail , hist , 10 ,
Examp les .
1 . Alas why need you be so rough P2 . Ah"it is Pythias himself.3 . Hush"hush"thou vain dreamer .
4 . Well"what can I do for thee P5 . O I shall drown , I shall drown
PARTS OF SPEECH .
We have now seen that words may be reduced to
classes , according to the purpose for which they are
used ; that
Words used as names are noun s .
Words used to assert are verbs .
Words used to descr ibe noun s are adjectives .
Words used to tell how,when , or where an action
is performed are adverbs .
Words used before nouns and p ronoun s to conn ect
them with some other word are p rep osetions .
Words used to con nect sen ten ces , and prevent therepetition of what is the same in each are conjunc
tion s .
Words used to imp ly emotion or feeling without
asserting it are in terjection s .
23
Words used instead of nouns are p ronouns .
These classes of words are called p arts of sp eech,
and include all the words in the language .
What are nouns ? What are verbs ?
What are adjectives ? What are adverbs ?
What are preposition s ?
What are con junction s ?What are interjections ?What are pronoun s ?What are these classes of words called ?
Examp les .
1. The horse ran with the carriage and broke it.2 . Charles looked for the book .
3 . G eorge recited his lesson s well .4 . I was fond of sport when I was young .
5 . I informed Charles Of the ar rival,and he was very glad .
6 . John remains in the city ,and William return s to the coun try .
7. The rivers are wide‘
and dbefi8 . Father bought this sled , but that kn ife was a presen t from
my uncle .
H a"they please me now.
10 . William gave me the book , an d I now cheerfully give it toyou .
A NOUN ’S the n ame of anything ;A s, school or g ar den , hoop or swing .
ADJECTIVES tell the hunt of noun ;
A s, g r eat, small, p r etty, white , or hr owrz .
Three of these words we often see
Called ARTICLES a , an ,and the.
Instead of nouns the PRONOUNS stand ;John’s head
,h i s face , my arm, your hand .
24
VERE S tell Of something bemg doneA s
,r ead, wr ite , sp ell, sing , jump , or r un .
H ow things are done the ADVERB S tell ;A s, slowly , quickly, ill, or well.
They also tell us wher e and whenA s, her e, and there , and h ow
,and then .
A PREPOS ITION stands bef or eA noun ; as, in ,
or throug h , a door .
CONJUNCTIONS sen tences un ite ;A s kittens scratch and puppies bite .
The INTERJECTION shows surprise ;A s
,
’
0 , how pretty"A h , howwise"PERSON OF NouNs .
A noun may be the name Of the person sp eaking,
sp oken to , or sp oken of .
If I say,“W illiam, bring the book to me , your
teacher ,” what noun is the n ame of the person
sp eaking ? Teacher .
”
What noun is the name of the p erson sp oken to ?
William .
”
What noun is the n ame Of the thing sp oken of ?
Book .
When a noun is the n ame of“
the pe rson sp eaking ,
of what person is it ? Of the first person .
What noun is of the first person in this example ?Teacher .
26
What word must be used to ex press more than
one ? Children .
When a word means on ly one person or thing , of
what number is it ? Singular number
When a word mean s more than on e, of what num
her is it ? Plural n umber .
What is the plural form of the following noun s
house, horse, ship , boat, r iver , school?
What is the singular form of the following noun s
benches , seats , boxes , windows , doors ?
What must be added to the word horse to
make it plural ?
What must be added to box to makeit p lural ?
es .
”
H ow is the plural number common ly formed ? Byadding s or es to the singular
What is the plural of child
H ow is it formed ? By adding ren to the sin
gular .
H ow is the plural of man formed ? By chang
ing“a”to e .
”
Spell the p lural'
of goose , fool, foot, ox ,woman ,
mouse .
What is the plural o f ladyl
Lad ies .
H ow is the plural formed ? By chang ing “yinto ies .
”
I s there a vowel immediately before the y in
“lady ” ? NO .
Then , if a noun ends in “y without a vowel
immediately before it , how is the plural formed ?
27
Spell the p lural of the following words"fly, bodyglory, story, p ossibility, navy, victory, fa iry, beautycherry, duty, lady.
What letter was removed from each ?
What letters were added to each ?
Why? Because “y ”
was not immediately p re
ceded by a vowel .
What is the p lural of key "eys .
H ow is it formed ? By adding s .
I s the “y ” preceded by a vowel ?"es , by the
vowel“eWhat , then , is added to form the p lural when
final y is directly p receded by a vowel ? s .
”
Spell the p lural of the following words"turkey,day, monkey, toy, ray, boy, convoy, way, valley,
delay.
What is the p lural Of loaf Loaves
What is the plural of “kn ife ” ? “"n ives .
Into what is f or fe in these examp les
changed ? In to ves .
”
Spell the p lural Of the following words"lif e , wife,sheaf, leaf , wharf .
What is the plural Of muff”? M uif s .
“Stay
”has slaves for its plural . A ll others ln ff
add s .
”
28
G ENDER .
A noun may be the name of a male, a female, or
an object which i s neither male nor female .
The gen tleman an d lady are in the car .
Does the noun“gen tleman
”denote a male , Or
female ? A male .
What is the gender of the name of a male ?
Masculine .
Then Of what gender is gen tleman M ascu
line .
Does “lady denote a male or female ? A
female .
What is the gender of the n ame of a female ?
Femin ine .
Then of what gender is“lady Femmme .
Does car”den ote a male, a f emale , or neither ?
N either .
What is the gender of a noun that is neither male
nor female ? Neuter .
What does neuter mean ? I t means n either .
Of what gender is car Neuter .
The boy and his sister were p laying at ball.
What words are noun s in this example ?Of what p erson is each ? Why?
Of what number ? Why ?
Of what gender ? Why?
29
Examp les .
1 . William’s cheek was wet with his mother’s tears.
2 . M an,the hermit , sighed , till woman smiled .
3 . Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot , over gravewhere our hero we buried .
4 . There is no breeze upon the lake .
5 . Why should gold man’s feeble m ind decoy P
6 . The fi sherman drags to the shore his laden nets.
7. The schoolboy lags with satchel in his hand .
William walks .
What pronoun may be used for William in
this sen ten ce ? “H e .
”
What number , p erson , and gender William”
Why ?
The p up ils may take the p up ils’seats .
What pronoun may be used so as to avoid the
repetition of pupils in this sentence ? Their .
”
What n umber and person is pup ilsI s it necessary to determine the gender of a noun
when it is Of the third person plural ? N0 .
W hy? Because we use the same p ronoun to
rep resent a noun of either gender , in the p lural
number ; as ,
The boys may take their seats .
The gir ls may take their s eats .
The trees have dropped their leaves .
Of what number are the three noun s , boys ,
girls ,”
trees
Why
30
Of what person ? Why ?
What is the gender of boys Why?
Of girls Why ?
Of “trees Why ?
What pronoun represents each of these noun s of
differen t genders ? Their .
”
Of what person and number is “t heir Third ,
p lural, like the nouns .
When 1s 1t unn ecessary to tell the gender Of
nouns ? When they are p lural.
Whv? Because the same p ronoun will rep resenta plural noun of either gender .
CASE .
William sees John .
H ow may this sen tence be written , using a p ro
noun instead Of William
H e sees John .
What pronoun is used instead of William in
this examp le ?“H e .
”
This is William’s ha t.
What pronoun may be used in stead of “William
’s”here ?
’ “H is
31
John sees William .
What p ronoun may be used instead of1Will
iam”in this example ? H im.
”
I s the same noun a lways represented by the same
form of the p ronoun? I t is not .
H ow many forms o f the pronoun are used in
these examples to represent the noun“William ” ?
What are they ? H e ,
”his ,
”him .
What are these differen t forms called ? Cases .
H owmany cases are there ? Three .
What are they called ? Nomin ative , p ossessive
and objective. Thus"William"he) sees John . Nominative case.
This is W'
illiam’s"his) hat. Possessive case .
John sees W illiam"him) . Objective case .
H ow many*d iffereh t
"f6?h is has the noun Will
iam in the three cases ? Only two .
What cases of nouns are a like in form ? The
nominative and Objective .
H ow is the p ossessive case formed ? By the addi
tion of an ap ostrophe and the letter s
What is an apostrOphe ? A comma p laced above
the line ; thus
The girls"they) were singing . Nominative.
These are the girls’"their ) bonn ets . Possessive .
I have seen the girls"them) . Objective .
.
H ow is the possessive case of the noun formed in
this example ? By adding an apostrophe .
3 2
Why is“s”
omitted ? TO avoid an unpleasantsuccess1on Of the hissing sounds .
TABLE OF NOUNS .
N ominative ease. Boy, Man ,
Possessive case . Boy’s,
Man’s,
Objective ease . Boy . Man .
Nominatzve ease . Boys Men Heroes,Possessive ease. Boys M en 5
,Heroes’,
Objective case . Boys . Men . Heroes .
Does the nominative case difi er in form from the
objective ? No .
In which case is the noun va ried ? The p os
sessive .
I n writing sentences , may we d isregard the cases
of noun s unless they are in the possessive ?"es .
Why? Because in the other two cases they are
Written exactly alike .
What parts Of speech are varied in the differen t
cases ? The p ersonal pronouns and the r elative p ro
noun who .
”
See table in nex t lesson .
TABLE OF PER SONAL AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS .
To be committed .
FIRST PERSON .
Why ? Because it is used instead Of the name Of
the p erson sp eaking .
Of what person 1s“thou The second
Why ? Because it is used instead Of the name Of
the person sp oken to .
Of what person 18 he The third .
Why? Because it is used instead of the name of
the p erson or thing sp oken of.
Why are the pronouns in the second table called
relative p ronouns ? Because thev are used instead
of nouns , and also conn ect sen tences .
The oflicers p ursued the thief, who fled .
H ow many assertion s are made in this examp le ?
Two .
What is the first ? The officers p ursued the
What is the second ? Who fled .
What part Of Speech is“who A pronoun s
Why ? Because it is used instead of the noun
“thief .
If the pronoun “who is used in this examp le ,
is it n ecessary to supply a con junction to connect
the sentences ? No .
If I say,“The officers pursued the thief , he
fled , is a con junction requ1red to connect the sen
tences ?"es .
What, then , is the. use of the word who\”in
this examp le ? I t is used instead of the noun
thief ,”and also connects the two sentences .
3 5
What, then , is it called ? A r elative p ronoun .
This is the man who"that) bought a horse .
This is the horse which"that) the man bought.
This is the house which"that) was bought .
Which of the relative p ronoun s may be used in
stead of a noun which is the n ame of a p erson ?
Who ,”“that .
”
Which of the relative p ronouns may be used in
stead of a name of an an imal or inan imate thing?
Which,” “that .
”
TO what , then , may who relate ? TO p ersons .
To what may which relate ? To an imals and
inanimate things .
TO what may“that l elate ? To p ersons , ani
mals , and inan imate things .
I saw the man who was injured .
I s I saw the man-l ”
an assertion ?
IS who was in jured an assertion ?
H ow‘
many assertion s in the example ?Then
’
howmany sen ten ces in it ?
What pronoun is used to rep resen t man in the
second ? “Who .
”
IS there a con junction to connect the two sen
teh ees ? NO .
What does con nect them? Who .
Then what kind Of a pronoun 1s who A
relative pronoun .
What person and number is man Third
p erson , singular .
3 6
Then what person and number is who Third ,
singular .
I n what respect are pronouns like the n oun s they
represent? I n p erson and number .
STA TEMENT . Pronoun s agree in person and num
ber with the noun s they rep resent.
What can the p ronoun who be used instead
of The names of p ersons only.
What case is“who"See table .)What other relative pronoun can be used in
example to represen t man
H ow would it read ? “I saw the man that
in jured .
”
I n what case , then ,is that
”? Nominative .
E xamp les .
I have found the kn ife that Charles lost .Here IS the boy whose p en I borrowed .
William, who was presen t, consented .
This is the gentleman whom I mentioned .
The horse that ran away was killed .
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE .
B lrds fly.
What are we speaki ng of in this sentence ?
Birds .
37
What dowe call that which we are sp eak ing about?
The subject.
Then what is the subject of this sentence ? Birds .
What do we say about birds ? They fly.
What do we call that which asserts or decla res a
thing ? A p red icate .
What do we afi rm, or assert, or p redicate, of
birds in this sentence ? That they fly.“That do we mean , then , by the p redica te of a
sen tence ? The word that declares or a sserts some
thi ng of the subject .
Does a sentence always have a subject and p red i
cate ?"es .
Why? Because , when we sp eak , there must be
something that we sp eak about, and something that
we say about it .
A -good— man .
I s this a sentence ?‘
I t is not .
Why? Because nothing is asserted or p redica ted
of the man .
A cts well.
I s this a sentence ? I t is not .
Why? Because there is no subject of which
acting well”is p redicated or asserted .
A good man acts well.
I s this a sen tence ? I t is .
Why? Because it has a subject and a p red ica te.
What is the subject ? M an .
”
38
What is the predicate ? A cts .
”
What part of speech is man A noun“
. WhyOf what number ? W hy
?
Of what person ? Why ?
Of what gender ? Why?
What pronoun may be used in its p lace ? H e .
I n what case is“he Nominative ."See tableof p ronoun s . )Then in what case is man Nomin a tive .
In what case, then ,must the subject be ? I n the
nominative .
STA TEMENT1— The subject of a sentence must bei n the nomin ative case .
H orses ran .
What are we speaking of in this sen tence ?
IIorses .
Then what is the subject ?
What is affi rmed or p red icated of horses
Tha t they ran .
Then what is the p redicate?
What part of speech is horses A noun .
Why?
What n umber ? Why ?
What person ? W hy ?
I s it necessary to tell the gender when the noun
is p lural? No .
Why ? Because the same pronoun is used instead
of a masculin e , femin ine , or neuter noun in the plural.
39
I n what case is horses Nominative .
Why ? Because it is the subj ect .
I n what case must the subject be“That pronoun may be used in stead of horses
They .
”
Why may not them be used instead of
lzorses in this sen tence ? Because them is in
the objective case , and the subject must be in the
nominative .
Examp les .
1 . Trees grow . 2 . Scholars study. 3 . Charles jumps. 4 . Virtuewill be rewarded . 5 . Children are taught . 6 . Flowers will wither,7. The men talked . 8 . Stephen was stoned . 9 . Cicero was ad
mired . 10 . Boys will talk .
studies . 2 . will g row . 3 .
have arrived . 5 . will be loved .
1
6 .
play . 8 . walks . 10 .
1.-Boys 2 . Flowers 3 . Birds
5 . Scholars 6 . Child ren8. G nats 9 . Fishes 10 . Lion s
John’s dog barks
What are we speaking of in this sen tence ?
dog .
What, then ,is the subject ? Dog .
WhyWhat part of speech is dog W hy
?
What number ? W hy
What person ? What case ?
4 0
I n what case must the subject be ?What do we assert of the dog
? That he barks .
What , then , is the predicate ? Why ?
What part of speech is“barksWhat word denotes the owner or p ossessor of the
dog ? John’s .
”
What part of speech is John’s A noun .
W'
hy?
Of what number ? Why ?“lhat person ? Why?
What gender ? WhyH ow is it varied to denote the owner or possessor ?
A n apostrophe and s are added .“That pronoun may be used in stead of, John’s
H is .
”
In what case 18“his ” ?"See table of p ronoun s . )
I n what c ase is John’s Possess ive .
I n what case , then ,is a noun when it is varied to
denote the owner or p ossessor ? Possessive .
STATEMENT . When a noun is varied to denote
the owner or p ossessor , it is in the p ossessive case .
Examp les .
Edward’s book has been found .
Charles saw Henry’s classmate .
William’s mother has return ed .
A friend’s infi rmities should be borne .
Henry’s dog is lost . 6 . G eorge saw the boy's sled .
books have been lost . 2 . parents rejoice .
I met brother . 4 . Charles found kn ife .
4 2
H im . I n what case is him Then in what case
is John
Does it require a p reposition between saw and
John ,
”to make sen se ? No .
Do all verbs admit a noun after them in the ob
jective case ? They do not .
What is a verb called which takes a noun after it
in the objective case ? A Tran sitive verb .
What kind of a verb is saw i n the above
example ? Tran sitive . Why ?
Would it be proper to say, John went BostonNo . Why? B ecause the verb went w ill not
admit the objective case without a prepos ition .
What kind of a verb then is went ” ? I n tran
sitive . Why ?
STATEMENT . Transitive verbs require the oh
jective case after them.
MODE .
What does mode‘
mean ? Manner .
What does mode mean when applied to verbs
The man ner in which they are used .
I f I say, William walks ,”how is the verb used ?
I t is used to declare what he does .
William canwalk .
H ow is the verb used here ? To declare his ability
to walk .
4 3
When a verb is used for simp le declaration or
indication , in what mode is it ? I nd icative mode .
When a verb is used to declare ability or p ower to
perform an action , i n what mode is it ? Poten tial.
1 . William may go . 2 . William can go .
3 . William must go . 4 . William might go .
William could go . 6 . William would go .
7. William should go .
What does the first sen tence declare ? The p ossi
bility that William will go ; or it gran ts himlibertyto go .
The third ? I t declares the n ecessity of his going .
The second , fou rth , and fifth ? They declare his
ability to go .
The sixth ? I t dec lares his will or inclination to
o .gThe seventh ? I t declares his obligation to go .
I n what mode are verbs , when they exp ress
p ossibility, liberty, p ower , will, obliga tion , or n eces
sity? I n the p otentia l mode .
What is the mean ing of“p oten tial ” ? I t mean s
p owerf ul.
Does the p oten tial mode ,always exp ress p ower
?
No .
What does it express ? I t expresses p ossibility,
liberty, p ower , will, obligation , or n ecess ity, by using
may, can ,must, might, could , would , or should .
I f a verb from its sign ification , without the use of
4 4
any of these words , expresses power , obligation ,
etc . , is it said to be ln the poten tial mode ?’
Ne .
If I say, William may go if he wishes ,”how is
the verb wishes used ? To exp ress a cond ition .
What is the condition under which he is p ermitted
to go ? That he wishes or desires it .
In what mode is a verb when it exp resses a con
dition ? I n the subjun ctive mode .
What is the mean ing of subjunctive I t
mean s somethingjoined or added .
Children , obey you r p a ren ts .
H ow is the verb obey ” used in this examp le ?
I t is used to express a command .
I n what mode is a verbwhich is used to exp ress a
command ? Imp erative mode .
What is the meaning of “imperative ” ? Com
mand ing .
I s the imp erative mode a lways used to command ?
For what other purpose is it used ? For p raying
or en trea ting ; as , G ive us this day our dailybread Do let me have the book .
1 . Children obey their paren ts .
2 . Children must obey their parents .
3 . Children should obey their p aren ts .
4 . Children , obey your parents .
5 . Children'
will be happy if theyobey their p arents .
4 5
I n what mode i s“obey in the first examp le ?
I ndicative .
Why? Because it is used for simp le declaration .
I n what mode is must obey ” in the second ex
ample ? Poten tial.
Why ? Because it ex p resses n ecessity, by the
aid of must .
”
I n”
what mode is should obey in the third
example ? Poten tial.
Why? Because the verb exp resses obligation by
the aid of should .
I n what mode is obey in the fourth examp le?
Imp erative .
Why? Because it is used for command ing .
In what mode is obey”in the fifth examp le ?
Subjun ctive .
Why? Because it is used to ex press the condition
hnder which children may behap py.
Children are commanded to obey their p aren ts .
What is the subject of this sentence ? Children .
What is the p redicate A re commanded .
”
t at p art of speech is are“commanded A
verb .
What other verb in this senten ce ? Obey .
Why is it averb ? Because it may be used as a
p redicate , to assert or affi rm .
I s it used as a p redicate in this examp le ? I t is
not .
4 6
I n what mode 1s a verb when it is not used as a
p red icate? I nfi nitive.
What word gen erally precedes a verb in the in
fi nitive mode ? The preposition to .
”
H owmany modes have verbs ? Five .
What ar e they ? Indicative , poten tial, imperative ,subjunctive , and infinitive .
William must study his lesson .
What is asserted of William? That he must
study.
What p art of speech is must study? A verb .
Why? Because it is used to assert something .
What does the we re must express ? Necessity.
Then in what mode is must study”? Potential.
Why ? Because the poten tial mode is used to
express n ecessity, by the aid of must.
Examp les .
1. William studies his lesson s.
2 . William has learned his lessons .
3 . George returned yesterday . 4 . John can buy a book .
5 . John may buy a book . 6 . Boys, obey your teachers .
7. Pupils should obey their teachers.
8. The boys ran to see the soldiers .
9. William studied Well , or he could not have improved somuch .
10 . Charles, bring your book to me .
11. I love to look on a scen e so lovely .
12 . The boy had returned when I '
arrived .
13 . Children should try to behave well .14 . The gen tleman should not have purchased"he house , if hedisliked it.15 . The boy will attend school if his parents consent .16 . Do give me the knife .
47
TENSE .
What is themean ing o f ten’
se, as applied to verbs ?
I t means the time when an action is done .
What is the most common division of time ? Into
p resen t, p ast, and time to come , or future .
If I say, Henry walks ,”when do I rep resent
the action as taking p lace? Now
I n what tense, then , is“walks P resen t.
If I say,“Henry walked yesterday,
”when do
I rep resent the action to have taken place? I n a
space of time whollyp ast.
I n what tense is walked Past.
If I say,“Henry has walked to-day, when is
the action represented as being done ? In a sp ace
of time which is not wholly p ast.
I n what ten se is has walked P resent p erfect.
If I say,
“Henry had walked before you saw
him, when did the action take place ? Before a
p ast time, men tioned .
I n what ten se is had walked Past p erfect.
If I say,“Hen ry will walk , when do I assert
that the action will take p lace ? I n time to come , or
future time .
I n’what ten se is will come Future .
If I say,
“Henry will have walked before to
morrow,
”when is the action rep resented to take
p lace? I n f uture time before a time mentioned .
I n what ten se is will have walked” ? Future
p erfect.
4 8
H owmany ten ses have verbs ? Six .
What are they? Present, presen t perfect, p ast ,past perfect, future , future p erfect.When does the p resen t ten se represen t an action
as taking p lace ? Now.
When does the p ast ten se represent an action as
having taken place ? I n a space of time wholly p ast.
When does the p resent p erfect ten se represen t an
action as having taken place ? I n a space of time
not wholly p ast.
When does the p ast p erfect tense represen t an
action as having taken place ? Before a p ast time
men tioned .
When does the future ten se represent that an
action will take place ? I n time to come, or future
time .
When does the future p erfect ten se represent that
the action will have .taken place ? A t a future time ,before a time men tion ed .
Examp les .
The horse runs. 2 . The horses haverun .
The birds flew.
The stage had left when I arrived .
Charles will learn his lesson .
Jameswill have arrived before noon .
George has returned from the coun try .
George came home last week .
The ship sails well . 10 . The girls gathered flowers.The gentleman will call to-morrow .
William did not work yesterday , but he has worked to-day.
50
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have taught , We shall have taught,"ou will have taught, "ou or ye wil l have taught ,
H e will have taught . They will have taught .
POTENTIAL MODEPRESENT .
I may, can ,or must teach , XVe may, Can ,
or must teach ,"ou may, can , or must teach , "ou , or ye may ,can , or must
teach,
H e may, can , or must teach . They may , can , or must teach .
I may, can,
or
taught,"ou may, can
,or
taught ,H e may, can
,or
taught .
PAST .
I might , could , would , or should W e might,could , would , or
teach,
should teach,"ou might
,could , would , or"ou or ye might , could , would,
should teach , or should teach ,H e might , could , would , or They might , could , would , orshould teach . should teach .
PAST PERFECT .
I might, could , would , or should W e might , could , would , or
have taught , should have taught ,"ou might, could,would , or "ou or ye might , could , would ,
should have taught , or Should have taught,H e might , could , would , or They might , could , would , or
should have taught . should have taught .
PERFECT .
W e may, can , or musttaught
,"ou or ye may , can,or
have taught ,They may, can
,or must
taught .
5 1
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE .
PRESENT .
If I teach , If we teach ,If you teach , If you or ye teach ,
If he teach If they‘
teach .
Same forms as the indicative and poten tial , preceded by if ; etc .
IMPERATIVE MODE .
Teach you or thou,or do you or thou teach
Teach you or ye , or do vou or ye teach .
INFINITIVE MODE .
PRESENT . To teach . PRESENT PERFECT . To have taught .
PARTICIPLES .
PRESENT PARTICIPLE . Teaching . PAST PARTICIPLE . Taught .
PARTICIPLES .
What is the mean ing of “p articip le ” ? A p ar
ticip ator , or Sharer .
What is the meaning of the term“participlewhen applied to Words ? I t mean s certain forms of
the verb which are used as adjectives , or nouns , and
yet retain something of the nature of the verb .
H ow many participles are derived from a verb ?
Twe .
What are they called? The p resent and the past .
What is the p resen t particip le of the verb love
Loving .
52
H ow does the presen t participle end ? I n
ing .
”
What is the p resent p articiple of the verb“speak Speaking .
”
Of the verb“hear Hearing .
What is the p ast participle of the verb love
Loved .
”
WVhat is the p a st participle of the verb sp eak” ?
Spoken .
Of the verb hear Heard .
Examp les .
“Talk , run,strike , write , go, try ,
improve , rely , rejoice , read ,realize , represen t , partake, form, prefix ,
begin,receive , give , etc .
VERB BE OR A M .
What is the usual form of this verb , in the ind ica
tive mode , p resent tense ? A re .
”
G ive examples .
“"ou are ,”“we are ,
” “theyare .
”
What is the form when the subject is of the first
person , S ingular number ? Am .
”
What is the form when the subject is of the third
person Singular ? I S.
”
What is the usual form of the p ast tense of
this verb ? Were .
”
What is the form when the sub ject is of the first
53
or third p erson Singular? W as as , I was
he was .
”
What is the usual form of the present p erfecttense ? “Have been ; as , I have been ; you
have been ,
”we have been ,
”“they have been .
”
What is the form of the p resen t p erfect ten se when
the subject is of the‘
third person Singular ? “H as
been as , he has been .
I s the verb varied in the other three ten ses of the
indicative mode ? I t is n ot .
IS it varied in the poten tial mode ? No .
INDICATIVE MODE
When the subject is of the firstlperson singularl When the subject 1s ofthe thirdIperson SingularlWhen the“subject is of the fi rst
Past. or thi1d person SingularUsual fo1mNVhen the subject 1s ofthe thi1d
Pr esen t person SingularUsual form
Past p erf ect. H ad been .
Shall or wil l be .
Futur e p erfect. Shall or will have been .
POTENTIAL MODE .
Pr esen t. M ay,can
, or must be .
Might,could
,would
, or Should be .
Presen t p erfect. May, can ,or must have been .
Paup er/eat. Might,could, would , or should have been .
54
SUB JUNCTIV E MODE .
Indicative and subjunctive forms preceded by if"The following forms are sometimes used in the subjunctive mode ,presen t and imperfect ten ses
I f he be ;
If he were
INFINITIV E MODEPr esen t. To be .
Pr esen tp erfect. To have been .
PARTICIPLE S .Pr esen t. Being .
Been .
A CTIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS .
A tran sitive verb may be used in two ways . I n
the active form, it rep resen ts the subject as the actor
or doer,
‘ in the p a ssive form, the subject is rep re
sen ted as the receiver .
Pr esen t ten se .
If you be ,If they be .
Past.
If you were ,If they were .
IMPERATIV E MODE .
Pr esen t. Be .
55
John struck the horse . The horse was struck by
John .
Do these two sen tences exp ress the same idea , or
differen t ones ? The same .
What is the subject of the first sen tence ?
“John .
I S John the do‘
er , or receiver ? The doer , or
actor .
What did he do ? H e struck .
I s struck ,”then , active or passive ? A ctive .
Why ? Because the subject is the actor .
What is the subject of the second Sen tence ?
Horse .
”
IS“horse the deer , or rece1ver ? The receiver .
What did he receive ? H e received the blowwhich
John struck .
”
I s was struck active , or p assive ? Passive .
Why ? Because this? subject is the receiver of an
action.
Examp les .
I have read the book .
The partiality of friends may have injured the boy .
The girls gathered flowers .
Charles caught a fi sh .
James could not fi nd the book .
James sees Thomas . Thomas is seen by James .
In the first sen tence, is the verb “sees ” in the
active or p assive form ?
Why ?
5 6
I n which form 1s the verb is seen , in the second
senten ce
Why?
H ow is the passive verb is seen formed ? By
adding the past particip le of the verb see to a
part of the verb“am,
”or be .
”
What is the past par ticiple of the verb see
Seen f’
What part of the verb “be is the verb is” ?
The indicative mode , p resen t ten se , used with a sub
ject in the third person , singular number
Read these sen tences with the verb in the p ast
tense . James saw Thomas .
”Thomas was
seen by James .
”
Put the verbs in the i ndicative , p resen t p erfect.“James has seen Thomas“Thomas has been
seen by James .
”“P astp erfect.“James had seen Thomas .
“Thomas
had been seen by James .
”
Future. James will see Thomas . Thomas
will be seen by James .
”
Future p erfect. “James will have seen Thomas .
Thomas will have been seen by James .
”
Examp les for Practice .
1 . I study the lesson . 2 . William learns arithmetic .
3 . Horses eat hay. 4 . Boys wear hats .
5 . A garmen t of brightness illumed its dark path .
6 . The Indian paddles the light canoe .
58
Why? Because its p ast ten se and past particip leare formed by adding ed to the p resent .
What is the past tense , and p ast p ar ticip le of
the verb teach”
Taught .
”
A re the past ten se and p ast particip le of this verb
formed by adding ed to the presen t ten se ? Theyare not .
I S the verb teach regular , or irregular ?
Irregular .
Examp les .
Move , hear, sell , desire , offer,occur , behave , con trol , dehght,
cry, beseech , do , sit, hermit .
A DJE CTIVE PRONOUNS .
TABLE 1. TABLE 2 .
Demonstr ative .
This,
former,Some
,all
,both ,
that , latter . other , such , several ,these , any ,
no, etc .
those , t
one,
non e,
What are adjective p ronouns ? They are words
which may be used either as adjec tives or p ronouns .
H OW are they divided ? Into demon strative , in
definite , and d istributive .
Why are those in the first table called demon stra
tive ? Because they Show defin itely what is incan t ;as , this book ,
”that book .
”
59
Why are those in the second table called indefin ite ? Because they do not Show defin itely what is
meant ; as ,“some book ,
”any book .
”
W hy are those in the third table called distribu
tive . Because they refer to things sep arately; as ,
each book ,
”every book .
”
Repeat table of demon strative pronouns .
Repeat table of indefinite p ronoun s .
Repeat table of distributive pronoun s .
Examp les .
This book is mine . Each boy recited .
This ismy book . Every gir l must be studious.
Some books are good , and others are bad .
COMPARISON OE A DJECTIVES .
William is wise.
What ”
does the adjective wise express in this
senten ce ? I t simply describes or expresses the
quality of William .
John is wiser than William .
What does the adjective wiser express in thissentence ? I t expresses the quality of John as
comp ared with William.
60
H enry is the wisest of the three.
What does the adjective wisest express in thissen ten ce ? I t expresses the quality of H enry , as
comp ared with both of the others .
Do the adjectives wise , wiser ,” wisest,
ex p ress the same quality? They do .
Does each exp ress the same degree of the quality ?I t does not .
Which word simp ly exp resses the quality?
Wise .
”
Which exp resses a higher degree of the same qual
ity? Wiser .
”
Which exp resses the highest degree of the quality?
Wisest .
”
H owmany degrees of wisdom are expressed bythese words ? Three .
What are these degrees called in grammar ? The
degrees of comparison . What is that form of an
adjective called which simp ly exp resses the quality?
The p ositive .
What is that form called which exp resses a higher
degree of the quality? The comp arative .
What is that form called which exp resses the
highest degree of the quality ? The sup erlative .
What degree of comparison is “wise Posi
tive .
Why? Because it simp ly exp resses the quality.
What degree is w1ser”? Comparative .
Why? Because it exp resses a higher degree of the
quality than the p ositive.
6 1
What degree is wises t” ? Superlative .
Why ? Because it exp resses the highest degree ofthe quality.
H ow are the comparative and superlative degreesof the adjective . wise formed ?
Let the pup il comp are the following adjectives
rich, young, old , p oor , great, strong , weak , p ure,
firm, cold , wa rm .
I ndustr ious men work .
H ow may the adjective“industrious be made to
exp ress a higher degree of the quality? By placing
the adverb more”beib iie if
H ow“
may it be made to exp ress the highest
degree ? By p refixing most”
to the positive
form .
Posztive . Industrious .
Comp a r a ti ve. More industr ious .
Sup er /al ive. Most industrious .
H ow are the comp arative and superlative deg rees
of the ad jective“industrious ” formed ?"Compare the following adjectives in the same
mann er"beautiful, dutiful, anxious , des irous , eager ,Consisten t, ignoran t, imp atien t.
62
H ow are adjectives of one syllable commonlycompared ? By adding r or er in
‘
the com
p arative , and st”or est in the superlative .
H ow are adjectives of more than one syllablecommon ly compared ? By p refixmg
“more ” and
most to the positive form.
H owmay adjectives be made to e x press a lower
and the lowest degree of quality? By p refixing“less and“least ” to the positive form.
Positive. Industrious.
Comp ar ative . Less industrious.
Super lative . L east‘
industrious .
Compare the.
following adjectives in the same
mann er"in ten se hap p y, strong, general, wise , com“fortable , a nxious , dutiful, r ich .
Some adjectives are irregularly comp ared ; as ,
Positive .
G ood,
Bad , ill, or evil,
Fore ,L ittle ,Late
,
Much or many ,Near
,
Old ,
best .worstfarthest or furthestforemost or fi rst .least.latest or last .most .nearest or nex t .eldest .
63
Hinder , hindermost or hindmost.In ner , inn ermost or inmost .Nether , nethermost .Upper , uppermost or upmost .
Adjectives of number , and those whose quality does not admit ofchange in degree , cannot be compared ; as , endless
,aosenz‘, p r esent,
éouna’less
,on e, two, almig hty ,
annua l.
A RTICLES .
If I say,“G ive me a book , do I sp ecify defi
n itely what book I want ? No .
If I say, G ive me the book , to what do youunderstand me to refer ? To some p articula r book .
What may a be called ? A n indefi n ite a rticle.
What may“the be _called ? A defi n ite article.
I s it proper to say a boy "esI s it prop er to say a boys No .
Before what noun s may the indefi n ite article he
placed ? Before nouns in the singular number .
I s it p rop er to say the boy,”and “the boys ” ?"es .
Before what noun s , then , may the defin ite article
be p laced ? Before noun s of e ither number .
I s it p roper to say“a app le ,
”a orange ,
”a
hour” ?
What must be used in stead of a in these
examples ?“A n .
”
64
Why? Because the followmg word begins witha vowel sound .
When must “an ”be used in stead of “a ” ?
When it is p laced before a word beg i nn ing with a
vowel sound .
acorn . vouth.
honest man .
carriage . rivers .
tion ary hourglass.
ANALYSIS , on PARSING .
Boys p lay.
I s this a sentence ?"e s .
Why? Because the words are combined so as to
convey an idea .
What is the subject ? Why ?
What is the predicate ? W'
hy
What part of speech is the subject ? Why ?
Of what gender? W
'
hy?
Person ? Why ? Number ? Whv ?
What personal pronoun may be used in its place ?
I n what case , then , is the subject ?
What part of speech is play Why?
6 6
When a noun or pronoun stands in the relation of
a subject to a p redicate , in what case must it be ?
Nominative .
Can you state the fac t in general terms ? The
subject of a verbmust be in the nominative case .
When a verb stands in the relation of a p redicate
to a subject, of what person . and number is it said tobe ? Of the same person and number as the subject .
H ow may this fact be stated in gen eral terms ?
A verb agrees with its subject in n umber and p erson .
Examp les .
Birds fly . Men work . James studies. Water runs. We speak .
They talk .
I ndustr ious men work .
I s this a sentence ? Why?What is the subject ? Why ?
The predicate ? Why?
What word describes the men , or limits them
certain class ?What part of speech is the subject ? Why ?
What person ? WhyNumber ? Why? Case ? Why ?
What part of sp eech i s the predicate ?Why?
R egular , or irregular ? Why?
Tran sitive, or in transitive ? Why?
Mode and tense ? Why ?
67
Person and number ? W hy?What part of Sp eech is industrious
Why ? Compare it .
Of what degree of comparison is it ? Why ?
What does it describe or limit ?
What p art of speech may ad jec tives limit ?
State the fact in gene ral terms . A djectives descr ibe
or limit n ouns .
Examp les .
Idle boys play . Little children grow . A wise man will reflect .The good kin g reigned . B ad men have lived .
The man ta lked foolishly.
What is the subject o f this sentence ?
Whv
The predicate ? Why?What part of speecha is the subject ? Why?
G ender ? Person ? Number ? Case ?
Why?
What part of speech is the p redicate ?Why?
I s it regular , or irregular ?
Transitive , or intran sitive ?
Mode ? Tense ? Person and number ?
Why?
What part of speech is“theWhat kind ? Why ?
What nouns may the be p laced before , or
p refi xed to ? To nouns of either number .
68
What is the word foolishly used for ?
What part of speech is it ?What does it describe or limit?
What may adverbs limit ? A dverbs may
qua lify verbs , adjectives , and adverbs .
Examp les.
James has acted very W isely» A pruden t man acts cautiously .
Sometimes boys study well . The teacher will be here soon .
Charles p icks ber ries .
What is the subject ? The p red icate ?
What part of sp eech is the subject ?
G ender ? Person ? Number ? Case ?
W hy?
What part of speech is the p redicate ?Regular , or irregular ?
T ransitive , or in tran s itive ?
Mode ? Ten se ? Person and number ?
A greemen t ?
What p art of speech is berries
Person ? Number ?“lhat personal pronoun may be used instead of
the noun berries ”
I n what case is them"See table of personal
pronoun s . )I n what case, then , is berries
Why? Because it follows a transitive verb.
69
State this fact in generai terms . Tran sitive verbs
require the objective case after them.
Cha rles p icks ber ries for A nn a .
What p art of sp eech is for A preposition .
Why ?
What does it connect ? The verb p icks with
A nna .
”
What may p reposition s conn ect ? Prep ositions
con nect words .
What part of speech is A n na” ?
What gender ? Person ? Number ?
What personal p ronoun may be used instead of
the noun“A nna
I n what case is her
I n what case , then , is A n na
Why ? Because it follows a preposition .
What is the gen eral statemen t or rule for this ?
P rep ositions requ ire the objective case after them .
Exercises .
The girls gathered flowers in the garden .
William brought the book from England .
The boy foun d a knife in the street .A noise from the street alarmed u s.
William’s dog has run away.
What is the subject ?
What is the p redicate ?
70
Parse the subject . Parse the predicate .
What part of speech is William’s” ?
G ender ? Person ? Number ?What is it used for in this sentence ? To tell the
owner of the dog .
What personal pronoun may be used in stead o f
the noun William’s
I n what case is his
Then in what case is William’s“That is the rule with regard to the p ossess ive
case ? A noun or p ronoun varied to denote the own er
or p ossessor , is in the p ossessive case .
What part. of speech is away”? Why ?
What does it describe or limit?
Exercises .
Warren’s father will return from Californ ia .
James had torn Edward’s bookA frien d should bear a frien d’s 1n firmities .
The boy’s paren ts loved him. I found a lady’s bonnet .The milliner makes ladies’bonnets .
I am the man .
Parse the subject a nd predicate .
What part of speech is man
G ender ? Person ? Number ?
What personal pronoun may be used in its stead ?
What case is man Nominative .
Do the words I and man refe r to tlie samep erson ? They do .
When a noun follows an intransitive verb , and
mean s the‘
same thing as the noun or p ronoun whichprecedes it, in what case must it be ? I n the same
case as the word preceding the verb .
What rule , or general statemen t, can you make
of this ? I ntransitive verbs require the same case
after them as before them, when both words refer to
the same p erson or thing .
Exercises .
Thou art the man . I know him to be an honest man.
The boys are good scholars . The name of my dog is Fido .
Anna has been a good girl . Milton was a great poet .
My Cousin William has come.
What is the subject of this sentence ?The predicate ?Parse the subjectand predicate .
What part of speech is William
Of what gender , person , and n umber ?
What personal pronoun may be used instead of
William
I n what case , then , is William
Does William mean the same p erson as
cousin in this sen tence ?"esH ow does the noun William affect the mean
ing of the sentence ? It is used to exp lain what
cousin is mean t .
What is the rule with regard to nouns used in this
72
relation ? A noun used to exp la in or limit another
noun is in the same case.
Parse my.
”
Exercises .
Paul , the apostle . wrote several epistles.
Howard, the’ philanthropist, visited the prisoners.
William has sold his dog , Fido.
James , come to me.
What is the subject of this sen tence ? “Thou ,
or“you3
’
What is the pred icate ? Come .
I s you exp ressed ? No ; it is under stood to
belong here .
Parse the predicate .
“Come is a verb , ir regular
, in transitive , imperative mode , present tense ,second person , and singular number , to agree with
its subject, you,”referring to James .
What part of speech is James
Person ? Why ? Number ? Why ?
I n what case is a noun which is the name of the
person spoken to ? Nomina tiveI n what case , then , is James
What is the rule applicable to such words ? A
n oun which is the name of a p erson sp oken to is in
the n ominative case , and is used indep endently.
What do you mean by its being used indep en
dently? That it is used without a predicate .
74
The school having closed , the boys wen t away.
What is the subjec t ? Boys .
”
Parse it. Parse the pred icate .
What part of speech is school ”?What person ? Number ? G ender ?
What part of speech is “having closedcompound perfect participle .
H ow i s it used ? A s an adjective .
What does it limit ? School. ”
I s it asserted that the school had closed ?’Tis
not.
I s anything asserted of the noun school” ?
There is not .
In what case is a noun joined with a p articipleand having no grammatical relatlon to the rest of
the sen tence ? Nominative , and used independently .
What rule may be made in referen ce to the caseof such
l
noun s ? A noun joined with a p articip le,
and not connected with the restof the sen tence, is used
indep enden tly in the nominative case .
Exercises .
The war being ended , the army re turned"The boys having rec ited , the teacher dismissed them .
Dan iel being tired of play , his father sen t him to bed .
H enry has gone to Boston to obta in a situation .
Parse the subject . The pred icate .
What phrase shows where Henry has gone
75
What indicates his p urp ose in going ?With what word does to connect Boston
With what does “to ” connect “obtain ”? I t
connects obtain with has gon e .
”
Wha t part of speech is obtain A verb
W hy ? Because it may be used to assert or
affirm.
I s it so used here ? I t is not .
I s obtain regular , or irregular ?
Tran sitive , or in tran sitive ?
H as it a subject ? No .
What mode is it ? Infinitive .
Why? Because it is used without a subject .
What ten se
H ow do you tell the person and n umber o f a verb ?
By its subject .
Can the infin itive mode have any p erson and
number ? No .
Why? Because it has no subject .
What word is common ly placed before a verb in
the infinitive mode ? The preposition to .
”
What is the rule with regard to the infin itive
mode ? A verb following the p rep os ition“to,” and
used without a subject, is in the infi n itive mode .
Soldiers en list to fight . Boys love to play .
W e wish pupils to learn their lesson s .
A nna wishes to please her mother .
William wrote to inform his paren ts of his health .
76
A las"I f ear for life .
Parse the subject and predicate .
What part of Speech is for
What does it connect ?Parse life .
”
What part of speech is“alas Why?
Would it affect the con struction of the sen tence toomit alas I t would n ot .
What is the mean ing of interjectionmeans thrown in .
For what purpose are i nterjections used ? To
imply emotion or feeling .
A re in terjection s grammatically con nected with
the words of a sentence ? They are not.
Make this statemen t or rule in general terms .
The in terjection has no grammatical connection withi"other words .
Exercises .
Lo,how impatien tly the proud ship tosses"
A las"the remedy came too late .
Humph"I guess at it.James can read , and John canwrite.
H ow many comp lete ideas are exp ressed above ?
Two .
H ow many sentences , then , does it cdntain ?
Two .
77
What word connects the two sen ten ces ?
What part of Speech is an d Why ?
What may con jun ction s conn ect ? Conjun ction s
con nect sen tences , and sa ve the rep etition of what is
a like in each.
Exercises .
Washington was a great man ,and Washington was a good man .
Henry has been to Englan d , and William has been to Fran ce .
Horace will study if his father desires it.
They studied steadily and faith fully .
Charles saw Jonas and David .
The gentleman or lady will be there .
Bon aparte was a great man , but not gogd.
I have seen the man who bought ou r horse.
H ow many assertions are made in this example ?
Two .
H ow many sen ten ces does it contain ? Two .
What word connects them ? Who .
”
What p art of speech is who A relative
p ronoun .
What noun does it rep resent ? The noun man .
”
Of what person , number , and gender is man
What, then ,is the p erson , number , and gender of
who
I s a pronoun always of the same p erson , number ,and gender as the noun for which it stands ?"es .
M ake a gen eral statemen t of this fact . P ronoun s
78
must be of the same p erson ,n umber , and gender as
the nouns which they rep resent.
I n what case is who Why?If we use the person al pronoun he in place of
who ,”what word will be required to connect the
sen ten ces ? The con junction and .
What purpose do relative pronouns serve , then ,
besides representing a noun ? R elative p ronoun s
conn ect sen tences .
Exercises .
Charles has the kn ife which was found yesterday.
Here is the man whom I saw at the marke t .This is the boy Whose sled I borrowed .
Where is the ball that you found
The boys received p resen ts when the term closed .
H owmany assertion s are here made ? Two .
H owmany sen tences does it con tain ? Two .
What is the first sen tence ? The boys receivedpresen ts .
”
What is the second sen tence ? The term
closed .
”
What word con nects the sen ten ces ? When .
What other purpose is when used for ? To
Show that the two events occurred at the same time .
What are adverbs called which connect sentences ?
Connective adverbs .
H ow are connective adverbs used ? Connective
adverbs con nect sen tences and limit verbs .
79
Exercises .
James walked till he was fatigued .
I left the boy where I found h im .
\Ve met the gen tleman When he arrived .
After Charles found his book, he soon g e t his lesson .
WVhile the boys have their recess , the windows of the schoolroom should be open .
I know notwhen he performed his task .
Can you tell me where I must p ut my coat PWVhenever you have leisure , you may go for the book .
\Vherever we go, we Shou ld behave well .When G eorge return s from N ewYork , he will probably go to
Portland .
Make hay while the sun shines.
COMPOUND WORDS .
I‘
did i tf
I myself d id it.
I did it myself.
Do these three sen tences express the same idea ?
t at,then ,
is the use of the word “myself ”in the second sentence ? I t merely strengthen s the
assertion .
H ow is the word myself formed ? By add ing
self to the p erson al p ronoun my.
”
What is it called ? A compound personal pronoun .
80
The boy injured himself .
Parse the subject and predicate .
What part of speech is “himself ” ? A com
pound person al pronoun .
Of what gender , person , and number is it?
I n what cas e ? Objective .
Why? Because it follows the tra nsitive verb
“in jured .
iVould this sen tence be complete without him
self I t would not .
TABLE OF COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS .
Myself,
OurselvesYourself, or thyself, yourselves ;
masculine . Himself,
femin in e . Herself, themselves .
neuter . Itself,
The man sp en t that which he earned .
What word may be used in this sen tence to sup
p ly the place of the twowords that which”? The
word what ; thus , The man spent what heearned .
”
What are such words called which supply the
place of two words ? Comp ound relative p ronouns .
Why? Because they are used in place of arelative pronoun and the word it represents .
82
N ominative . Who.
Possessive . Whose.
Objective . Whom.
R ULES
The statemen ts of facts , and in ferences previouslyillustrated and deduced , are here collected as RULES
for reference .
RULE I .» The subject of a verb must be in the
nominative case as , the boy learns .
To see the sun is p leasan t.
I t is p leasan t to see the sun .
Do these two sentences express the same idea ?
What is the Subject of the second sen tence ?
What is said to be p leasan t in the first sentence ?To see the sun .
”
By what is the p hrase“to see the sun rep re
sen ted in the second sen tence ? By the pronounI t .
”
What , then ,is the subject in the first s en tence ?
The phrase ,“to see the sun .
To what does the adjective pleasant , in the
second sentence , refer? To the p ronoun it .
”
Then to what does the same adjective in\the first
83
senten ce refer ? To the phrase.
“to see the sun ,
which it”rep resents .
RULE II .-A djectives describe o r limit noun s
as , a good man , good men , on e cow, three cows , this
boy, these boys .
RULE III . A verb must agree with its subject
in n umber and p erson ; as , the boy ru ns , the boys
run .
Thomas and William"they) r un .
I s it asserted in this sen ten ce that one run s , or
more than one ?
Of what n umber , then ,is the verb ? Plural .
The father of his“countryy and the first p resident
of the United State s , was g reatly beloved .
I s this assertion made of one or more than one ?
Of what number then ,is the verb ? Singular .
John o r Henry sp eaks .
. I S it asserted in thisexamp le that one sp eaks , or
more than one ?
Of what number , then , is the verb “speaks ” ?Singular .
RULE IV . A dverbs descr ibe or limit verbs ,
adjectives , and adverbs as , John reads correctly.
84
The boy behaves very well, in general .
The boy behaves very well, generally.
Do these two sen ten ces mean the same thing?
H ow is the phrase in general”changed in the
second sen tence ? In to the adverb gen erally.
What , then , may the phrase in general be
called ? A n adverbial p hrase .
What other phrases are used in the same way?
I n fine “by and by,”“in vain , etc .
Will you go to the city?"es .
Will you return ? No .
What does the adverb “yes mean in the first
sen tence ? I t means , I will go the city.
”
What does the adverb no mean in the second ?
I t means , I will not return .
”
Do these words describe or limit a particularword ? They do not .
What is the adverb yes called ? A n adverb of
azfirmation .
What is the adverb“no called ? A n adverb of
n egation .
RULE V . Prepositions require the objective caseaf ter them ; as , John gave the book to me .
NOTE .— The preposition is sometimes omitted , butmust be sup
plied in parsing ; as, G ive me the book ; parsed thus, G ive thebook to me .
”
85
I n what case 1s the p ersonal pronoun “me ”?
Obj ectiv e .
Why? Because it follows the p reposition to .
RULE V I . Tran sitive verbs require the objective
case after them ; as , Charles saw the man and heard
him .
The boyfailed in reciting his lesson .
What p art of speech is reciting” ? A p resen t
particip le , used as a noun ; in the objective case ,
after the preposition of .
”
What verb is “reciting der ived from ? R e
cite .
”
I s “recite transitive , or intran sitive ? Tran si
tive .
What is he“
sai d“
fi f b—
ej ‘fi
reciting in the above
example ? H is lesson .
”
I n what case , then ,is“lesson Objective .
What , then ,may be said of p articiples ? Pa r
ticip les der ived f rom tran sitive verbs require the ob
jective case af ter them .
RULE VII . A noun varied to denote the owner ,
or possessor , is in the possessive case , and limits
the word denoting the thing possessed ; as , John’s
hat ; William and Mary’s reign the house is mine ,
the land is his .
86
RULE VIII . In transitive and passive verbs re
quire the same case after as before them,-when both
words refer to the same thing ; as , I am he ; thou
art the man ; I—know him to be an honest man .
NOTE .—Participles derived from in tran sitive verbs follow the
same rule ; as,“7ames, being a good scholar,received the appro
bation of h is teacher .
”
RULE IX .— A noun used to exp lain or limit
another noun , and havmg the same mean ing , is in
the same case ; as , Webster , the statesman , is dead ;
James , come to me, your teacher .
RULE X . A noun which is the name of a p er
son spoken to is used independen tly , in the nomi
native case ; as , Friends , I come not here to talk
RULE X I .-A noun which has no grammatical
relation to other words in the sentence is used
independen tly in the nominative case ; as , Poor
I ndian s"where are they now ?
NOTE . The pronoun me is sometimes used independen tly ;as, A h me
RULE XII . A noun joined with a participle , andnot connected with the rest of the sen tence , is used
independently in the noml native case ; as?H en ry
being injured , a surgeon was called .
87
RULE X"III . The in terjection has no grammati
cal relation to other words ; as , A las I fear he is
ruined .
RULE XIV . A verb used without a subject , andfollowing the preposition
“to ,” is in the infinitive
mode ; as, the boy likes to read ; he bid me do it,
t. e . , he told me to do it ; you dare no t do it , i . e. ,
you fear to do it ; let me do it , t. e . , permit me to
do it .
NOTE .— \Vhen a verb in the infi nitive mode follows bid , a’ar e , let,
hea r , feel. make , see , n eed,and a few other verbs , the preposition“to is omitted .
RULE XV . Con junctions con nect sen tences , and
save the repetition of what is alike in each ; as ,
William and Jameswventr to Boston ; or , William
went to Boston , James wen t to B oston .
RULE XVI .— Preposition s connect words ; as ,
G eorge wen t to London .
RULE XVII .— Pronoun s must be of the same
person , number , and gender as the nouns which they
rep resen t ; as , H enry recited to his teacher ; A nna
recited to her teacher ; H en ry and A nna recited to
their teacher .
88
RULE XVIII .— Relative pronouns connect
clauses ; as , I have seen the man who bought our
horse .
RULE XIX . Connective adverbs connect
clauses ; and mark identity of time , place , or man
ner ; as , James will go when William comes .
Pr esen t .
Choose ,Cleave , to sp lit,Cling ,Come ,Cost,Creep ,Cut ,
Do ,Draw,
Drink,
Drive ,Eat,
Fall ,Feed
,
Feel,
Fight,
Find ,Flee ,Fling,Fly ,
‘uForget,Forsake ,Freeze ,G et,
Give ,G o ,
Grind,
I I ear ,
Hide ,
H it,
Hold ,Hurt,"eep,"now ,
Lade ,Lay ,
Lead ,
90
Pastp ar ti cip le.
chosen .
cloven , cleft .clung .
come .
cost .crep t .
done .
drawn .
drank , drunk .
driven .
eaten .
fallen .
fed .
felt .fought .found ..
fled .
flung .
forgotten\ ,forgot .
forsaken .
frozen .
gotten or got.
given .
gone .
ground .
heard .
hidden , hid .
hit.
held ,holden .
hurt .kept .known .
laden .
laid .
led .
down ,
91
Past. Pastp ar ticip le.
left , left.len t, len t .let
, let.
lay , lain .
lost , lost .made , made .
mean t, mean t .
met , met.
paid , paid .
p ut, put.
read,
read .
ren t , ren t .rid
,rid .
rode,
rode , r idden .
rang , rung, rung .
rose , risen .
rived, riven .
ran , run .
said, said .
saw, seen .
sought , sought .soldf
’
sold .
sen t , sen t .set, set .
sat, sat.
shook , shaken .
shed , shed .
showed , shew, shown, shewn .
shod , shod .
shot , shot .shred
,shred .
shrunk,shrank
,shrunk.
Shut , shut .sang , sung , sung .
sank,sunk
,sunk .
slew,
slain .
slept,
slept .
92
slid,
slung, slang ,
slunk ,smote ,spoke , spake,sped ,spen t ,spun
,
spit, spat,split,spread ,sprang , sprung ,stood ,stole ,stuck,stung
,
strode , strid ,struck
,
strung ,strove ,swore , sware
,
swept ,swam, swum,
swung ,took,taught
,
tore , tare ,told
,
thought,threw,
thrust,
trod,
wore ,wove
,
wept,won ,
wound,
wrote,
Past par ticip le .
slidden , slid .
slung .
slunk .
smitten .
spoken .
sped .
spen t .spun .
spit, spitten .
split .spread .
sprung .
stood .
stolen .
stuck .
stung .
stridden,strid .
struck,stricke n .
strung .
striven .
sworn .
swept .swum .
swung .
taken .
taught .torn .
told .
thought .thrown .
thrust .trodden , trod .
worn .
woven , wove .
wept.won .
wound .
written .
The followmg verbs are sometimes regular , and sometimes ir reg
93
ular , in the formation of their princ ipal parts
Pr esen t.
Awake,
Bereave ,Blend ,Build ,Burn
,
oCatch ,
Cleave,to adher e
,
Clothe ,Crow
,
Dare , to ven tur e ,
Deal,
Dis .
Dream,
Dwell,
G ild ,G ird ,G rave ,
Hang,
II eave ,
H ew,"nee","n it,
Light,
Load,
M ow,
Pen ,"uit ,"Saw,
Seethe,
Shape,
Shave ,Shear
,
Shine ,Slit
,
Sow,
Past.
awoke , awaked ,bereft , bereaved ,blended ,built , builded ,burn ed
,burn t,
caught , catched ,cleaved , clave ,clothed , clad ,crowed , cr ew,
dared , durst,dealt
,dealed ,
dug ,digged ,
dreamed , dreamt,dwelt , dwelled,gilded
,gilt,
girded , gir t,graved ,hung , hanged ,heaved , hove ,
kneeled,kn elt
,
kn it , kn itted ,lighted , lit,loaded
,
mowed,
penned,
quitted , quit,sawed ,seethed
,
shaped ,shaved
,
sheared,
shon e , sh ined ,slit
,slitted
,
sowed ,
Pastp ar ticip le .
awaked .
bereft , bereaved .
blended,blen t .
built,builded .
burned , burn t .caught
,catched .
cleaved .
clothed,clad .
crowed .
dared .
dealt,dealed .
dug , digged .
dreamed,dreamt .
dwelt , dwelled .
gilded,gilt .
girded,girt .
graven ,grave .
hung , hanged .
heaved .
hewn , hewed .
kneeled,kn elt .
kn it,kn itted .
lighted, lit .
loaded,laden .
mowed , mown .
penned,pen t .
quit , quitted .
sawed,sawn .
seethed , sodden .
shaped , shapen .
shaved , shaven .
shorn , sheared .
shone , shined .
slit , slitted .
sown,sowed .
94
spelt, spelled,
spilt, spilled ,strewed,strewed ,sweat
, sv’
veated ,
swelled ,wet, wetted ,whetted ,worked
,wrought ,
wrung , wringed ,
Pastp ar ticip le .
spelt, spelled .
Spilt,spilled .
strewn , strewed .
strewn , strowed .
sweat, sweated .
swollen , swelled .
wet, wetted .
whetted , whe t .worked , wrough t .wrung , wringed .
RULESFOR PUNCTUATION.
TH E COMMA .
RULE I . — Words , phrases , or clauses of a paren theticalor in termediate n ature are separated from the con tex t bycommas ; as , To g1ve battle was , in his judgmen t , to in currisk of defeat . ”
RULE II . A comma shou ld be p laced after th e last nounin a series , 1f it is not join ed to the others by a conjun ction ;as , Barley , oats , rye , corn , are products of the tempe rate g
z on e fi’
RULE I I I . Inverted phrases shou ld be separated fromthe rest of the sen ten ce by a comma ; as Of all our senses ,
sight is the most importan t .”
RULE IV .a I n
’ letter-h ardings , a comma shou ld be placedafter the city or town , state , and day of the mon th , and in
the superscription , after each par t of the address , exceptingthe state .
THE DASH .
RULE V . Dashes are u sed1 . When thep arenthetical expression has n ot so close con
n ection with the rest of the sen ten ce as wou ld be indicatedby commas ; as,
“The statement may be true — I am not
prepared to dispute it that he is guilty .
”
2 . When there is a sudden break in the thought ; as , I n
the next place bu t I will n ot discuss the matter further .
”
3 . Af ter as , name ly , etc . ,when the enumeration beg in s
on the n ext line .
96
THE SEM IOOLON .
RULE VI . A semicolon shou ld be used1 . Just before su ch expression s and words as
“forin stan ce ,”“for example ,
” “name ly ,” i . e . , etc . ;
as ,“We have fi ve sen ses ; namely , sight
,hear in g
,smell ,
taste , and feeling .
”
2 . When c lauses are join ed by a conjun ction , but the
second part 18 added for con trast ; as , I am very glad tohear of his su ccess ; for no on e deserves it more .
”
THE COLON .
RULE V I I .— A colon shou ld be used
1 . B e tween fi gures designating hours and minu tes ; as ,
A .M . , P .M .
2 . Beforefi
an enumeration of a’r ticles or par ts in troduced
by su ch expression s as“the fol lowing as fol lows
THE PERIOD .
RULE VIII . The period shou ld be used in the fol lowingplaces1 . A t the c lose of de clarative and imperative sen ten ces .
2 . After all abbreviation s .
3 . After headings , addresses , and sign atures to letters .
TH E INTERROG AT ION .
RULE I X .— The . in terrogation is u sed at the close of a
direct question .
THE EX CLAMATI ON .
RULE X .— The exclamation is used after words , phrases ,
or sen ten ces expres sing emotion or surprise ."UOTATION MAR"S .
RULE X I ."uotation mark s shou ld en close the exactwords of an other ; as , Lawren ce said , Don
’t give up the
ship .
”