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TRANSCRIPT
Culture NotesAP Human Geography
Ch 4mdashPopular vs Folk CultureFolk amp Popular Culture Terms
HABITmdashldquoa repetitive act that a particular individual performsrdquo CUSTOMmdashldquoa repetitive act of a group performed to the extent that it becomes characteristic of the grouprdquo
o Jeans start out as a habit for someone popular enough it becomes material culture MATERIAL CULTUREmdashldquoa collection of social customsrdquo
B) How do we learn what to do in our culture
Values- ideas of what is desirable in life (good amp badugly amp beautiful) Norms- rules of behavior that develop out of a grouprsquos values
Folk vs PopularMaterial culture falls into categories mostly based on scale
FOLK CULTUREmdashSmall fairly homogenous groupsmdashRelocation Diffusion (amish)o Today mostly isolated in rural areas
POPULAR CULTUREmdashLarge heterogeneous groupsmdashhierarchical diffusion (sports)o Widespread urban ndash maybe even ldquoglobal culturerdquo
Origins Every social custom develops in a particular place ndash a hearth
o Folk customs usually have anonymous origins ndash they come from unknown places (sometimes more than one place) at unknown times
o Popular customs are usually the product of developed countries and their origins are often well known
Folk music vs Popular Musicmdash Folk MusicmdashEvery culture develops its own unique music
o All known cultures have some form of musico Folk music is usually composed anonymouslyo Folk music is usually transmitted orally (not written down)o The content and subject matter of folk music usually comes from everyday events in peoplersquos lives
Alan Lomaxrsquos Folk Song Regions Northern Tradition Southern Tradition Western Style African-American
o ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture Popular Music
o Unlike folk music popular music is (usually) written or performed by known individuals who ldquoownrdquo it This is true even for songs that many of us think are ldquopublicrdquo Happy Birthday to You belongs to Time Warner and wonrsquot be in the public domain until 2030
o Popular music is (usually) produced as a kind of commodity ndash itrsquos for saleo Popular music tends to vary a lot more over time than from place to place (the music of the 1990s was
very different from the music of the 1980s ndash but you could hear it just about anywhere in the world)o Modern popular music (as we think of it) began about 100 years ago
Performed in English ldquomusic hallsrdquo and in American ldquovaudevillerdquo and composed by professionals in places like ldquoTin Pan Alleyrdquo
Global-scale diffusion during the Second World Wars Continued and increasing diffusion by mass media (recorded and broadcast)
o Hip Hopmdash1970s initially had the nature of folk music quickly became pop music with local flavor
Origins Folk Customs Folk BeliefsmdashHow does the world work How should we behave
o How does the world work How should you behave What should you do when someone is born Or marries Or dies How should you live your life
o Every culture has had to come up with answers to questions like these ndashanswers that (more or less) work for that culture
Folk beliefs are usually transmitted orallyo Folk Beliefs Relocation Diffusion
The Amish ndash originally a Swiss Mennonite group ndash have a distinctive culture and are now found in 17 US States
The Amish (and their beliefs) have spread by relocation diffusion ndashwhich is just about the only way folk cultures and their beliefs can spread
SportsmdashHierarchical Diffusion Folk SportsmdashPeople everywhere enjoy recreation ndash many places have developed unique forms of recreation and
sportsmdashldquoPlay is older than culturerdquo (Johan Huizinga Homo Ludens)o As far we know games are a fundamental part of every culture ndash playing games is part of what it means
to be humano Every culture develops its own unique forms of recreationo Folk Sports Examples
Cornish Hurlingmdash ldquoAt [the village of] St Columb the struggle is a physical battle between ldquoTown and Countryrdquo with the shops in the town barricading their windows and doors for the start of the scrum at 430 pm The ball is thrown to the crowd from the market square the objective to carry it into either the town or country goals set some two miles apart or if this is not possible the ball may be carried over the Parish boundary At 800 pm a winner returns to declare a win for Town or Countryrdquo
Belarusian Hulniamdash ldquoPlayers are divided into two teams or ldquoarmiesrdquo Each ldquoarmyrdquo chooses a ldquobig onerdquo -- the strongest person This person throws a wooden wheel or a heavy round stone towards another ldquoarmyrdquo The other ldquoarmyrdquo is supposed to stop it as fast as possible and reverse its direction The game is won when the line is crossed on one of the sides
o Soccer (Football)mdashoriginated in England tin the 11thrsquo century originally about moving a ldquocow bladderrdquo to the center of a neighboring town and the townspeople who would do it would be declared the winner
Hierarchical diffusion by colonizationimperialism Term ldquosoccerrdquo comes from the English ldquoAssociationrdquo from the governing Football
AssociationAssocshortened to soccer Rugbymdashwas created in 1823 when a player at ldquoRugby Schoolrdquo in England picked up the ball and
ran Footballmdashcame from Harvard adopting the Rugby rules and then modifying them in the
19th century
ldquoFolk FoodrdquomdashPeople adapt their food preferences based on the environment ndash BUT beliefs and values strongly influence diet
o Folk customs are always affected by whatrsquos available ndash but also by cultureo What is acceptable for some cultures may be unacceptable ndash or even horrifying to otherso Pigs arenrsquot common in middle east due to climate (banned in Judaism and Islam) Cows are important
for agriculture in India (Hindus forbidden to consume)mdashin the US insects dogs cats etco AlcoholmdashBaptists and Mormons drink less due to religious restrictionsmdashlower consumption of alcohol
(although consistent especially when compared to other regionscultures) Vineyardsmdashfound in temperate climates ldquosandyrdquo soil mostly found in the Christian world
alcohol consumption is discouraged amongst Hindus and Muslims
Popular Foodo In popular culture modern transportation methods mean that a wide variety of different kinds of food
are available year-round ndash people are not limited to locally available cropso Food fads and food trends can change diets so that what people prefer tends to vary more over time
than over spaceo However there are variations in food preferences and consumption
Folk HousingmdashMust be made from locally available building materialsmdashdistinctive forms ndash there is no ldquoperfectrdquo house design
o Folk housing has several fundamental characteristics It must deal adequately with the physical environment (or else) It must be designed in such a way that people without special equipment or training can build it It must be constructed from locally available materials Remember there is no single ldquoperfectrdquo design Colder climatesmdashwindows facing toward direct sunlight hotter climates fewer windows facing
awaymdashroof structured for snowrain issueso Religious Custommdashparts of china the East wall of the house is considered sacred
Laosmdashsome sleep with their back to each other (the head is considered noble) Thailand houses are in a row because evil spirits travels in straight lines Buddhists in Thailand also sleep with their heads to the east (a more auspicious direction)
Popular Housingo Housing in popular culture is usually designed and built by professionalsndash not by the people who live in
the houseso Popular housing is not limited to locally available building materialso Popular housing styles vary more over time than regionally ndash for example houses built in the 1950s tend
to look alike regardless of where they were built
Folk ArtmdashIn many cultures the distinction between ldquoartrdquo and ldquoeveryday objectrdquo is unclear ndash decoration is ldquojust the way things are donerdquo
o Usually folk art pieces are ldquotraditionalrdquo there is no known designer no ldquoartistrdquo ndash just craftspeopleo Often the ldquoartrdquo is just included as part of a traditional way of making something ndash not specifically made
as ldquoartrdquo
Popular Culture Popular Art
o As with popular music popular art is usually created by known individuals as a commodity ndash produced by professionals and made to be sold
o Innovation (and even shock value) is highly prized Popular Beliefs
o Beliefs about the world and how people should live and behave are widely shared in popular cultureo Widely shared concepts today
Democracy free markets individualism rule of law private property family work education etc
o Popular beliefs are spread by media -- newspapers magazines radio andmdashmost popular leisure activity in MDCrsquosmdashmost important mechanism by which knowledge of popular culture ie sports fashion music is diffusedmdashwith the advent of satellite dishes itrsquos very difficult to regulate in totalitarian states
TELEVISION The Diffusion of TVmdashtook a half century to diffuse
o Category 1 Countries where most households (more than 50) own at least one TV set (US Japan)
o Category 2 Countries where TVs are common but not universal (25-49) (Mexico Thailand)
o Category 3 Countries where television exists but is uncommon (5-24) few individuals own sets (Mongolia Laos)
o Category 4 Countries where television is rare or non-existent (less than5) virtually no TV sets (Bhutan Chad)
The Internetmdashtook only a decade to diffuse In 1995 less than 10 of American adults were online today more than 23 have online
access Worldwide more than a billion people have internet access today ndash but access is still
very limited in less developed areas
Threats to Folk Cultureso Why worry Why should we careo When people turn away from traditional culture and customs they may also turn away from a societyrsquos
traditional valueso The ways of living and behaving that work in popular culture may not work so well in other cultureso On the other hand ndash traditional ways of living are not necessarily ideal either
Threats to Folk Cultureo Number 1 Loss of Traditional Values ndash Changes in the Role of Women
In many cultures it is traditional for women to be subservient to men (this was true here until quite recently)
In some cases awareness of popular culture has meant that women can seek advancement education and new roles
On the other hand contact with popular culture almost always results in increased rates of prostitution and exploitation
Women who try to change their roles or status may be subject to harassment and violence ndash although that is hardly unique or unusual in many cultures
Clothesmdashwestern business attire sign of material successo Number 2 Foreign Media Imperialism
Media from just three countries ndash the US the UK and Japan ndashdominate entertainment and news in much of the less developed world What they show may be offensive to (or subversive of) traditional values
Western news media dominate international news News media within most less developed countries is largely government controlled News networks tend to represent Western values and ideas ndash and may not present the points of view of less developed countries (or their governments) Western media are largely interested in disasters
Note that newspapers and radio stations are usually locally owned and operated ndash not foreign owned or controlled
o Number 3 Adoption amp Commodification Popular culture is constantly looking for new exciting things and ideas Often it takes them from folk cultures ndash but things are usually altered as part of the process
and the original meaning is often losto Number 4 The Environment
Folk cultures are dependent on the local environment Although they may modify it if they survive they must be in some sense ldquoin balancerdquo
Popular culture is much more likely to create pollution ndash toxic chemicals sewage etc Popular culture is far less dependent on local conditions Food can be imported air conditioning
can keep things pleasant So popular culture is far more likely to modify the natural environment ndash sometimes in ways that may be disastrous for people trying to live a traditional lifemdashinefficiency of meat consumptionmdashtakes 10 pounds of grain to produce one pound of beefmdash3 pound of grain to produce 1 pound of chickenmdashless efficient than eating grain directly
Accelerated Resource Use through Accelerated Consumption Furs minx lynx jaguar kangaroo whale sea otters (18th Century Russians) fed early
fashion trends Consumerism evident in most Western Media fashions including hip hop and rock and
roll Inefficient over-consumption of Meats (101) Poultry (31) even Fish (fed other fish and
chicken) by meat-eating pop cultures Mineral Extraction for Machines Plastics and Fuel New larger housing desires and associated energy and water use Golf courses use valuable water and destroy habitat worldwide
Modifying the Environment Examples Increased Demand for Resources Popular culture needs access to large quantities of raw materials ndashminerals petroleum
lumber agricultural land Increased demand for these resources can severely impact the environment ndash in ways
that traditional cultures never wouldo GolfmdashEach golf course covers at least 200 acres and requires enormous
quantities of fertilizers pesticides and irrigation water About 200 new golf courses open every year in the US thousands
around the world Pollution waste from fuel generation and discarded products plastics marketing and packaging
materialso Number 5 Placelessness
Popular culture is characterized by nearly universal styles of art architecture advertising behavior etc
When every place is indistinguishable from every other place ndash then how can any place be special or unique Why put any particular value on a place when itrsquos just like everywhere else
Effects on Landscape creates homogenous ldquoplacelessrdquo (Relph 1976) landscapeo Complex network of roads and highwayso Commercial Structures tend towards lsquoboxesrsquoo Dwellings may be aesthetically suggestive of older folk traditionso Planned and Gated Communities more and more common
Chapter 5 LanguageLanguage Origins
The Danish linguist Otto Jesperson (1860-1943) classified theories of language origin into five groupso ldquoBow-WowrdquomdashPeople imitate sounds from their environmento ldquoPooh-PoohrdquomdashPeople make instinctive sounds related to emotions body functions paino ldquoDing-DongrdquomdashPeople make ldquooral gesturesrdquoo Yo-He-HordquomdashPeople work together and produce rhythmic soundo ldquoLa-LardquomdashPeople make sounds associated with love play and singing
Language ishellip Language is universal
o No human group anywhere has ever been found that does not have a spoken language There are of course many languages that do not have a written form There are occasional physically normal individuals ldquowolf childrenrdquo who have no language at all
Language is fundamentalo Language is crucial for social interaction and to express complex emotions and ideaso Language lets us deal with ndash and even try to control ndash the world around us
Naming Faith magic and the supernatural
o Language is fundamental to who we are ndash our identity
The worldrsquos top ten languages Note the astonishing rise of English Why Mostly because of Englishs status as an official language in former British colonies (especially in India ndash
even though just a small percent of the population speaks English fluently)o Two-billion people live in a country with English as the official language even if they canrsquot speak ito Causes Imperialism (BritishUS) Cultural Imperialism (TV Movies Music etc)
The pleasures and perils of English Pleasures
o Most widely spoken language global dominance of media interneto No gender number or case changes easy formation of pluralso Relatively simple verb forms (except for irregular verbs)o Huge flexible vocabulary
Perilso Idiomatic verb and preposition combinations (ldquoput uprdquo ldquoget downrdquo)o Irregular plurals (ox and oxen foot and feet etc)o Spellingmdash
the gh = f as in rough the o = i as in wOmen the ti = sh as in naTIono Bizarre written forms ldquoThough the rough cough and hiccough (hiccup) plough me through I ought to
cross the lough (loch)rdquoo No rules for pronunciation and stress Polish vs polish dove vs dove to too two there their theyrsquore
Improving written English And if these look funny ndashremember American spelling was ldquosimplifiedrdquo over a hundred years ago
o ldquotirerdquo vs ldquotyrerdquoo ldquojailrdquo vs ldquogaolrdquoo ldquocurbrdquo vs ldquokerbrdquoo ldquoprogramrdquo vs ldquoprogrammerdquo
Origins of English DevelopmentmdashNothing is known about the languages of Great Britain prior to the Celtic invasion (c 2000 BCE)
(the Celts provided some loan words but English is mostly a Germanic and Romance-descended language)o Old English (ldquoAnglo-Saxonrdquo) Invasion by West Germanic peoples (Jutes Angles Saxons) from Northern
Germany beginning 449 CE Periodic invasions from Scandinavia starting c 700 CE Originally all these Germanic tribes spoke a common languagemdashlong ago prior to a written
recordo Middle English Invasion by Normans 1066 CE (mixture with Romance branch)
ldquoThe Great Vowel Shiftrdquo (1350-1550 CE) French spoken by the elite English court Nobility Clergymdashlower classes continued to speak
English but began to fragment because those in leadership spoke other languages Statute of Pleadingmdashchanged official language back to English
o Modern English 1700-1800 CE English vocabulary enlarged grammar simplified codified
Old Middle amp Early Modern English Old English
o Faeligder ure thornuthorne eart on heofonum si thornin nama gehalgod tobecume thornin rice gewurthorne thornin willa on eorethan swa on heofonum urne gedaeligghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeligg and forgyf us ure gyltas swa we forgyfaeth urum gyltendum and ne gelaeligd thornu us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele sothornlice
Middle Englisho Oure fadir thornat art in heuenes halwid be thorni name thorni kyngdom come to be Be thorni wille don in herthorne as it is
dounin heuene Yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred And foryeue to us oure dettis thornat is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris thornat is to men thornat han synned in us And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl
Early Modern Englisho Our father which art in heaven hallowed be thy name Thy kingdom come Thy will be done in earth as
it is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread And forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors And lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil
Language dialect accent Standard Language Accepted norms of syntax vocabulary and pronunciation
o BRPmdashaccepted dialect from around Londonmdashused by politicians broadcasters and actors Dialect A recognizable speech variant
Dialects of English In England there are still at least three main dialect groups
o NORTHERNo MIDLANDo SOUTHERN
My Fair Lady-- httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=jhninL_G3Fg
Drawing dialect boundaries isoglosses Isoglosses are a kind of isoline ndash in this case they are word-usage boundariesmdashglossophobia means fear of
public speaking (gloss means tongue in greek) Ideally researchers go out ask people what words they use for common things put dots on the map draw lines
around the dots and define boundaries between different dialectso Thatrsquos the ideal Itrsquos usually much messiero Can you guess what these different colored dots represent Give up These are all local words for
ldquodragonflyrdquo
In the USo Isolation (physical and political) created differences in vocabulary spelling and pronunciationo Today US dialects are most pronounced in the East and there are at least three main groups (and
perhaps five) NORTHERN MIDLAND SOUTHERN (some break this down further into Upland Gulf and Coastal Southern dialects)
Do you speak American o Episode 1mdash200-2100 (South) 2800-3600 (Slaves) o Episode 2mdash300-930 (Spanglish) 930-1500 (African AmericanEbonics) 1500-
2400 (California)
ldquoEbonicsrdquoo Also known as ldquoBlack English Vernacularrdquo amp ldquoAfrican-American Vernacular Englishrdquoo The Concept
Students and teachers need to understand each other Some African-American childrenrsquos English is so different from standard English they cannot be
understood by their teachers Schools often treat such children as sloppy wrong or stupid Schools should help children to learn standard English by building on the language they already
have and treat that language as distinct and worthy not ldquowrongrdquo The Controversy begins (from the Oakland California School District) ldquoAfrican people possess and utilize a language described as ldquoEbonicsrdquohellip studies have hellip
demonstrated that African Language Systems are genetically-based and not a dialect of English helliprdquo (December 18 1996)
o The Controversy ends ldquoAfrican-American students as a part of their culture and history as
African people possess and utilize a language described in various scholarly approaches as ldquoEbonicsrdquo hellip these studies have hellipdemonstrated that African Language Systems have origins in West [African] and Niger-Congo languages helliprdquo (January 15 1997)
The movement of languages Throughout history most languages have spread by relocation diffusion A few languages ndash including Chinese Latin French and English ndash have also spread by expansion diffusion
o Barriers to diffusion can be both physical and cultural
Official English No but hellip The English Language Empowerment Act (1996)
(1) The United States is comprised of individuals and groups from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds(3) Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been a common language(4) In order to preserve unity in diversity and to prevent division along linguistic lines the Federal Government should maintain a language common to all people(9) English should be recognized in law as the language of official business of the Federal Government
Excerpts from HR 123 July 30 1996
English Language Unity Act of 2003
1 The United States is comprised of individuals from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds and continues to benefit from this rich diversity2 Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been the English language3 Among the powers reserved to the States respectively is the power to establish the English language as the official language of the respective States and otherwise to promote the English language within the respective States subject to the prohibitions enumerated in the Constitution of the United States and in laws of the respective States
Excerpts from HR 997 February 27 2003 1048729 lsquoNational Language Act of 2007rsquo
English shall be the official language of the Government of the United States The Government of the United States shall preserve and enhance the role of English no person has a right
entitlement or claim to services or materials in any language other than English This does not apply to the use of a language other than English
(1) for religious purposes(2) for training in foreign languages for international communication(3) to programs in schools designed to encourage students to learn foreign languages
This does not prevent the Government from providing interpreters for persons over 62 years of age BILINGUAL ELECTION REQUIREMENTS [are] repealed
Excerpts from HR 769 January 31 2007
Official English laws in the US As of 2007 27 () US States have some kind of ldquoofficial Englishrdquo law The impact and scope of the laws vary ndash from being little more than a simple statement (as in Illinois ldquoThe
official language of the State of Illinois is Englishrdquo) to forbidding any activity of State or local government from doing anything which could be considered supporting the use of any language other than English
Two States ndash Hawaii and New Mexico ndash have specified that a language other than English is also official (Hawaiian and Spanish respectively)
A few States have taken the opposite position Oregon for example says that ldquothe use of diverse languages in business government and private affairs hellip is welcomed encouraged and protected in Oregonrdquo
The Top 20 US Languages (after English) Navajo is the Native American language with the largest number of speakers in the US today ndash 178014
Languages come in families A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common earlier language (just as brothers and sisters are descended from common parents)
How many languages are there Not an easy question to answero Living and Dead Languages (Italian vs Latin)o Revivals (Hebrew ndash from living to dead to living again)o New Discoveries (Amazon Papua New Guinea Africa etc)o ldquoLanguagesrdquo and ldquoDialectsrdquo (see below ndash hard to define)o Maybe 4000 Languages are spoken today Or more Or less
How many language families are thereo Families are constructed on the basis of similarities in vocabulary phonology and grammar
Lots of disputes about what is and what isnrsquot significant ndash and lots of variation in the numbers Maybe as many as 100 families Orhellip
Language families havehellip Branches ldquoa collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago
Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language familiesrdquo Example Indo-European family has eight (surviving) branches
o Germanic (ex German Danish English)o Romance (ex Italian French Romanian)o Balto-Slavic (ex Lithuanian Russian Polish)o Indo-Iranian (ex Farsi Kurdish)o Greek (ex Greek)o Albanian (ex Albanian)o Armenian (ex Armenian)o Celtic (ex Irish Breton Welsh)
Language Groups ldquoa collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabularyrdquo
o For example both English and Danish are in the Germanic branch but English is in the West Germanic Group while Danish is in the North Germanic Group
Origin of Indo-European two hypotheses The Kurgan Hypothesis (a war-like people expanding and conquering from the region north of the Black Sea) The Anatolian Hearth theory (farmers and pastoralists expanding slowly from a place of origin in what is now
Turkey)
Indo-European mutual comprehension Consider all of the following
o English ldquoOur Father who art in heaven helliprdquoo Dutch ldquoOnze Vader die in de hemelen zijt helliprdquoo Spanish ldquoPadre nuestro qe estaacutes en los cielos helliprdquoo Polish ldquoOjcze nasz ktoacuterys jest w niebiesiech helliprdquoo Greek ldquoPatera mas pougrave eiumlsai stougraves ouranougraves helliprdquoo Albanian ldquoAti yneuml qeuml je neuml quiell helliprdquoo Kurdish ldquoYauml baumlwk-iuml eumlma ka la aumlsmaumln-auml-y helliprdquoo Romany ldquoDaacutede amareacute kaj isieacuten krsquoo devleacute helliprdquoo Sanskrit ldquoBho asmaumlkham svargastha pitah helliprdquo
Notice the similarities (for example ldquopitahrdquo ldquopaterardquo ldquopadrerdquo or ldquofatherrdquo ldquovaderrdquo ldquodaacutederdquo) and differences
Major language families (families with more than 100000000 speakers)
Indo-European (ex English Russian Farsi Hindi)o About 3 billion speakers originally Europe-Asia now worldwide
Sino-Tibetan (ex Chinese Tibetan)o About 15 billion speakers mostly in China and surrounding areas
Afro-Asiatic (also called ldquoHamitic-Semiticrdquo) (ex Arabic Hebrew)o Almost frac12 billion speakers mostly in North Africa amp Southwest Asia
Austronesian (also called ldquoMalayo-Polynesianrdquo) (ex Hawaiian Malagasy)o More than frac14 billion speakers Pacific Ocean to Madagascar
Dravidian (ex Tamil Malayalam)o About frac14 billion speakers Southern India
Niger-Congo (ex Yoruba Swahili)o About 200000000 speakers Sub-Saharan Africa
Altaic (ex Turkish Mongol)o About 200000000 speakers Turkey to Mongolia
Japanese (ex Japanese)o About 125000000 speakers Japan (of course)
Some interesting minor language families AustromdashAsiatic Major languagemdashVietnamesemdashAbout 60000000 speakers KoreanmdashMajor language KoreanmdashAbout 50000000 speakers Nilo-SaharanmdashMajor language MasaimdashAbout 30000000 speakers Amerindian (not really a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor languages Quechua Navajomdash About
25000000 speakers (mostly in South America) Uralic (many authors combine Uralic with Altaic into one family)mdashMajor languages Finnish Hungarian CaucasianmdashMajor language GeorgianmdashAbout 6000000 speakers Indo-Pacific (or Papuan ndash not a family just a regional collectionmdashThere are about 800 languages spoken on the
island of New Guinea)mdashMajor language MotumdashAbout 3000000 speakers Khoisan (the ldquoclickrdquo languages)mdashMajor language KhoikhoimdashAbout 50000 speakers Australian Aborigine (not a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor language AruntamdashAbout 50000 speakers Isolates (languages which arenrsquot related to anything else such as Basque)
The urge to understand Mixing languages Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins creoles ldquoFranglaisrdquo
ldquoSpanglishrdquo etc) Lingua franca A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin English etc) Multilingualism Knowing and using more than one language Artificial language A constructed language which is supposed to be logical practical and easy to learn
(Esperanto etc) Translation and interpretation
o Translation Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another
o Interpretation A less literal translation emphasizing overall meaningo Transliterationmdashbaptism
Mixing languages Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other
o Examples SPANGLISH
Dolores dice Need advice Escriacutebeme (on the home page for the online magazine Latina)
Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija (overheard in the Western US) Haz clic aquiacute (commonly seen on Spanish-language Web sites)
Llamenos para delivery (seen on advertising signs in Peru) Tips para marketing (advertisement in Mexico)
JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH)o BRANDO NEW (brochure rack in Shiga)
NOTICE We have touched at point in under the boxes heads for keeping qualities Its very excuse (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore)
o Welcome to Mother Nature In here everyone are heroes Lets play YOUR drama (advertisement for a camping mattress)
o Lets play bowling Breaking down the pins and get hot communication
Pidgins and creoles Pidgin A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to
talk for trading or other reasons Creolemdashmixing of the colonizerrsquos language with the indigenous language (creole originally meant a slave who is
born in in the masterrsquos house in Latin)mdashfull-fledged formal language that has developed from a pidgin language
Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions expressions Usually short useful lifespan ldquoNobodyrsquos native languagerdquo
o Creole A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages a pidgin which has become a native language
Lingua franca A ldquolingua francardquo (either from ldquolanguage of the Franksrdquo or from ldquofree languagerdquo) is any widely-used language
used for commerce diplomacy science and technologymdashlanguage of trade and commerceo Lingua francas are often second languages and may be a mixture of several languages
Historically a number of languages have served as lingua francao Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean)o Arabico Swahili (Eastern Africa)o French (international diplomacy)o English (worldwide today in science commerce politics literature)
Multilingualism Most of the worldrsquos population is at least somewhat multilingual ndash that is most people have at least some
knowledge of more than one language Some nations are officially multilingual such as
o Paraguay (Spanish Guarani)o Switzerland (German French Italian Romansch)o South Africa (Afrikaans English Ndebele Pedi Sotho Swazi Tsonga Tswana Venda Xhosa and Zulu)o India (Hindi Bengali Telugu Marathi Tamil Urdu Gujarati Malayalam Kannada Oriya Punjabi
Assamese Kashmiri Sindhi Sanskrit also English and Hindustani)
Preserving language diversity Languages can die Today in the face of the global dominance of English and other ldquoworld languagesrdquo some
people are trying to preserve and even revive languages Maintaining survivors Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic Irish Gaelic Welsh (Cymru) Breton Bringing back the dead Hebrew Manx
o Why bother Because language is about more than just ldquocommunicating factsrdquo Language is about identity history continuity ndash language is a fundamental part of who you are
Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain
o Example Cajun a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country Example Abaza Avar Bats Chechen and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains
between the Black and Caspian Seas
Language and culture change and stability Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c 10000 years ago The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in
Pakistan It has been dated to 5500 years ago It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained but the Harappan language died out about 4000 years ago (See
Some believe that symbols found on 8600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing
The earliest sample of New World writing dated to about 900 BCE was discovered in 2006
Ways of writing Pictograms (also called ldquoLogogramsrdquo)
o Earliest system of writingmdashBegin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory)o Example Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs
ldquoIdeogramsrdquoo Abstract or conventional meanings often combining two or more pictogramsmdashNo longer have a clear
pictorial linkmdashrepresent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations Almost always ldquoimpurerdquo (or ldquologophoneticrdquo) with clues to pronunciation
Syllabarieso Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel)o Examples Japanese Katakana Cherokee
Cherokee ndashThis syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c 1770-1843) the great Cherokee leadermdashIts 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets but usage is entirely different
Alphabetso A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all soundsmdashAll alphabets appear to be descendants of
the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only vowels understood in context As far as we can tell all of the worldrsquos alphabets (including Cyrillic Hebrew Arabic and Roman)
are derived from the Phoenician alphabet
Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction Some languages such as English are written left-to-right Hebrew right to left (Arabic)
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
o Hip Hopmdash1970s initially had the nature of folk music quickly became pop music with local flavor
Origins Folk Customs Folk BeliefsmdashHow does the world work How should we behave
o How does the world work How should you behave What should you do when someone is born Or marries Or dies How should you live your life
o Every culture has had to come up with answers to questions like these ndashanswers that (more or less) work for that culture
Folk beliefs are usually transmitted orallyo Folk Beliefs Relocation Diffusion
The Amish ndash originally a Swiss Mennonite group ndash have a distinctive culture and are now found in 17 US States
The Amish (and their beliefs) have spread by relocation diffusion ndashwhich is just about the only way folk cultures and their beliefs can spread
SportsmdashHierarchical Diffusion Folk SportsmdashPeople everywhere enjoy recreation ndash many places have developed unique forms of recreation and
sportsmdashldquoPlay is older than culturerdquo (Johan Huizinga Homo Ludens)o As far we know games are a fundamental part of every culture ndash playing games is part of what it means
to be humano Every culture develops its own unique forms of recreationo Folk Sports Examples
Cornish Hurlingmdash ldquoAt [the village of] St Columb the struggle is a physical battle between ldquoTown and Countryrdquo with the shops in the town barricading their windows and doors for the start of the scrum at 430 pm The ball is thrown to the crowd from the market square the objective to carry it into either the town or country goals set some two miles apart or if this is not possible the ball may be carried over the Parish boundary At 800 pm a winner returns to declare a win for Town or Countryrdquo
Belarusian Hulniamdash ldquoPlayers are divided into two teams or ldquoarmiesrdquo Each ldquoarmyrdquo chooses a ldquobig onerdquo -- the strongest person This person throws a wooden wheel or a heavy round stone towards another ldquoarmyrdquo The other ldquoarmyrdquo is supposed to stop it as fast as possible and reverse its direction The game is won when the line is crossed on one of the sides
o Soccer (Football)mdashoriginated in England tin the 11thrsquo century originally about moving a ldquocow bladderrdquo to the center of a neighboring town and the townspeople who would do it would be declared the winner
Hierarchical diffusion by colonizationimperialism Term ldquosoccerrdquo comes from the English ldquoAssociationrdquo from the governing Football
AssociationAssocshortened to soccer Rugbymdashwas created in 1823 when a player at ldquoRugby Schoolrdquo in England picked up the ball and
ran Footballmdashcame from Harvard adopting the Rugby rules and then modifying them in the
19th century
ldquoFolk FoodrdquomdashPeople adapt their food preferences based on the environment ndash BUT beliefs and values strongly influence diet
o Folk customs are always affected by whatrsquos available ndash but also by cultureo What is acceptable for some cultures may be unacceptable ndash or even horrifying to otherso Pigs arenrsquot common in middle east due to climate (banned in Judaism and Islam) Cows are important
for agriculture in India (Hindus forbidden to consume)mdashin the US insects dogs cats etco AlcoholmdashBaptists and Mormons drink less due to religious restrictionsmdashlower consumption of alcohol
(although consistent especially when compared to other regionscultures) Vineyardsmdashfound in temperate climates ldquosandyrdquo soil mostly found in the Christian world
alcohol consumption is discouraged amongst Hindus and Muslims
Popular Foodo In popular culture modern transportation methods mean that a wide variety of different kinds of food
are available year-round ndash people are not limited to locally available cropso Food fads and food trends can change diets so that what people prefer tends to vary more over time
than over spaceo However there are variations in food preferences and consumption
Folk HousingmdashMust be made from locally available building materialsmdashdistinctive forms ndash there is no ldquoperfectrdquo house design
o Folk housing has several fundamental characteristics It must deal adequately with the physical environment (or else) It must be designed in such a way that people without special equipment or training can build it It must be constructed from locally available materials Remember there is no single ldquoperfectrdquo design Colder climatesmdashwindows facing toward direct sunlight hotter climates fewer windows facing
awaymdashroof structured for snowrain issueso Religious Custommdashparts of china the East wall of the house is considered sacred
Laosmdashsome sleep with their back to each other (the head is considered noble) Thailand houses are in a row because evil spirits travels in straight lines Buddhists in Thailand also sleep with their heads to the east (a more auspicious direction)
Popular Housingo Housing in popular culture is usually designed and built by professionalsndash not by the people who live in
the houseso Popular housing is not limited to locally available building materialso Popular housing styles vary more over time than regionally ndash for example houses built in the 1950s tend
to look alike regardless of where they were built
Folk ArtmdashIn many cultures the distinction between ldquoartrdquo and ldquoeveryday objectrdquo is unclear ndash decoration is ldquojust the way things are donerdquo
o Usually folk art pieces are ldquotraditionalrdquo there is no known designer no ldquoartistrdquo ndash just craftspeopleo Often the ldquoartrdquo is just included as part of a traditional way of making something ndash not specifically made
as ldquoartrdquo
Popular Culture Popular Art
o As with popular music popular art is usually created by known individuals as a commodity ndash produced by professionals and made to be sold
o Innovation (and even shock value) is highly prized Popular Beliefs
o Beliefs about the world and how people should live and behave are widely shared in popular cultureo Widely shared concepts today
Democracy free markets individualism rule of law private property family work education etc
o Popular beliefs are spread by media -- newspapers magazines radio andmdashmost popular leisure activity in MDCrsquosmdashmost important mechanism by which knowledge of popular culture ie sports fashion music is diffusedmdashwith the advent of satellite dishes itrsquos very difficult to regulate in totalitarian states
TELEVISION The Diffusion of TVmdashtook a half century to diffuse
o Category 1 Countries where most households (more than 50) own at least one TV set (US Japan)
o Category 2 Countries where TVs are common but not universal (25-49) (Mexico Thailand)
o Category 3 Countries where television exists but is uncommon (5-24) few individuals own sets (Mongolia Laos)
o Category 4 Countries where television is rare or non-existent (less than5) virtually no TV sets (Bhutan Chad)
The Internetmdashtook only a decade to diffuse In 1995 less than 10 of American adults were online today more than 23 have online
access Worldwide more than a billion people have internet access today ndash but access is still
very limited in less developed areas
Threats to Folk Cultureso Why worry Why should we careo When people turn away from traditional culture and customs they may also turn away from a societyrsquos
traditional valueso The ways of living and behaving that work in popular culture may not work so well in other cultureso On the other hand ndash traditional ways of living are not necessarily ideal either
Threats to Folk Cultureo Number 1 Loss of Traditional Values ndash Changes in the Role of Women
In many cultures it is traditional for women to be subservient to men (this was true here until quite recently)
In some cases awareness of popular culture has meant that women can seek advancement education and new roles
On the other hand contact with popular culture almost always results in increased rates of prostitution and exploitation
Women who try to change their roles or status may be subject to harassment and violence ndash although that is hardly unique or unusual in many cultures
Clothesmdashwestern business attire sign of material successo Number 2 Foreign Media Imperialism
Media from just three countries ndash the US the UK and Japan ndashdominate entertainment and news in much of the less developed world What they show may be offensive to (or subversive of) traditional values
Western news media dominate international news News media within most less developed countries is largely government controlled News networks tend to represent Western values and ideas ndash and may not present the points of view of less developed countries (or their governments) Western media are largely interested in disasters
Note that newspapers and radio stations are usually locally owned and operated ndash not foreign owned or controlled
o Number 3 Adoption amp Commodification Popular culture is constantly looking for new exciting things and ideas Often it takes them from folk cultures ndash but things are usually altered as part of the process
and the original meaning is often losto Number 4 The Environment
Folk cultures are dependent on the local environment Although they may modify it if they survive they must be in some sense ldquoin balancerdquo
Popular culture is much more likely to create pollution ndash toxic chemicals sewage etc Popular culture is far less dependent on local conditions Food can be imported air conditioning
can keep things pleasant So popular culture is far more likely to modify the natural environment ndash sometimes in ways that may be disastrous for people trying to live a traditional lifemdashinefficiency of meat consumptionmdashtakes 10 pounds of grain to produce one pound of beefmdash3 pound of grain to produce 1 pound of chickenmdashless efficient than eating grain directly
Accelerated Resource Use through Accelerated Consumption Furs minx lynx jaguar kangaroo whale sea otters (18th Century Russians) fed early
fashion trends Consumerism evident in most Western Media fashions including hip hop and rock and
roll Inefficient over-consumption of Meats (101) Poultry (31) even Fish (fed other fish and
chicken) by meat-eating pop cultures Mineral Extraction for Machines Plastics and Fuel New larger housing desires and associated energy and water use Golf courses use valuable water and destroy habitat worldwide
Modifying the Environment Examples Increased Demand for Resources Popular culture needs access to large quantities of raw materials ndashminerals petroleum
lumber agricultural land Increased demand for these resources can severely impact the environment ndash in ways
that traditional cultures never wouldo GolfmdashEach golf course covers at least 200 acres and requires enormous
quantities of fertilizers pesticides and irrigation water About 200 new golf courses open every year in the US thousands
around the world Pollution waste from fuel generation and discarded products plastics marketing and packaging
materialso Number 5 Placelessness
Popular culture is characterized by nearly universal styles of art architecture advertising behavior etc
When every place is indistinguishable from every other place ndash then how can any place be special or unique Why put any particular value on a place when itrsquos just like everywhere else
Effects on Landscape creates homogenous ldquoplacelessrdquo (Relph 1976) landscapeo Complex network of roads and highwayso Commercial Structures tend towards lsquoboxesrsquoo Dwellings may be aesthetically suggestive of older folk traditionso Planned and Gated Communities more and more common
Chapter 5 LanguageLanguage Origins
The Danish linguist Otto Jesperson (1860-1943) classified theories of language origin into five groupso ldquoBow-WowrdquomdashPeople imitate sounds from their environmento ldquoPooh-PoohrdquomdashPeople make instinctive sounds related to emotions body functions paino ldquoDing-DongrdquomdashPeople make ldquooral gesturesrdquoo Yo-He-HordquomdashPeople work together and produce rhythmic soundo ldquoLa-LardquomdashPeople make sounds associated with love play and singing
Language ishellip Language is universal
o No human group anywhere has ever been found that does not have a spoken language There are of course many languages that do not have a written form There are occasional physically normal individuals ldquowolf childrenrdquo who have no language at all
Language is fundamentalo Language is crucial for social interaction and to express complex emotions and ideaso Language lets us deal with ndash and even try to control ndash the world around us
Naming Faith magic and the supernatural
o Language is fundamental to who we are ndash our identity
The worldrsquos top ten languages Note the astonishing rise of English Why Mostly because of Englishs status as an official language in former British colonies (especially in India ndash
even though just a small percent of the population speaks English fluently)o Two-billion people live in a country with English as the official language even if they canrsquot speak ito Causes Imperialism (BritishUS) Cultural Imperialism (TV Movies Music etc)
The pleasures and perils of English Pleasures
o Most widely spoken language global dominance of media interneto No gender number or case changes easy formation of pluralso Relatively simple verb forms (except for irregular verbs)o Huge flexible vocabulary
Perilso Idiomatic verb and preposition combinations (ldquoput uprdquo ldquoget downrdquo)o Irregular plurals (ox and oxen foot and feet etc)o Spellingmdash
the gh = f as in rough the o = i as in wOmen the ti = sh as in naTIono Bizarre written forms ldquoThough the rough cough and hiccough (hiccup) plough me through I ought to
cross the lough (loch)rdquoo No rules for pronunciation and stress Polish vs polish dove vs dove to too two there their theyrsquore
Improving written English And if these look funny ndashremember American spelling was ldquosimplifiedrdquo over a hundred years ago
o ldquotirerdquo vs ldquotyrerdquoo ldquojailrdquo vs ldquogaolrdquoo ldquocurbrdquo vs ldquokerbrdquoo ldquoprogramrdquo vs ldquoprogrammerdquo
Origins of English DevelopmentmdashNothing is known about the languages of Great Britain prior to the Celtic invasion (c 2000 BCE)
(the Celts provided some loan words but English is mostly a Germanic and Romance-descended language)o Old English (ldquoAnglo-Saxonrdquo) Invasion by West Germanic peoples (Jutes Angles Saxons) from Northern
Germany beginning 449 CE Periodic invasions from Scandinavia starting c 700 CE Originally all these Germanic tribes spoke a common languagemdashlong ago prior to a written
recordo Middle English Invasion by Normans 1066 CE (mixture with Romance branch)
ldquoThe Great Vowel Shiftrdquo (1350-1550 CE) French spoken by the elite English court Nobility Clergymdashlower classes continued to speak
English but began to fragment because those in leadership spoke other languages Statute of Pleadingmdashchanged official language back to English
o Modern English 1700-1800 CE English vocabulary enlarged grammar simplified codified
Old Middle amp Early Modern English Old English
o Faeligder ure thornuthorne eart on heofonum si thornin nama gehalgod tobecume thornin rice gewurthorne thornin willa on eorethan swa on heofonum urne gedaeligghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeligg and forgyf us ure gyltas swa we forgyfaeth urum gyltendum and ne gelaeligd thornu us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele sothornlice
Middle Englisho Oure fadir thornat art in heuenes halwid be thorni name thorni kyngdom come to be Be thorni wille don in herthorne as it is
dounin heuene Yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred And foryeue to us oure dettis thornat is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris thornat is to men thornat han synned in us And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl
Early Modern Englisho Our father which art in heaven hallowed be thy name Thy kingdom come Thy will be done in earth as
it is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread And forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors And lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil
Language dialect accent Standard Language Accepted norms of syntax vocabulary and pronunciation
o BRPmdashaccepted dialect from around Londonmdashused by politicians broadcasters and actors Dialect A recognizable speech variant
Dialects of English In England there are still at least three main dialect groups
o NORTHERNo MIDLANDo SOUTHERN
My Fair Lady-- httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=jhninL_G3Fg
Drawing dialect boundaries isoglosses Isoglosses are a kind of isoline ndash in this case they are word-usage boundariesmdashglossophobia means fear of
public speaking (gloss means tongue in greek) Ideally researchers go out ask people what words they use for common things put dots on the map draw lines
around the dots and define boundaries between different dialectso Thatrsquos the ideal Itrsquos usually much messiero Can you guess what these different colored dots represent Give up These are all local words for
ldquodragonflyrdquo
In the USo Isolation (physical and political) created differences in vocabulary spelling and pronunciationo Today US dialects are most pronounced in the East and there are at least three main groups (and
perhaps five) NORTHERN MIDLAND SOUTHERN (some break this down further into Upland Gulf and Coastal Southern dialects)
Do you speak American o Episode 1mdash200-2100 (South) 2800-3600 (Slaves) o Episode 2mdash300-930 (Spanglish) 930-1500 (African AmericanEbonics) 1500-
2400 (California)
ldquoEbonicsrdquoo Also known as ldquoBlack English Vernacularrdquo amp ldquoAfrican-American Vernacular Englishrdquoo The Concept
Students and teachers need to understand each other Some African-American childrenrsquos English is so different from standard English they cannot be
understood by their teachers Schools often treat such children as sloppy wrong or stupid Schools should help children to learn standard English by building on the language they already
have and treat that language as distinct and worthy not ldquowrongrdquo The Controversy begins (from the Oakland California School District) ldquoAfrican people possess and utilize a language described as ldquoEbonicsrdquohellip studies have hellip
demonstrated that African Language Systems are genetically-based and not a dialect of English helliprdquo (December 18 1996)
o The Controversy ends ldquoAfrican-American students as a part of their culture and history as
African people possess and utilize a language described in various scholarly approaches as ldquoEbonicsrdquo hellip these studies have hellipdemonstrated that African Language Systems have origins in West [African] and Niger-Congo languages helliprdquo (January 15 1997)
The movement of languages Throughout history most languages have spread by relocation diffusion A few languages ndash including Chinese Latin French and English ndash have also spread by expansion diffusion
o Barriers to diffusion can be both physical and cultural
Official English No but hellip The English Language Empowerment Act (1996)
(1) The United States is comprised of individuals and groups from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds(3) Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been a common language(4) In order to preserve unity in diversity and to prevent division along linguistic lines the Federal Government should maintain a language common to all people(9) English should be recognized in law as the language of official business of the Federal Government
Excerpts from HR 123 July 30 1996
English Language Unity Act of 2003
1 The United States is comprised of individuals from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds and continues to benefit from this rich diversity2 Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been the English language3 Among the powers reserved to the States respectively is the power to establish the English language as the official language of the respective States and otherwise to promote the English language within the respective States subject to the prohibitions enumerated in the Constitution of the United States and in laws of the respective States
Excerpts from HR 997 February 27 2003 1048729 lsquoNational Language Act of 2007rsquo
English shall be the official language of the Government of the United States The Government of the United States shall preserve and enhance the role of English no person has a right
entitlement or claim to services or materials in any language other than English This does not apply to the use of a language other than English
(1) for religious purposes(2) for training in foreign languages for international communication(3) to programs in schools designed to encourage students to learn foreign languages
This does not prevent the Government from providing interpreters for persons over 62 years of age BILINGUAL ELECTION REQUIREMENTS [are] repealed
Excerpts from HR 769 January 31 2007
Official English laws in the US As of 2007 27 () US States have some kind of ldquoofficial Englishrdquo law The impact and scope of the laws vary ndash from being little more than a simple statement (as in Illinois ldquoThe
official language of the State of Illinois is Englishrdquo) to forbidding any activity of State or local government from doing anything which could be considered supporting the use of any language other than English
Two States ndash Hawaii and New Mexico ndash have specified that a language other than English is also official (Hawaiian and Spanish respectively)
A few States have taken the opposite position Oregon for example says that ldquothe use of diverse languages in business government and private affairs hellip is welcomed encouraged and protected in Oregonrdquo
The Top 20 US Languages (after English) Navajo is the Native American language with the largest number of speakers in the US today ndash 178014
Languages come in families A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common earlier language (just as brothers and sisters are descended from common parents)
How many languages are there Not an easy question to answero Living and Dead Languages (Italian vs Latin)o Revivals (Hebrew ndash from living to dead to living again)o New Discoveries (Amazon Papua New Guinea Africa etc)o ldquoLanguagesrdquo and ldquoDialectsrdquo (see below ndash hard to define)o Maybe 4000 Languages are spoken today Or more Or less
How many language families are thereo Families are constructed on the basis of similarities in vocabulary phonology and grammar
Lots of disputes about what is and what isnrsquot significant ndash and lots of variation in the numbers Maybe as many as 100 families Orhellip
Language families havehellip Branches ldquoa collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago
Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language familiesrdquo Example Indo-European family has eight (surviving) branches
o Germanic (ex German Danish English)o Romance (ex Italian French Romanian)o Balto-Slavic (ex Lithuanian Russian Polish)o Indo-Iranian (ex Farsi Kurdish)o Greek (ex Greek)o Albanian (ex Albanian)o Armenian (ex Armenian)o Celtic (ex Irish Breton Welsh)
Language Groups ldquoa collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabularyrdquo
o For example both English and Danish are in the Germanic branch but English is in the West Germanic Group while Danish is in the North Germanic Group
Origin of Indo-European two hypotheses The Kurgan Hypothesis (a war-like people expanding and conquering from the region north of the Black Sea) The Anatolian Hearth theory (farmers and pastoralists expanding slowly from a place of origin in what is now
Turkey)
Indo-European mutual comprehension Consider all of the following
o English ldquoOur Father who art in heaven helliprdquoo Dutch ldquoOnze Vader die in de hemelen zijt helliprdquoo Spanish ldquoPadre nuestro qe estaacutes en los cielos helliprdquoo Polish ldquoOjcze nasz ktoacuterys jest w niebiesiech helliprdquoo Greek ldquoPatera mas pougrave eiumlsai stougraves ouranougraves helliprdquoo Albanian ldquoAti yneuml qeuml je neuml quiell helliprdquoo Kurdish ldquoYauml baumlwk-iuml eumlma ka la aumlsmaumln-auml-y helliprdquoo Romany ldquoDaacutede amareacute kaj isieacuten krsquoo devleacute helliprdquoo Sanskrit ldquoBho asmaumlkham svargastha pitah helliprdquo
Notice the similarities (for example ldquopitahrdquo ldquopaterardquo ldquopadrerdquo or ldquofatherrdquo ldquovaderrdquo ldquodaacutederdquo) and differences
Major language families (families with more than 100000000 speakers)
Indo-European (ex English Russian Farsi Hindi)o About 3 billion speakers originally Europe-Asia now worldwide
Sino-Tibetan (ex Chinese Tibetan)o About 15 billion speakers mostly in China and surrounding areas
Afro-Asiatic (also called ldquoHamitic-Semiticrdquo) (ex Arabic Hebrew)o Almost frac12 billion speakers mostly in North Africa amp Southwest Asia
Austronesian (also called ldquoMalayo-Polynesianrdquo) (ex Hawaiian Malagasy)o More than frac14 billion speakers Pacific Ocean to Madagascar
Dravidian (ex Tamil Malayalam)o About frac14 billion speakers Southern India
Niger-Congo (ex Yoruba Swahili)o About 200000000 speakers Sub-Saharan Africa
Altaic (ex Turkish Mongol)o About 200000000 speakers Turkey to Mongolia
Japanese (ex Japanese)o About 125000000 speakers Japan (of course)
Some interesting minor language families AustromdashAsiatic Major languagemdashVietnamesemdashAbout 60000000 speakers KoreanmdashMajor language KoreanmdashAbout 50000000 speakers Nilo-SaharanmdashMajor language MasaimdashAbout 30000000 speakers Amerindian (not really a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor languages Quechua Navajomdash About
25000000 speakers (mostly in South America) Uralic (many authors combine Uralic with Altaic into one family)mdashMajor languages Finnish Hungarian CaucasianmdashMajor language GeorgianmdashAbout 6000000 speakers Indo-Pacific (or Papuan ndash not a family just a regional collectionmdashThere are about 800 languages spoken on the
island of New Guinea)mdashMajor language MotumdashAbout 3000000 speakers Khoisan (the ldquoclickrdquo languages)mdashMajor language KhoikhoimdashAbout 50000 speakers Australian Aborigine (not a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor language AruntamdashAbout 50000 speakers Isolates (languages which arenrsquot related to anything else such as Basque)
The urge to understand Mixing languages Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins creoles ldquoFranglaisrdquo
ldquoSpanglishrdquo etc) Lingua franca A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin English etc) Multilingualism Knowing and using more than one language Artificial language A constructed language which is supposed to be logical practical and easy to learn
(Esperanto etc) Translation and interpretation
o Translation Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another
o Interpretation A less literal translation emphasizing overall meaningo Transliterationmdashbaptism
Mixing languages Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other
o Examples SPANGLISH
Dolores dice Need advice Escriacutebeme (on the home page for the online magazine Latina)
Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija (overheard in the Western US) Haz clic aquiacute (commonly seen on Spanish-language Web sites)
Llamenos para delivery (seen on advertising signs in Peru) Tips para marketing (advertisement in Mexico)
JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH)o BRANDO NEW (brochure rack in Shiga)
NOTICE We have touched at point in under the boxes heads for keeping qualities Its very excuse (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore)
o Welcome to Mother Nature In here everyone are heroes Lets play YOUR drama (advertisement for a camping mattress)
o Lets play bowling Breaking down the pins and get hot communication
Pidgins and creoles Pidgin A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to
talk for trading or other reasons Creolemdashmixing of the colonizerrsquos language with the indigenous language (creole originally meant a slave who is
born in in the masterrsquos house in Latin)mdashfull-fledged formal language that has developed from a pidgin language
Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions expressions Usually short useful lifespan ldquoNobodyrsquos native languagerdquo
o Creole A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages a pidgin which has become a native language
Lingua franca A ldquolingua francardquo (either from ldquolanguage of the Franksrdquo or from ldquofree languagerdquo) is any widely-used language
used for commerce diplomacy science and technologymdashlanguage of trade and commerceo Lingua francas are often second languages and may be a mixture of several languages
Historically a number of languages have served as lingua francao Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean)o Arabico Swahili (Eastern Africa)o French (international diplomacy)o English (worldwide today in science commerce politics literature)
Multilingualism Most of the worldrsquos population is at least somewhat multilingual ndash that is most people have at least some
knowledge of more than one language Some nations are officially multilingual such as
o Paraguay (Spanish Guarani)o Switzerland (German French Italian Romansch)o South Africa (Afrikaans English Ndebele Pedi Sotho Swazi Tsonga Tswana Venda Xhosa and Zulu)o India (Hindi Bengali Telugu Marathi Tamil Urdu Gujarati Malayalam Kannada Oriya Punjabi
Assamese Kashmiri Sindhi Sanskrit also English and Hindustani)
Preserving language diversity Languages can die Today in the face of the global dominance of English and other ldquoworld languagesrdquo some
people are trying to preserve and even revive languages Maintaining survivors Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic Irish Gaelic Welsh (Cymru) Breton Bringing back the dead Hebrew Manx
o Why bother Because language is about more than just ldquocommunicating factsrdquo Language is about identity history continuity ndash language is a fundamental part of who you are
Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain
o Example Cajun a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country Example Abaza Avar Bats Chechen and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains
between the Black and Caspian Seas
Language and culture change and stability Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c 10000 years ago The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in
Pakistan It has been dated to 5500 years ago It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained but the Harappan language died out about 4000 years ago (See
Some believe that symbols found on 8600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing
The earliest sample of New World writing dated to about 900 BCE was discovered in 2006
Ways of writing Pictograms (also called ldquoLogogramsrdquo)
o Earliest system of writingmdashBegin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory)o Example Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs
ldquoIdeogramsrdquoo Abstract or conventional meanings often combining two or more pictogramsmdashNo longer have a clear
pictorial linkmdashrepresent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations Almost always ldquoimpurerdquo (or ldquologophoneticrdquo) with clues to pronunciation
Syllabarieso Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel)o Examples Japanese Katakana Cherokee
Cherokee ndashThis syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c 1770-1843) the great Cherokee leadermdashIts 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets but usage is entirely different
Alphabetso A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all soundsmdashAll alphabets appear to be descendants of
the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only vowels understood in context As far as we can tell all of the worldrsquos alphabets (including Cyrillic Hebrew Arabic and Roman)
are derived from the Phoenician alphabet
Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction Some languages such as English are written left-to-right Hebrew right to left (Arabic)
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Popular Foodo In popular culture modern transportation methods mean that a wide variety of different kinds of food
are available year-round ndash people are not limited to locally available cropso Food fads and food trends can change diets so that what people prefer tends to vary more over time
than over spaceo However there are variations in food preferences and consumption
Folk HousingmdashMust be made from locally available building materialsmdashdistinctive forms ndash there is no ldquoperfectrdquo house design
o Folk housing has several fundamental characteristics It must deal adequately with the physical environment (or else) It must be designed in such a way that people without special equipment or training can build it It must be constructed from locally available materials Remember there is no single ldquoperfectrdquo design Colder climatesmdashwindows facing toward direct sunlight hotter climates fewer windows facing
awaymdashroof structured for snowrain issueso Religious Custommdashparts of china the East wall of the house is considered sacred
Laosmdashsome sleep with their back to each other (the head is considered noble) Thailand houses are in a row because evil spirits travels in straight lines Buddhists in Thailand also sleep with their heads to the east (a more auspicious direction)
Popular Housingo Housing in popular culture is usually designed and built by professionalsndash not by the people who live in
the houseso Popular housing is not limited to locally available building materialso Popular housing styles vary more over time than regionally ndash for example houses built in the 1950s tend
to look alike regardless of where they were built
Folk ArtmdashIn many cultures the distinction between ldquoartrdquo and ldquoeveryday objectrdquo is unclear ndash decoration is ldquojust the way things are donerdquo
o Usually folk art pieces are ldquotraditionalrdquo there is no known designer no ldquoartistrdquo ndash just craftspeopleo Often the ldquoartrdquo is just included as part of a traditional way of making something ndash not specifically made
as ldquoartrdquo
Popular Culture Popular Art
o As with popular music popular art is usually created by known individuals as a commodity ndash produced by professionals and made to be sold
o Innovation (and even shock value) is highly prized Popular Beliefs
o Beliefs about the world and how people should live and behave are widely shared in popular cultureo Widely shared concepts today
Democracy free markets individualism rule of law private property family work education etc
o Popular beliefs are spread by media -- newspapers magazines radio andmdashmost popular leisure activity in MDCrsquosmdashmost important mechanism by which knowledge of popular culture ie sports fashion music is diffusedmdashwith the advent of satellite dishes itrsquos very difficult to regulate in totalitarian states
TELEVISION The Diffusion of TVmdashtook a half century to diffuse
o Category 1 Countries where most households (more than 50) own at least one TV set (US Japan)
o Category 2 Countries where TVs are common but not universal (25-49) (Mexico Thailand)
o Category 3 Countries where television exists but is uncommon (5-24) few individuals own sets (Mongolia Laos)
o Category 4 Countries where television is rare or non-existent (less than5) virtually no TV sets (Bhutan Chad)
The Internetmdashtook only a decade to diffuse In 1995 less than 10 of American adults were online today more than 23 have online
access Worldwide more than a billion people have internet access today ndash but access is still
very limited in less developed areas
Threats to Folk Cultureso Why worry Why should we careo When people turn away from traditional culture and customs they may also turn away from a societyrsquos
traditional valueso The ways of living and behaving that work in popular culture may not work so well in other cultureso On the other hand ndash traditional ways of living are not necessarily ideal either
Threats to Folk Cultureo Number 1 Loss of Traditional Values ndash Changes in the Role of Women
In many cultures it is traditional for women to be subservient to men (this was true here until quite recently)
In some cases awareness of popular culture has meant that women can seek advancement education and new roles
On the other hand contact with popular culture almost always results in increased rates of prostitution and exploitation
Women who try to change their roles or status may be subject to harassment and violence ndash although that is hardly unique or unusual in many cultures
Clothesmdashwestern business attire sign of material successo Number 2 Foreign Media Imperialism
Media from just three countries ndash the US the UK and Japan ndashdominate entertainment and news in much of the less developed world What they show may be offensive to (or subversive of) traditional values
Western news media dominate international news News media within most less developed countries is largely government controlled News networks tend to represent Western values and ideas ndash and may not present the points of view of less developed countries (or their governments) Western media are largely interested in disasters
Note that newspapers and radio stations are usually locally owned and operated ndash not foreign owned or controlled
o Number 3 Adoption amp Commodification Popular culture is constantly looking for new exciting things and ideas Often it takes them from folk cultures ndash but things are usually altered as part of the process
and the original meaning is often losto Number 4 The Environment
Folk cultures are dependent on the local environment Although they may modify it if they survive they must be in some sense ldquoin balancerdquo
Popular culture is much more likely to create pollution ndash toxic chemicals sewage etc Popular culture is far less dependent on local conditions Food can be imported air conditioning
can keep things pleasant So popular culture is far more likely to modify the natural environment ndash sometimes in ways that may be disastrous for people trying to live a traditional lifemdashinefficiency of meat consumptionmdashtakes 10 pounds of grain to produce one pound of beefmdash3 pound of grain to produce 1 pound of chickenmdashless efficient than eating grain directly
Accelerated Resource Use through Accelerated Consumption Furs minx lynx jaguar kangaroo whale sea otters (18th Century Russians) fed early
fashion trends Consumerism evident in most Western Media fashions including hip hop and rock and
roll Inefficient over-consumption of Meats (101) Poultry (31) even Fish (fed other fish and
chicken) by meat-eating pop cultures Mineral Extraction for Machines Plastics and Fuel New larger housing desires and associated energy and water use Golf courses use valuable water and destroy habitat worldwide
Modifying the Environment Examples Increased Demand for Resources Popular culture needs access to large quantities of raw materials ndashminerals petroleum
lumber agricultural land Increased demand for these resources can severely impact the environment ndash in ways
that traditional cultures never wouldo GolfmdashEach golf course covers at least 200 acres and requires enormous
quantities of fertilizers pesticides and irrigation water About 200 new golf courses open every year in the US thousands
around the world Pollution waste from fuel generation and discarded products plastics marketing and packaging
materialso Number 5 Placelessness
Popular culture is characterized by nearly universal styles of art architecture advertising behavior etc
When every place is indistinguishable from every other place ndash then how can any place be special or unique Why put any particular value on a place when itrsquos just like everywhere else
Effects on Landscape creates homogenous ldquoplacelessrdquo (Relph 1976) landscapeo Complex network of roads and highwayso Commercial Structures tend towards lsquoboxesrsquoo Dwellings may be aesthetically suggestive of older folk traditionso Planned and Gated Communities more and more common
Chapter 5 LanguageLanguage Origins
The Danish linguist Otto Jesperson (1860-1943) classified theories of language origin into five groupso ldquoBow-WowrdquomdashPeople imitate sounds from their environmento ldquoPooh-PoohrdquomdashPeople make instinctive sounds related to emotions body functions paino ldquoDing-DongrdquomdashPeople make ldquooral gesturesrdquoo Yo-He-HordquomdashPeople work together and produce rhythmic soundo ldquoLa-LardquomdashPeople make sounds associated with love play and singing
Language ishellip Language is universal
o No human group anywhere has ever been found that does not have a spoken language There are of course many languages that do not have a written form There are occasional physically normal individuals ldquowolf childrenrdquo who have no language at all
Language is fundamentalo Language is crucial for social interaction and to express complex emotions and ideaso Language lets us deal with ndash and even try to control ndash the world around us
Naming Faith magic and the supernatural
o Language is fundamental to who we are ndash our identity
The worldrsquos top ten languages Note the astonishing rise of English Why Mostly because of Englishs status as an official language in former British colonies (especially in India ndash
even though just a small percent of the population speaks English fluently)o Two-billion people live in a country with English as the official language even if they canrsquot speak ito Causes Imperialism (BritishUS) Cultural Imperialism (TV Movies Music etc)
The pleasures and perils of English Pleasures
o Most widely spoken language global dominance of media interneto No gender number or case changes easy formation of pluralso Relatively simple verb forms (except for irregular verbs)o Huge flexible vocabulary
Perilso Idiomatic verb and preposition combinations (ldquoput uprdquo ldquoget downrdquo)o Irregular plurals (ox and oxen foot and feet etc)o Spellingmdash
the gh = f as in rough the o = i as in wOmen the ti = sh as in naTIono Bizarre written forms ldquoThough the rough cough and hiccough (hiccup) plough me through I ought to
cross the lough (loch)rdquoo No rules for pronunciation and stress Polish vs polish dove vs dove to too two there their theyrsquore
Improving written English And if these look funny ndashremember American spelling was ldquosimplifiedrdquo over a hundred years ago
o ldquotirerdquo vs ldquotyrerdquoo ldquojailrdquo vs ldquogaolrdquoo ldquocurbrdquo vs ldquokerbrdquoo ldquoprogramrdquo vs ldquoprogrammerdquo
Origins of English DevelopmentmdashNothing is known about the languages of Great Britain prior to the Celtic invasion (c 2000 BCE)
(the Celts provided some loan words but English is mostly a Germanic and Romance-descended language)o Old English (ldquoAnglo-Saxonrdquo) Invasion by West Germanic peoples (Jutes Angles Saxons) from Northern
Germany beginning 449 CE Periodic invasions from Scandinavia starting c 700 CE Originally all these Germanic tribes spoke a common languagemdashlong ago prior to a written
recordo Middle English Invasion by Normans 1066 CE (mixture with Romance branch)
ldquoThe Great Vowel Shiftrdquo (1350-1550 CE) French spoken by the elite English court Nobility Clergymdashlower classes continued to speak
English but began to fragment because those in leadership spoke other languages Statute of Pleadingmdashchanged official language back to English
o Modern English 1700-1800 CE English vocabulary enlarged grammar simplified codified
Old Middle amp Early Modern English Old English
o Faeligder ure thornuthorne eart on heofonum si thornin nama gehalgod tobecume thornin rice gewurthorne thornin willa on eorethan swa on heofonum urne gedaeligghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeligg and forgyf us ure gyltas swa we forgyfaeth urum gyltendum and ne gelaeligd thornu us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele sothornlice
Middle Englisho Oure fadir thornat art in heuenes halwid be thorni name thorni kyngdom come to be Be thorni wille don in herthorne as it is
dounin heuene Yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred And foryeue to us oure dettis thornat is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris thornat is to men thornat han synned in us And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl
Early Modern Englisho Our father which art in heaven hallowed be thy name Thy kingdom come Thy will be done in earth as
it is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread And forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors And lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil
Language dialect accent Standard Language Accepted norms of syntax vocabulary and pronunciation
o BRPmdashaccepted dialect from around Londonmdashused by politicians broadcasters and actors Dialect A recognizable speech variant
Dialects of English In England there are still at least three main dialect groups
o NORTHERNo MIDLANDo SOUTHERN
My Fair Lady-- httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=jhninL_G3Fg
Drawing dialect boundaries isoglosses Isoglosses are a kind of isoline ndash in this case they are word-usage boundariesmdashglossophobia means fear of
public speaking (gloss means tongue in greek) Ideally researchers go out ask people what words they use for common things put dots on the map draw lines
around the dots and define boundaries between different dialectso Thatrsquos the ideal Itrsquos usually much messiero Can you guess what these different colored dots represent Give up These are all local words for
ldquodragonflyrdquo
In the USo Isolation (physical and political) created differences in vocabulary spelling and pronunciationo Today US dialects are most pronounced in the East and there are at least three main groups (and
perhaps five) NORTHERN MIDLAND SOUTHERN (some break this down further into Upland Gulf and Coastal Southern dialects)
Do you speak American o Episode 1mdash200-2100 (South) 2800-3600 (Slaves) o Episode 2mdash300-930 (Spanglish) 930-1500 (African AmericanEbonics) 1500-
2400 (California)
ldquoEbonicsrdquoo Also known as ldquoBlack English Vernacularrdquo amp ldquoAfrican-American Vernacular Englishrdquoo The Concept
Students and teachers need to understand each other Some African-American childrenrsquos English is so different from standard English they cannot be
understood by their teachers Schools often treat such children as sloppy wrong or stupid Schools should help children to learn standard English by building on the language they already
have and treat that language as distinct and worthy not ldquowrongrdquo The Controversy begins (from the Oakland California School District) ldquoAfrican people possess and utilize a language described as ldquoEbonicsrdquohellip studies have hellip
demonstrated that African Language Systems are genetically-based and not a dialect of English helliprdquo (December 18 1996)
o The Controversy ends ldquoAfrican-American students as a part of their culture and history as
African people possess and utilize a language described in various scholarly approaches as ldquoEbonicsrdquo hellip these studies have hellipdemonstrated that African Language Systems have origins in West [African] and Niger-Congo languages helliprdquo (January 15 1997)
The movement of languages Throughout history most languages have spread by relocation diffusion A few languages ndash including Chinese Latin French and English ndash have also spread by expansion diffusion
o Barriers to diffusion can be both physical and cultural
Official English No but hellip The English Language Empowerment Act (1996)
(1) The United States is comprised of individuals and groups from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds(3) Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been a common language(4) In order to preserve unity in diversity and to prevent division along linguistic lines the Federal Government should maintain a language common to all people(9) English should be recognized in law as the language of official business of the Federal Government
Excerpts from HR 123 July 30 1996
English Language Unity Act of 2003
1 The United States is comprised of individuals from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds and continues to benefit from this rich diversity2 Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been the English language3 Among the powers reserved to the States respectively is the power to establish the English language as the official language of the respective States and otherwise to promote the English language within the respective States subject to the prohibitions enumerated in the Constitution of the United States and in laws of the respective States
Excerpts from HR 997 February 27 2003 1048729 lsquoNational Language Act of 2007rsquo
English shall be the official language of the Government of the United States The Government of the United States shall preserve and enhance the role of English no person has a right
entitlement or claim to services or materials in any language other than English This does not apply to the use of a language other than English
(1) for religious purposes(2) for training in foreign languages for international communication(3) to programs in schools designed to encourage students to learn foreign languages
This does not prevent the Government from providing interpreters for persons over 62 years of age BILINGUAL ELECTION REQUIREMENTS [are] repealed
Excerpts from HR 769 January 31 2007
Official English laws in the US As of 2007 27 () US States have some kind of ldquoofficial Englishrdquo law The impact and scope of the laws vary ndash from being little more than a simple statement (as in Illinois ldquoThe
official language of the State of Illinois is Englishrdquo) to forbidding any activity of State or local government from doing anything which could be considered supporting the use of any language other than English
Two States ndash Hawaii and New Mexico ndash have specified that a language other than English is also official (Hawaiian and Spanish respectively)
A few States have taken the opposite position Oregon for example says that ldquothe use of diverse languages in business government and private affairs hellip is welcomed encouraged and protected in Oregonrdquo
The Top 20 US Languages (after English) Navajo is the Native American language with the largest number of speakers in the US today ndash 178014
Languages come in families A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common earlier language (just as brothers and sisters are descended from common parents)
How many languages are there Not an easy question to answero Living and Dead Languages (Italian vs Latin)o Revivals (Hebrew ndash from living to dead to living again)o New Discoveries (Amazon Papua New Guinea Africa etc)o ldquoLanguagesrdquo and ldquoDialectsrdquo (see below ndash hard to define)o Maybe 4000 Languages are spoken today Or more Or less
How many language families are thereo Families are constructed on the basis of similarities in vocabulary phonology and grammar
Lots of disputes about what is and what isnrsquot significant ndash and lots of variation in the numbers Maybe as many as 100 families Orhellip
Language families havehellip Branches ldquoa collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago
Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language familiesrdquo Example Indo-European family has eight (surviving) branches
o Germanic (ex German Danish English)o Romance (ex Italian French Romanian)o Balto-Slavic (ex Lithuanian Russian Polish)o Indo-Iranian (ex Farsi Kurdish)o Greek (ex Greek)o Albanian (ex Albanian)o Armenian (ex Armenian)o Celtic (ex Irish Breton Welsh)
Language Groups ldquoa collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabularyrdquo
o For example both English and Danish are in the Germanic branch but English is in the West Germanic Group while Danish is in the North Germanic Group
Origin of Indo-European two hypotheses The Kurgan Hypothesis (a war-like people expanding and conquering from the region north of the Black Sea) The Anatolian Hearth theory (farmers and pastoralists expanding slowly from a place of origin in what is now
Turkey)
Indo-European mutual comprehension Consider all of the following
o English ldquoOur Father who art in heaven helliprdquoo Dutch ldquoOnze Vader die in de hemelen zijt helliprdquoo Spanish ldquoPadre nuestro qe estaacutes en los cielos helliprdquoo Polish ldquoOjcze nasz ktoacuterys jest w niebiesiech helliprdquoo Greek ldquoPatera mas pougrave eiumlsai stougraves ouranougraves helliprdquoo Albanian ldquoAti yneuml qeuml je neuml quiell helliprdquoo Kurdish ldquoYauml baumlwk-iuml eumlma ka la aumlsmaumln-auml-y helliprdquoo Romany ldquoDaacutede amareacute kaj isieacuten krsquoo devleacute helliprdquoo Sanskrit ldquoBho asmaumlkham svargastha pitah helliprdquo
Notice the similarities (for example ldquopitahrdquo ldquopaterardquo ldquopadrerdquo or ldquofatherrdquo ldquovaderrdquo ldquodaacutederdquo) and differences
Major language families (families with more than 100000000 speakers)
Indo-European (ex English Russian Farsi Hindi)o About 3 billion speakers originally Europe-Asia now worldwide
Sino-Tibetan (ex Chinese Tibetan)o About 15 billion speakers mostly in China and surrounding areas
Afro-Asiatic (also called ldquoHamitic-Semiticrdquo) (ex Arabic Hebrew)o Almost frac12 billion speakers mostly in North Africa amp Southwest Asia
Austronesian (also called ldquoMalayo-Polynesianrdquo) (ex Hawaiian Malagasy)o More than frac14 billion speakers Pacific Ocean to Madagascar
Dravidian (ex Tamil Malayalam)o About frac14 billion speakers Southern India
Niger-Congo (ex Yoruba Swahili)o About 200000000 speakers Sub-Saharan Africa
Altaic (ex Turkish Mongol)o About 200000000 speakers Turkey to Mongolia
Japanese (ex Japanese)o About 125000000 speakers Japan (of course)
Some interesting minor language families AustromdashAsiatic Major languagemdashVietnamesemdashAbout 60000000 speakers KoreanmdashMajor language KoreanmdashAbout 50000000 speakers Nilo-SaharanmdashMajor language MasaimdashAbout 30000000 speakers Amerindian (not really a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor languages Quechua Navajomdash About
25000000 speakers (mostly in South America) Uralic (many authors combine Uralic with Altaic into one family)mdashMajor languages Finnish Hungarian CaucasianmdashMajor language GeorgianmdashAbout 6000000 speakers Indo-Pacific (or Papuan ndash not a family just a regional collectionmdashThere are about 800 languages spoken on the
island of New Guinea)mdashMajor language MotumdashAbout 3000000 speakers Khoisan (the ldquoclickrdquo languages)mdashMajor language KhoikhoimdashAbout 50000 speakers Australian Aborigine (not a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor language AruntamdashAbout 50000 speakers Isolates (languages which arenrsquot related to anything else such as Basque)
The urge to understand Mixing languages Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins creoles ldquoFranglaisrdquo
ldquoSpanglishrdquo etc) Lingua franca A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin English etc) Multilingualism Knowing and using more than one language Artificial language A constructed language which is supposed to be logical practical and easy to learn
(Esperanto etc) Translation and interpretation
o Translation Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another
o Interpretation A less literal translation emphasizing overall meaningo Transliterationmdashbaptism
Mixing languages Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other
o Examples SPANGLISH
Dolores dice Need advice Escriacutebeme (on the home page for the online magazine Latina)
Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija (overheard in the Western US) Haz clic aquiacute (commonly seen on Spanish-language Web sites)
Llamenos para delivery (seen on advertising signs in Peru) Tips para marketing (advertisement in Mexico)
JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH)o BRANDO NEW (brochure rack in Shiga)
NOTICE We have touched at point in under the boxes heads for keeping qualities Its very excuse (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore)
o Welcome to Mother Nature In here everyone are heroes Lets play YOUR drama (advertisement for a camping mattress)
o Lets play bowling Breaking down the pins and get hot communication
Pidgins and creoles Pidgin A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to
talk for trading or other reasons Creolemdashmixing of the colonizerrsquos language with the indigenous language (creole originally meant a slave who is
born in in the masterrsquos house in Latin)mdashfull-fledged formal language that has developed from a pidgin language
Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions expressions Usually short useful lifespan ldquoNobodyrsquos native languagerdquo
o Creole A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages a pidgin which has become a native language
Lingua franca A ldquolingua francardquo (either from ldquolanguage of the Franksrdquo or from ldquofree languagerdquo) is any widely-used language
used for commerce diplomacy science and technologymdashlanguage of trade and commerceo Lingua francas are often second languages and may be a mixture of several languages
Historically a number of languages have served as lingua francao Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean)o Arabico Swahili (Eastern Africa)o French (international diplomacy)o English (worldwide today in science commerce politics literature)
Multilingualism Most of the worldrsquos population is at least somewhat multilingual ndash that is most people have at least some
knowledge of more than one language Some nations are officially multilingual such as
o Paraguay (Spanish Guarani)o Switzerland (German French Italian Romansch)o South Africa (Afrikaans English Ndebele Pedi Sotho Swazi Tsonga Tswana Venda Xhosa and Zulu)o India (Hindi Bengali Telugu Marathi Tamil Urdu Gujarati Malayalam Kannada Oriya Punjabi
Assamese Kashmiri Sindhi Sanskrit also English and Hindustani)
Preserving language diversity Languages can die Today in the face of the global dominance of English and other ldquoworld languagesrdquo some
people are trying to preserve and even revive languages Maintaining survivors Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic Irish Gaelic Welsh (Cymru) Breton Bringing back the dead Hebrew Manx
o Why bother Because language is about more than just ldquocommunicating factsrdquo Language is about identity history continuity ndash language is a fundamental part of who you are
Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain
o Example Cajun a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country Example Abaza Avar Bats Chechen and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains
between the Black and Caspian Seas
Language and culture change and stability Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c 10000 years ago The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in
Pakistan It has been dated to 5500 years ago It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained but the Harappan language died out about 4000 years ago (See
Some believe that symbols found on 8600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing
The earliest sample of New World writing dated to about 900 BCE was discovered in 2006
Ways of writing Pictograms (also called ldquoLogogramsrdquo)
o Earliest system of writingmdashBegin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory)o Example Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs
ldquoIdeogramsrdquoo Abstract or conventional meanings often combining two or more pictogramsmdashNo longer have a clear
pictorial linkmdashrepresent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations Almost always ldquoimpurerdquo (or ldquologophoneticrdquo) with clues to pronunciation
Syllabarieso Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel)o Examples Japanese Katakana Cherokee
Cherokee ndashThis syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c 1770-1843) the great Cherokee leadermdashIts 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets but usage is entirely different
Alphabetso A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all soundsmdashAll alphabets appear to be descendants of
the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only vowels understood in context As far as we can tell all of the worldrsquos alphabets (including Cyrillic Hebrew Arabic and Roman)
are derived from the Phoenician alphabet
Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction Some languages such as English are written left-to-right Hebrew right to left (Arabic)
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
o Category 2 Countries where TVs are common but not universal (25-49) (Mexico Thailand)
o Category 3 Countries where television exists but is uncommon (5-24) few individuals own sets (Mongolia Laos)
o Category 4 Countries where television is rare or non-existent (less than5) virtually no TV sets (Bhutan Chad)
The Internetmdashtook only a decade to diffuse In 1995 less than 10 of American adults were online today more than 23 have online
access Worldwide more than a billion people have internet access today ndash but access is still
very limited in less developed areas
Threats to Folk Cultureso Why worry Why should we careo When people turn away from traditional culture and customs they may also turn away from a societyrsquos
traditional valueso The ways of living and behaving that work in popular culture may not work so well in other cultureso On the other hand ndash traditional ways of living are not necessarily ideal either
Threats to Folk Cultureo Number 1 Loss of Traditional Values ndash Changes in the Role of Women
In many cultures it is traditional for women to be subservient to men (this was true here until quite recently)
In some cases awareness of popular culture has meant that women can seek advancement education and new roles
On the other hand contact with popular culture almost always results in increased rates of prostitution and exploitation
Women who try to change their roles or status may be subject to harassment and violence ndash although that is hardly unique or unusual in many cultures
Clothesmdashwestern business attire sign of material successo Number 2 Foreign Media Imperialism
Media from just three countries ndash the US the UK and Japan ndashdominate entertainment and news in much of the less developed world What they show may be offensive to (or subversive of) traditional values
Western news media dominate international news News media within most less developed countries is largely government controlled News networks tend to represent Western values and ideas ndash and may not present the points of view of less developed countries (or their governments) Western media are largely interested in disasters
Note that newspapers and radio stations are usually locally owned and operated ndash not foreign owned or controlled
o Number 3 Adoption amp Commodification Popular culture is constantly looking for new exciting things and ideas Often it takes them from folk cultures ndash but things are usually altered as part of the process
and the original meaning is often losto Number 4 The Environment
Folk cultures are dependent on the local environment Although they may modify it if they survive they must be in some sense ldquoin balancerdquo
Popular culture is much more likely to create pollution ndash toxic chemicals sewage etc Popular culture is far less dependent on local conditions Food can be imported air conditioning
can keep things pleasant So popular culture is far more likely to modify the natural environment ndash sometimes in ways that may be disastrous for people trying to live a traditional lifemdashinefficiency of meat consumptionmdashtakes 10 pounds of grain to produce one pound of beefmdash3 pound of grain to produce 1 pound of chickenmdashless efficient than eating grain directly
Accelerated Resource Use through Accelerated Consumption Furs minx lynx jaguar kangaroo whale sea otters (18th Century Russians) fed early
fashion trends Consumerism evident in most Western Media fashions including hip hop and rock and
roll Inefficient over-consumption of Meats (101) Poultry (31) even Fish (fed other fish and
chicken) by meat-eating pop cultures Mineral Extraction for Machines Plastics and Fuel New larger housing desires and associated energy and water use Golf courses use valuable water and destroy habitat worldwide
Modifying the Environment Examples Increased Demand for Resources Popular culture needs access to large quantities of raw materials ndashminerals petroleum
lumber agricultural land Increased demand for these resources can severely impact the environment ndash in ways
that traditional cultures never wouldo GolfmdashEach golf course covers at least 200 acres and requires enormous
quantities of fertilizers pesticides and irrigation water About 200 new golf courses open every year in the US thousands
around the world Pollution waste from fuel generation and discarded products plastics marketing and packaging
materialso Number 5 Placelessness
Popular culture is characterized by nearly universal styles of art architecture advertising behavior etc
When every place is indistinguishable from every other place ndash then how can any place be special or unique Why put any particular value on a place when itrsquos just like everywhere else
Effects on Landscape creates homogenous ldquoplacelessrdquo (Relph 1976) landscapeo Complex network of roads and highwayso Commercial Structures tend towards lsquoboxesrsquoo Dwellings may be aesthetically suggestive of older folk traditionso Planned and Gated Communities more and more common
Chapter 5 LanguageLanguage Origins
The Danish linguist Otto Jesperson (1860-1943) classified theories of language origin into five groupso ldquoBow-WowrdquomdashPeople imitate sounds from their environmento ldquoPooh-PoohrdquomdashPeople make instinctive sounds related to emotions body functions paino ldquoDing-DongrdquomdashPeople make ldquooral gesturesrdquoo Yo-He-HordquomdashPeople work together and produce rhythmic soundo ldquoLa-LardquomdashPeople make sounds associated with love play and singing
Language ishellip Language is universal
o No human group anywhere has ever been found that does not have a spoken language There are of course many languages that do not have a written form There are occasional physically normal individuals ldquowolf childrenrdquo who have no language at all
Language is fundamentalo Language is crucial for social interaction and to express complex emotions and ideaso Language lets us deal with ndash and even try to control ndash the world around us
Naming Faith magic and the supernatural
o Language is fundamental to who we are ndash our identity
The worldrsquos top ten languages Note the astonishing rise of English Why Mostly because of Englishs status as an official language in former British colonies (especially in India ndash
even though just a small percent of the population speaks English fluently)o Two-billion people live in a country with English as the official language even if they canrsquot speak ito Causes Imperialism (BritishUS) Cultural Imperialism (TV Movies Music etc)
The pleasures and perils of English Pleasures
o Most widely spoken language global dominance of media interneto No gender number or case changes easy formation of pluralso Relatively simple verb forms (except for irregular verbs)o Huge flexible vocabulary
Perilso Idiomatic verb and preposition combinations (ldquoput uprdquo ldquoget downrdquo)o Irregular plurals (ox and oxen foot and feet etc)o Spellingmdash
the gh = f as in rough the o = i as in wOmen the ti = sh as in naTIono Bizarre written forms ldquoThough the rough cough and hiccough (hiccup) plough me through I ought to
cross the lough (loch)rdquoo No rules for pronunciation and stress Polish vs polish dove vs dove to too two there their theyrsquore
Improving written English And if these look funny ndashremember American spelling was ldquosimplifiedrdquo over a hundred years ago
o ldquotirerdquo vs ldquotyrerdquoo ldquojailrdquo vs ldquogaolrdquoo ldquocurbrdquo vs ldquokerbrdquoo ldquoprogramrdquo vs ldquoprogrammerdquo
Origins of English DevelopmentmdashNothing is known about the languages of Great Britain prior to the Celtic invasion (c 2000 BCE)
(the Celts provided some loan words but English is mostly a Germanic and Romance-descended language)o Old English (ldquoAnglo-Saxonrdquo) Invasion by West Germanic peoples (Jutes Angles Saxons) from Northern
Germany beginning 449 CE Periodic invasions from Scandinavia starting c 700 CE Originally all these Germanic tribes spoke a common languagemdashlong ago prior to a written
recordo Middle English Invasion by Normans 1066 CE (mixture with Romance branch)
ldquoThe Great Vowel Shiftrdquo (1350-1550 CE) French spoken by the elite English court Nobility Clergymdashlower classes continued to speak
English but began to fragment because those in leadership spoke other languages Statute of Pleadingmdashchanged official language back to English
o Modern English 1700-1800 CE English vocabulary enlarged grammar simplified codified
Old Middle amp Early Modern English Old English
o Faeligder ure thornuthorne eart on heofonum si thornin nama gehalgod tobecume thornin rice gewurthorne thornin willa on eorethan swa on heofonum urne gedaeligghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeligg and forgyf us ure gyltas swa we forgyfaeth urum gyltendum and ne gelaeligd thornu us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele sothornlice
Middle Englisho Oure fadir thornat art in heuenes halwid be thorni name thorni kyngdom come to be Be thorni wille don in herthorne as it is
dounin heuene Yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred And foryeue to us oure dettis thornat is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris thornat is to men thornat han synned in us And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl
Early Modern Englisho Our father which art in heaven hallowed be thy name Thy kingdom come Thy will be done in earth as
it is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread And forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors And lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil
Language dialect accent Standard Language Accepted norms of syntax vocabulary and pronunciation
o BRPmdashaccepted dialect from around Londonmdashused by politicians broadcasters and actors Dialect A recognizable speech variant
Dialects of English In England there are still at least three main dialect groups
o NORTHERNo MIDLANDo SOUTHERN
My Fair Lady-- httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=jhninL_G3Fg
Drawing dialect boundaries isoglosses Isoglosses are a kind of isoline ndash in this case they are word-usage boundariesmdashglossophobia means fear of
public speaking (gloss means tongue in greek) Ideally researchers go out ask people what words they use for common things put dots on the map draw lines
around the dots and define boundaries between different dialectso Thatrsquos the ideal Itrsquos usually much messiero Can you guess what these different colored dots represent Give up These are all local words for
ldquodragonflyrdquo
In the USo Isolation (physical and political) created differences in vocabulary spelling and pronunciationo Today US dialects are most pronounced in the East and there are at least three main groups (and
perhaps five) NORTHERN MIDLAND SOUTHERN (some break this down further into Upland Gulf and Coastal Southern dialects)
Do you speak American o Episode 1mdash200-2100 (South) 2800-3600 (Slaves) o Episode 2mdash300-930 (Spanglish) 930-1500 (African AmericanEbonics) 1500-
2400 (California)
ldquoEbonicsrdquoo Also known as ldquoBlack English Vernacularrdquo amp ldquoAfrican-American Vernacular Englishrdquoo The Concept
Students and teachers need to understand each other Some African-American childrenrsquos English is so different from standard English they cannot be
understood by their teachers Schools often treat such children as sloppy wrong or stupid Schools should help children to learn standard English by building on the language they already
have and treat that language as distinct and worthy not ldquowrongrdquo The Controversy begins (from the Oakland California School District) ldquoAfrican people possess and utilize a language described as ldquoEbonicsrdquohellip studies have hellip
demonstrated that African Language Systems are genetically-based and not a dialect of English helliprdquo (December 18 1996)
o The Controversy ends ldquoAfrican-American students as a part of their culture and history as
African people possess and utilize a language described in various scholarly approaches as ldquoEbonicsrdquo hellip these studies have hellipdemonstrated that African Language Systems have origins in West [African] and Niger-Congo languages helliprdquo (January 15 1997)
The movement of languages Throughout history most languages have spread by relocation diffusion A few languages ndash including Chinese Latin French and English ndash have also spread by expansion diffusion
o Barriers to diffusion can be both physical and cultural
Official English No but hellip The English Language Empowerment Act (1996)
(1) The United States is comprised of individuals and groups from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds(3) Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been a common language(4) In order to preserve unity in diversity and to prevent division along linguistic lines the Federal Government should maintain a language common to all people(9) English should be recognized in law as the language of official business of the Federal Government
Excerpts from HR 123 July 30 1996
English Language Unity Act of 2003
1 The United States is comprised of individuals from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds and continues to benefit from this rich diversity2 Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been the English language3 Among the powers reserved to the States respectively is the power to establish the English language as the official language of the respective States and otherwise to promote the English language within the respective States subject to the prohibitions enumerated in the Constitution of the United States and in laws of the respective States
Excerpts from HR 997 February 27 2003 1048729 lsquoNational Language Act of 2007rsquo
English shall be the official language of the Government of the United States The Government of the United States shall preserve and enhance the role of English no person has a right
entitlement or claim to services or materials in any language other than English This does not apply to the use of a language other than English
(1) for religious purposes(2) for training in foreign languages for international communication(3) to programs in schools designed to encourage students to learn foreign languages
This does not prevent the Government from providing interpreters for persons over 62 years of age BILINGUAL ELECTION REQUIREMENTS [are] repealed
Excerpts from HR 769 January 31 2007
Official English laws in the US As of 2007 27 () US States have some kind of ldquoofficial Englishrdquo law The impact and scope of the laws vary ndash from being little more than a simple statement (as in Illinois ldquoThe
official language of the State of Illinois is Englishrdquo) to forbidding any activity of State or local government from doing anything which could be considered supporting the use of any language other than English
Two States ndash Hawaii and New Mexico ndash have specified that a language other than English is also official (Hawaiian and Spanish respectively)
A few States have taken the opposite position Oregon for example says that ldquothe use of diverse languages in business government and private affairs hellip is welcomed encouraged and protected in Oregonrdquo
The Top 20 US Languages (after English) Navajo is the Native American language with the largest number of speakers in the US today ndash 178014
Languages come in families A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common earlier language (just as brothers and sisters are descended from common parents)
How many languages are there Not an easy question to answero Living and Dead Languages (Italian vs Latin)o Revivals (Hebrew ndash from living to dead to living again)o New Discoveries (Amazon Papua New Guinea Africa etc)o ldquoLanguagesrdquo and ldquoDialectsrdquo (see below ndash hard to define)o Maybe 4000 Languages are spoken today Or more Or less
How many language families are thereo Families are constructed on the basis of similarities in vocabulary phonology and grammar
Lots of disputes about what is and what isnrsquot significant ndash and lots of variation in the numbers Maybe as many as 100 families Orhellip
Language families havehellip Branches ldquoa collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago
Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language familiesrdquo Example Indo-European family has eight (surviving) branches
o Germanic (ex German Danish English)o Romance (ex Italian French Romanian)o Balto-Slavic (ex Lithuanian Russian Polish)o Indo-Iranian (ex Farsi Kurdish)o Greek (ex Greek)o Albanian (ex Albanian)o Armenian (ex Armenian)o Celtic (ex Irish Breton Welsh)
Language Groups ldquoa collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabularyrdquo
o For example both English and Danish are in the Germanic branch but English is in the West Germanic Group while Danish is in the North Germanic Group
Origin of Indo-European two hypotheses The Kurgan Hypothesis (a war-like people expanding and conquering from the region north of the Black Sea) The Anatolian Hearth theory (farmers and pastoralists expanding slowly from a place of origin in what is now
Turkey)
Indo-European mutual comprehension Consider all of the following
o English ldquoOur Father who art in heaven helliprdquoo Dutch ldquoOnze Vader die in de hemelen zijt helliprdquoo Spanish ldquoPadre nuestro qe estaacutes en los cielos helliprdquoo Polish ldquoOjcze nasz ktoacuterys jest w niebiesiech helliprdquoo Greek ldquoPatera mas pougrave eiumlsai stougraves ouranougraves helliprdquoo Albanian ldquoAti yneuml qeuml je neuml quiell helliprdquoo Kurdish ldquoYauml baumlwk-iuml eumlma ka la aumlsmaumln-auml-y helliprdquoo Romany ldquoDaacutede amareacute kaj isieacuten krsquoo devleacute helliprdquoo Sanskrit ldquoBho asmaumlkham svargastha pitah helliprdquo
Notice the similarities (for example ldquopitahrdquo ldquopaterardquo ldquopadrerdquo or ldquofatherrdquo ldquovaderrdquo ldquodaacutederdquo) and differences
Major language families (families with more than 100000000 speakers)
Indo-European (ex English Russian Farsi Hindi)o About 3 billion speakers originally Europe-Asia now worldwide
Sino-Tibetan (ex Chinese Tibetan)o About 15 billion speakers mostly in China and surrounding areas
Afro-Asiatic (also called ldquoHamitic-Semiticrdquo) (ex Arabic Hebrew)o Almost frac12 billion speakers mostly in North Africa amp Southwest Asia
Austronesian (also called ldquoMalayo-Polynesianrdquo) (ex Hawaiian Malagasy)o More than frac14 billion speakers Pacific Ocean to Madagascar
Dravidian (ex Tamil Malayalam)o About frac14 billion speakers Southern India
Niger-Congo (ex Yoruba Swahili)o About 200000000 speakers Sub-Saharan Africa
Altaic (ex Turkish Mongol)o About 200000000 speakers Turkey to Mongolia
Japanese (ex Japanese)o About 125000000 speakers Japan (of course)
Some interesting minor language families AustromdashAsiatic Major languagemdashVietnamesemdashAbout 60000000 speakers KoreanmdashMajor language KoreanmdashAbout 50000000 speakers Nilo-SaharanmdashMajor language MasaimdashAbout 30000000 speakers Amerindian (not really a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor languages Quechua Navajomdash About
25000000 speakers (mostly in South America) Uralic (many authors combine Uralic with Altaic into one family)mdashMajor languages Finnish Hungarian CaucasianmdashMajor language GeorgianmdashAbout 6000000 speakers Indo-Pacific (or Papuan ndash not a family just a regional collectionmdashThere are about 800 languages spoken on the
island of New Guinea)mdashMajor language MotumdashAbout 3000000 speakers Khoisan (the ldquoclickrdquo languages)mdashMajor language KhoikhoimdashAbout 50000 speakers Australian Aborigine (not a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor language AruntamdashAbout 50000 speakers Isolates (languages which arenrsquot related to anything else such as Basque)
The urge to understand Mixing languages Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins creoles ldquoFranglaisrdquo
ldquoSpanglishrdquo etc) Lingua franca A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin English etc) Multilingualism Knowing and using more than one language Artificial language A constructed language which is supposed to be logical practical and easy to learn
(Esperanto etc) Translation and interpretation
o Translation Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another
o Interpretation A less literal translation emphasizing overall meaningo Transliterationmdashbaptism
Mixing languages Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other
o Examples SPANGLISH
Dolores dice Need advice Escriacutebeme (on the home page for the online magazine Latina)
Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija (overheard in the Western US) Haz clic aquiacute (commonly seen on Spanish-language Web sites)
Llamenos para delivery (seen on advertising signs in Peru) Tips para marketing (advertisement in Mexico)
JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH)o BRANDO NEW (brochure rack in Shiga)
NOTICE We have touched at point in under the boxes heads for keeping qualities Its very excuse (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore)
o Welcome to Mother Nature In here everyone are heroes Lets play YOUR drama (advertisement for a camping mattress)
o Lets play bowling Breaking down the pins and get hot communication
Pidgins and creoles Pidgin A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to
talk for trading or other reasons Creolemdashmixing of the colonizerrsquos language with the indigenous language (creole originally meant a slave who is
born in in the masterrsquos house in Latin)mdashfull-fledged formal language that has developed from a pidgin language
Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions expressions Usually short useful lifespan ldquoNobodyrsquos native languagerdquo
o Creole A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages a pidgin which has become a native language
Lingua franca A ldquolingua francardquo (either from ldquolanguage of the Franksrdquo or from ldquofree languagerdquo) is any widely-used language
used for commerce diplomacy science and technologymdashlanguage of trade and commerceo Lingua francas are often second languages and may be a mixture of several languages
Historically a number of languages have served as lingua francao Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean)o Arabico Swahili (Eastern Africa)o French (international diplomacy)o English (worldwide today in science commerce politics literature)
Multilingualism Most of the worldrsquos population is at least somewhat multilingual ndash that is most people have at least some
knowledge of more than one language Some nations are officially multilingual such as
o Paraguay (Spanish Guarani)o Switzerland (German French Italian Romansch)o South Africa (Afrikaans English Ndebele Pedi Sotho Swazi Tsonga Tswana Venda Xhosa and Zulu)o India (Hindi Bengali Telugu Marathi Tamil Urdu Gujarati Malayalam Kannada Oriya Punjabi
Assamese Kashmiri Sindhi Sanskrit also English and Hindustani)
Preserving language diversity Languages can die Today in the face of the global dominance of English and other ldquoworld languagesrdquo some
people are trying to preserve and even revive languages Maintaining survivors Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic Irish Gaelic Welsh (Cymru) Breton Bringing back the dead Hebrew Manx
o Why bother Because language is about more than just ldquocommunicating factsrdquo Language is about identity history continuity ndash language is a fundamental part of who you are
Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain
o Example Cajun a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country Example Abaza Avar Bats Chechen and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains
between the Black and Caspian Seas
Language and culture change and stability Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c 10000 years ago The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in
Pakistan It has been dated to 5500 years ago It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained but the Harappan language died out about 4000 years ago (See
Some believe that symbols found on 8600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing
The earliest sample of New World writing dated to about 900 BCE was discovered in 2006
Ways of writing Pictograms (also called ldquoLogogramsrdquo)
o Earliest system of writingmdashBegin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory)o Example Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs
ldquoIdeogramsrdquoo Abstract or conventional meanings often combining two or more pictogramsmdashNo longer have a clear
pictorial linkmdashrepresent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations Almost always ldquoimpurerdquo (or ldquologophoneticrdquo) with clues to pronunciation
Syllabarieso Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel)o Examples Japanese Katakana Cherokee
Cherokee ndashThis syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c 1770-1843) the great Cherokee leadermdashIts 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets but usage is entirely different
Alphabetso A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all soundsmdashAll alphabets appear to be descendants of
the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only vowels understood in context As far as we can tell all of the worldrsquos alphabets (including Cyrillic Hebrew Arabic and Roman)
are derived from the Phoenician alphabet
Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction Some languages such as English are written left-to-right Hebrew right to left (Arabic)
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Accelerated Resource Use through Accelerated Consumption Furs minx lynx jaguar kangaroo whale sea otters (18th Century Russians) fed early
fashion trends Consumerism evident in most Western Media fashions including hip hop and rock and
roll Inefficient over-consumption of Meats (101) Poultry (31) even Fish (fed other fish and
chicken) by meat-eating pop cultures Mineral Extraction for Machines Plastics and Fuel New larger housing desires and associated energy and water use Golf courses use valuable water and destroy habitat worldwide
Modifying the Environment Examples Increased Demand for Resources Popular culture needs access to large quantities of raw materials ndashminerals petroleum
lumber agricultural land Increased demand for these resources can severely impact the environment ndash in ways
that traditional cultures never wouldo GolfmdashEach golf course covers at least 200 acres and requires enormous
quantities of fertilizers pesticides and irrigation water About 200 new golf courses open every year in the US thousands
around the world Pollution waste from fuel generation and discarded products plastics marketing and packaging
materialso Number 5 Placelessness
Popular culture is characterized by nearly universal styles of art architecture advertising behavior etc
When every place is indistinguishable from every other place ndash then how can any place be special or unique Why put any particular value on a place when itrsquos just like everywhere else
Effects on Landscape creates homogenous ldquoplacelessrdquo (Relph 1976) landscapeo Complex network of roads and highwayso Commercial Structures tend towards lsquoboxesrsquoo Dwellings may be aesthetically suggestive of older folk traditionso Planned and Gated Communities more and more common
Chapter 5 LanguageLanguage Origins
The Danish linguist Otto Jesperson (1860-1943) classified theories of language origin into five groupso ldquoBow-WowrdquomdashPeople imitate sounds from their environmento ldquoPooh-PoohrdquomdashPeople make instinctive sounds related to emotions body functions paino ldquoDing-DongrdquomdashPeople make ldquooral gesturesrdquoo Yo-He-HordquomdashPeople work together and produce rhythmic soundo ldquoLa-LardquomdashPeople make sounds associated with love play and singing
Language ishellip Language is universal
o No human group anywhere has ever been found that does not have a spoken language There are of course many languages that do not have a written form There are occasional physically normal individuals ldquowolf childrenrdquo who have no language at all
Language is fundamentalo Language is crucial for social interaction and to express complex emotions and ideaso Language lets us deal with ndash and even try to control ndash the world around us
Naming Faith magic and the supernatural
o Language is fundamental to who we are ndash our identity
The worldrsquos top ten languages Note the astonishing rise of English Why Mostly because of Englishs status as an official language in former British colonies (especially in India ndash
even though just a small percent of the population speaks English fluently)o Two-billion people live in a country with English as the official language even if they canrsquot speak ito Causes Imperialism (BritishUS) Cultural Imperialism (TV Movies Music etc)
The pleasures and perils of English Pleasures
o Most widely spoken language global dominance of media interneto No gender number or case changes easy formation of pluralso Relatively simple verb forms (except for irregular verbs)o Huge flexible vocabulary
Perilso Idiomatic verb and preposition combinations (ldquoput uprdquo ldquoget downrdquo)o Irregular plurals (ox and oxen foot and feet etc)o Spellingmdash
the gh = f as in rough the o = i as in wOmen the ti = sh as in naTIono Bizarre written forms ldquoThough the rough cough and hiccough (hiccup) plough me through I ought to
cross the lough (loch)rdquoo No rules for pronunciation and stress Polish vs polish dove vs dove to too two there their theyrsquore
Improving written English And if these look funny ndashremember American spelling was ldquosimplifiedrdquo over a hundred years ago
o ldquotirerdquo vs ldquotyrerdquoo ldquojailrdquo vs ldquogaolrdquoo ldquocurbrdquo vs ldquokerbrdquoo ldquoprogramrdquo vs ldquoprogrammerdquo
Origins of English DevelopmentmdashNothing is known about the languages of Great Britain prior to the Celtic invasion (c 2000 BCE)
(the Celts provided some loan words but English is mostly a Germanic and Romance-descended language)o Old English (ldquoAnglo-Saxonrdquo) Invasion by West Germanic peoples (Jutes Angles Saxons) from Northern
Germany beginning 449 CE Periodic invasions from Scandinavia starting c 700 CE Originally all these Germanic tribes spoke a common languagemdashlong ago prior to a written
recordo Middle English Invasion by Normans 1066 CE (mixture with Romance branch)
ldquoThe Great Vowel Shiftrdquo (1350-1550 CE) French spoken by the elite English court Nobility Clergymdashlower classes continued to speak
English but began to fragment because those in leadership spoke other languages Statute of Pleadingmdashchanged official language back to English
o Modern English 1700-1800 CE English vocabulary enlarged grammar simplified codified
Old Middle amp Early Modern English Old English
o Faeligder ure thornuthorne eart on heofonum si thornin nama gehalgod tobecume thornin rice gewurthorne thornin willa on eorethan swa on heofonum urne gedaeligghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeligg and forgyf us ure gyltas swa we forgyfaeth urum gyltendum and ne gelaeligd thornu us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele sothornlice
Middle Englisho Oure fadir thornat art in heuenes halwid be thorni name thorni kyngdom come to be Be thorni wille don in herthorne as it is
dounin heuene Yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred And foryeue to us oure dettis thornat is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris thornat is to men thornat han synned in us And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl
Early Modern Englisho Our father which art in heaven hallowed be thy name Thy kingdom come Thy will be done in earth as
it is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread And forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors And lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil
Language dialect accent Standard Language Accepted norms of syntax vocabulary and pronunciation
o BRPmdashaccepted dialect from around Londonmdashused by politicians broadcasters and actors Dialect A recognizable speech variant
Dialects of English In England there are still at least three main dialect groups
o NORTHERNo MIDLANDo SOUTHERN
My Fair Lady-- httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=jhninL_G3Fg
Drawing dialect boundaries isoglosses Isoglosses are a kind of isoline ndash in this case they are word-usage boundariesmdashglossophobia means fear of
public speaking (gloss means tongue in greek) Ideally researchers go out ask people what words they use for common things put dots on the map draw lines
around the dots and define boundaries between different dialectso Thatrsquos the ideal Itrsquos usually much messiero Can you guess what these different colored dots represent Give up These are all local words for
ldquodragonflyrdquo
In the USo Isolation (physical and political) created differences in vocabulary spelling and pronunciationo Today US dialects are most pronounced in the East and there are at least three main groups (and
perhaps five) NORTHERN MIDLAND SOUTHERN (some break this down further into Upland Gulf and Coastal Southern dialects)
Do you speak American o Episode 1mdash200-2100 (South) 2800-3600 (Slaves) o Episode 2mdash300-930 (Spanglish) 930-1500 (African AmericanEbonics) 1500-
2400 (California)
ldquoEbonicsrdquoo Also known as ldquoBlack English Vernacularrdquo amp ldquoAfrican-American Vernacular Englishrdquoo The Concept
Students and teachers need to understand each other Some African-American childrenrsquos English is so different from standard English they cannot be
understood by their teachers Schools often treat such children as sloppy wrong or stupid Schools should help children to learn standard English by building on the language they already
have and treat that language as distinct and worthy not ldquowrongrdquo The Controversy begins (from the Oakland California School District) ldquoAfrican people possess and utilize a language described as ldquoEbonicsrdquohellip studies have hellip
demonstrated that African Language Systems are genetically-based and not a dialect of English helliprdquo (December 18 1996)
o The Controversy ends ldquoAfrican-American students as a part of their culture and history as
African people possess and utilize a language described in various scholarly approaches as ldquoEbonicsrdquo hellip these studies have hellipdemonstrated that African Language Systems have origins in West [African] and Niger-Congo languages helliprdquo (January 15 1997)
The movement of languages Throughout history most languages have spread by relocation diffusion A few languages ndash including Chinese Latin French and English ndash have also spread by expansion diffusion
o Barriers to diffusion can be both physical and cultural
Official English No but hellip The English Language Empowerment Act (1996)
(1) The United States is comprised of individuals and groups from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds(3) Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been a common language(4) In order to preserve unity in diversity and to prevent division along linguistic lines the Federal Government should maintain a language common to all people(9) English should be recognized in law as the language of official business of the Federal Government
Excerpts from HR 123 July 30 1996
English Language Unity Act of 2003
1 The United States is comprised of individuals from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds and continues to benefit from this rich diversity2 Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been the English language3 Among the powers reserved to the States respectively is the power to establish the English language as the official language of the respective States and otherwise to promote the English language within the respective States subject to the prohibitions enumerated in the Constitution of the United States and in laws of the respective States
Excerpts from HR 997 February 27 2003 1048729 lsquoNational Language Act of 2007rsquo
English shall be the official language of the Government of the United States The Government of the United States shall preserve and enhance the role of English no person has a right
entitlement or claim to services or materials in any language other than English This does not apply to the use of a language other than English
(1) for religious purposes(2) for training in foreign languages for international communication(3) to programs in schools designed to encourage students to learn foreign languages
This does not prevent the Government from providing interpreters for persons over 62 years of age BILINGUAL ELECTION REQUIREMENTS [are] repealed
Excerpts from HR 769 January 31 2007
Official English laws in the US As of 2007 27 () US States have some kind of ldquoofficial Englishrdquo law The impact and scope of the laws vary ndash from being little more than a simple statement (as in Illinois ldquoThe
official language of the State of Illinois is Englishrdquo) to forbidding any activity of State or local government from doing anything which could be considered supporting the use of any language other than English
Two States ndash Hawaii and New Mexico ndash have specified that a language other than English is also official (Hawaiian and Spanish respectively)
A few States have taken the opposite position Oregon for example says that ldquothe use of diverse languages in business government and private affairs hellip is welcomed encouraged and protected in Oregonrdquo
The Top 20 US Languages (after English) Navajo is the Native American language with the largest number of speakers in the US today ndash 178014
Languages come in families A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common earlier language (just as brothers and sisters are descended from common parents)
How many languages are there Not an easy question to answero Living and Dead Languages (Italian vs Latin)o Revivals (Hebrew ndash from living to dead to living again)o New Discoveries (Amazon Papua New Guinea Africa etc)o ldquoLanguagesrdquo and ldquoDialectsrdquo (see below ndash hard to define)o Maybe 4000 Languages are spoken today Or more Or less
How many language families are thereo Families are constructed on the basis of similarities in vocabulary phonology and grammar
Lots of disputes about what is and what isnrsquot significant ndash and lots of variation in the numbers Maybe as many as 100 families Orhellip
Language families havehellip Branches ldquoa collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago
Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language familiesrdquo Example Indo-European family has eight (surviving) branches
o Germanic (ex German Danish English)o Romance (ex Italian French Romanian)o Balto-Slavic (ex Lithuanian Russian Polish)o Indo-Iranian (ex Farsi Kurdish)o Greek (ex Greek)o Albanian (ex Albanian)o Armenian (ex Armenian)o Celtic (ex Irish Breton Welsh)
Language Groups ldquoa collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabularyrdquo
o For example both English and Danish are in the Germanic branch but English is in the West Germanic Group while Danish is in the North Germanic Group
Origin of Indo-European two hypotheses The Kurgan Hypothesis (a war-like people expanding and conquering from the region north of the Black Sea) The Anatolian Hearth theory (farmers and pastoralists expanding slowly from a place of origin in what is now
Turkey)
Indo-European mutual comprehension Consider all of the following
o English ldquoOur Father who art in heaven helliprdquoo Dutch ldquoOnze Vader die in de hemelen zijt helliprdquoo Spanish ldquoPadre nuestro qe estaacutes en los cielos helliprdquoo Polish ldquoOjcze nasz ktoacuterys jest w niebiesiech helliprdquoo Greek ldquoPatera mas pougrave eiumlsai stougraves ouranougraves helliprdquoo Albanian ldquoAti yneuml qeuml je neuml quiell helliprdquoo Kurdish ldquoYauml baumlwk-iuml eumlma ka la aumlsmaumln-auml-y helliprdquoo Romany ldquoDaacutede amareacute kaj isieacuten krsquoo devleacute helliprdquoo Sanskrit ldquoBho asmaumlkham svargastha pitah helliprdquo
Notice the similarities (for example ldquopitahrdquo ldquopaterardquo ldquopadrerdquo or ldquofatherrdquo ldquovaderrdquo ldquodaacutederdquo) and differences
Major language families (families with more than 100000000 speakers)
Indo-European (ex English Russian Farsi Hindi)o About 3 billion speakers originally Europe-Asia now worldwide
Sino-Tibetan (ex Chinese Tibetan)o About 15 billion speakers mostly in China and surrounding areas
Afro-Asiatic (also called ldquoHamitic-Semiticrdquo) (ex Arabic Hebrew)o Almost frac12 billion speakers mostly in North Africa amp Southwest Asia
Austronesian (also called ldquoMalayo-Polynesianrdquo) (ex Hawaiian Malagasy)o More than frac14 billion speakers Pacific Ocean to Madagascar
Dravidian (ex Tamil Malayalam)o About frac14 billion speakers Southern India
Niger-Congo (ex Yoruba Swahili)o About 200000000 speakers Sub-Saharan Africa
Altaic (ex Turkish Mongol)o About 200000000 speakers Turkey to Mongolia
Japanese (ex Japanese)o About 125000000 speakers Japan (of course)
Some interesting minor language families AustromdashAsiatic Major languagemdashVietnamesemdashAbout 60000000 speakers KoreanmdashMajor language KoreanmdashAbout 50000000 speakers Nilo-SaharanmdashMajor language MasaimdashAbout 30000000 speakers Amerindian (not really a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor languages Quechua Navajomdash About
25000000 speakers (mostly in South America) Uralic (many authors combine Uralic with Altaic into one family)mdashMajor languages Finnish Hungarian CaucasianmdashMajor language GeorgianmdashAbout 6000000 speakers Indo-Pacific (or Papuan ndash not a family just a regional collectionmdashThere are about 800 languages spoken on the
island of New Guinea)mdashMajor language MotumdashAbout 3000000 speakers Khoisan (the ldquoclickrdquo languages)mdashMajor language KhoikhoimdashAbout 50000 speakers Australian Aborigine (not a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor language AruntamdashAbout 50000 speakers Isolates (languages which arenrsquot related to anything else such as Basque)
The urge to understand Mixing languages Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins creoles ldquoFranglaisrdquo
ldquoSpanglishrdquo etc) Lingua franca A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin English etc) Multilingualism Knowing and using more than one language Artificial language A constructed language which is supposed to be logical practical and easy to learn
(Esperanto etc) Translation and interpretation
o Translation Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another
o Interpretation A less literal translation emphasizing overall meaningo Transliterationmdashbaptism
Mixing languages Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other
o Examples SPANGLISH
Dolores dice Need advice Escriacutebeme (on the home page for the online magazine Latina)
Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija (overheard in the Western US) Haz clic aquiacute (commonly seen on Spanish-language Web sites)
Llamenos para delivery (seen on advertising signs in Peru) Tips para marketing (advertisement in Mexico)
JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH)o BRANDO NEW (brochure rack in Shiga)
NOTICE We have touched at point in under the boxes heads for keeping qualities Its very excuse (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore)
o Welcome to Mother Nature In here everyone are heroes Lets play YOUR drama (advertisement for a camping mattress)
o Lets play bowling Breaking down the pins and get hot communication
Pidgins and creoles Pidgin A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to
talk for trading or other reasons Creolemdashmixing of the colonizerrsquos language with the indigenous language (creole originally meant a slave who is
born in in the masterrsquos house in Latin)mdashfull-fledged formal language that has developed from a pidgin language
Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions expressions Usually short useful lifespan ldquoNobodyrsquos native languagerdquo
o Creole A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages a pidgin which has become a native language
Lingua franca A ldquolingua francardquo (either from ldquolanguage of the Franksrdquo or from ldquofree languagerdquo) is any widely-used language
used for commerce diplomacy science and technologymdashlanguage of trade and commerceo Lingua francas are often second languages and may be a mixture of several languages
Historically a number of languages have served as lingua francao Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean)o Arabico Swahili (Eastern Africa)o French (international diplomacy)o English (worldwide today in science commerce politics literature)
Multilingualism Most of the worldrsquos population is at least somewhat multilingual ndash that is most people have at least some
knowledge of more than one language Some nations are officially multilingual such as
o Paraguay (Spanish Guarani)o Switzerland (German French Italian Romansch)o South Africa (Afrikaans English Ndebele Pedi Sotho Swazi Tsonga Tswana Venda Xhosa and Zulu)o India (Hindi Bengali Telugu Marathi Tamil Urdu Gujarati Malayalam Kannada Oriya Punjabi
Assamese Kashmiri Sindhi Sanskrit also English and Hindustani)
Preserving language diversity Languages can die Today in the face of the global dominance of English and other ldquoworld languagesrdquo some
people are trying to preserve and even revive languages Maintaining survivors Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic Irish Gaelic Welsh (Cymru) Breton Bringing back the dead Hebrew Manx
o Why bother Because language is about more than just ldquocommunicating factsrdquo Language is about identity history continuity ndash language is a fundamental part of who you are
Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain
o Example Cajun a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country Example Abaza Avar Bats Chechen and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains
between the Black and Caspian Seas
Language and culture change and stability Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c 10000 years ago The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in
Pakistan It has been dated to 5500 years ago It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained but the Harappan language died out about 4000 years ago (See
Some believe that symbols found on 8600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing
The earliest sample of New World writing dated to about 900 BCE was discovered in 2006
Ways of writing Pictograms (also called ldquoLogogramsrdquo)
o Earliest system of writingmdashBegin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory)o Example Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs
ldquoIdeogramsrdquoo Abstract or conventional meanings often combining two or more pictogramsmdashNo longer have a clear
pictorial linkmdashrepresent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations Almost always ldquoimpurerdquo (or ldquologophoneticrdquo) with clues to pronunciation
Syllabarieso Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel)o Examples Japanese Katakana Cherokee
Cherokee ndashThis syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c 1770-1843) the great Cherokee leadermdashIts 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets but usage is entirely different
Alphabetso A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all soundsmdashAll alphabets appear to be descendants of
the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only vowels understood in context As far as we can tell all of the worldrsquos alphabets (including Cyrillic Hebrew Arabic and Roman)
are derived from the Phoenician alphabet
Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction Some languages such as English are written left-to-right Hebrew right to left (Arabic)
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Chapter 5 LanguageLanguage Origins
The Danish linguist Otto Jesperson (1860-1943) classified theories of language origin into five groupso ldquoBow-WowrdquomdashPeople imitate sounds from their environmento ldquoPooh-PoohrdquomdashPeople make instinctive sounds related to emotions body functions paino ldquoDing-DongrdquomdashPeople make ldquooral gesturesrdquoo Yo-He-HordquomdashPeople work together and produce rhythmic soundo ldquoLa-LardquomdashPeople make sounds associated with love play and singing
Language ishellip Language is universal
o No human group anywhere has ever been found that does not have a spoken language There are of course many languages that do not have a written form There are occasional physically normal individuals ldquowolf childrenrdquo who have no language at all
Language is fundamentalo Language is crucial for social interaction and to express complex emotions and ideaso Language lets us deal with ndash and even try to control ndash the world around us
Naming Faith magic and the supernatural
o Language is fundamental to who we are ndash our identity
The worldrsquos top ten languages Note the astonishing rise of English Why Mostly because of Englishs status as an official language in former British colonies (especially in India ndash
even though just a small percent of the population speaks English fluently)o Two-billion people live in a country with English as the official language even if they canrsquot speak ito Causes Imperialism (BritishUS) Cultural Imperialism (TV Movies Music etc)
The pleasures and perils of English Pleasures
o Most widely spoken language global dominance of media interneto No gender number or case changes easy formation of pluralso Relatively simple verb forms (except for irregular verbs)o Huge flexible vocabulary
Perilso Idiomatic verb and preposition combinations (ldquoput uprdquo ldquoget downrdquo)o Irregular plurals (ox and oxen foot and feet etc)o Spellingmdash
the gh = f as in rough the o = i as in wOmen the ti = sh as in naTIono Bizarre written forms ldquoThough the rough cough and hiccough (hiccup) plough me through I ought to
cross the lough (loch)rdquoo No rules for pronunciation and stress Polish vs polish dove vs dove to too two there their theyrsquore
Improving written English And if these look funny ndashremember American spelling was ldquosimplifiedrdquo over a hundred years ago
o ldquotirerdquo vs ldquotyrerdquoo ldquojailrdquo vs ldquogaolrdquoo ldquocurbrdquo vs ldquokerbrdquoo ldquoprogramrdquo vs ldquoprogrammerdquo
Origins of English DevelopmentmdashNothing is known about the languages of Great Britain prior to the Celtic invasion (c 2000 BCE)
(the Celts provided some loan words but English is mostly a Germanic and Romance-descended language)o Old English (ldquoAnglo-Saxonrdquo) Invasion by West Germanic peoples (Jutes Angles Saxons) from Northern
Germany beginning 449 CE Periodic invasions from Scandinavia starting c 700 CE Originally all these Germanic tribes spoke a common languagemdashlong ago prior to a written
recordo Middle English Invasion by Normans 1066 CE (mixture with Romance branch)
ldquoThe Great Vowel Shiftrdquo (1350-1550 CE) French spoken by the elite English court Nobility Clergymdashlower classes continued to speak
English but began to fragment because those in leadership spoke other languages Statute of Pleadingmdashchanged official language back to English
o Modern English 1700-1800 CE English vocabulary enlarged grammar simplified codified
Old Middle amp Early Modern English Old English
o Faeligder ure thornuthorne eart on heofonum si thornin nama gehalgod tobecume thornin rice gewurthorne thornin willa on eorethan swa on heofonum urne gedaeligghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeligg and forgyf us ure gyltas swa we forgyfaeth urum gyltendum and ne gelaeligd thornu us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele sothornlice
Middle Englisho Oure fadir thornat art in heuenes halwid be thorni name thorni kyngdom come to be Be thorni wille don in herthorne as it is
dounin heuene Yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred And foryeue to us oure dettis thornat is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris thornat is to men thornat han synned in us And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl
Early Modern Englisho Our father which art in heaven hallowed be thy name Thy kingdom come Thy will be done in earth as
it is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread And forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors And lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil
Language dialect accent Standard Language Accepted norms of syntax vocabulary and pronunciation
o BRPmdashaccepted dialect from around Londonmdashused by politicians broadcasters and actors Dialect A recognizable speech variant
Dialects of English In England there are still at least three main dialect groups
o NORTHERNo MIDLANDo SOUTHERN
My Fair Lady-- httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=jhninL_G3Fg
Drawing dialect boundaries isoglosses Isoglosses are a kind of isoline ndash in this case they are word-usage boundariesmdashglossophobia means fear of
public speaking (gloss means tongue in greek) Ideally researchers go out ask people what words they use for common things put dots on the map draw lines
around the dots and define boundaries between different dialectso Thatrsquos the ideal Itrsquos usually much messiero Can you guess what these different colored dots represent Give up These are all local words for
ldquodragonflyrdquo
In the USo Isolation (physical and political) created differences in vocabulary spelling and pronunciationo Today US dialects are most pronounced in the East and there are at least three main groups (and
perhaps five) NORTHERN MIDLAND SOUTHERN (some break this down further into Upland Gulf and Coastal Southern dialects)
Do you speak American o Episode 1mdash200-2100 (South) 2800-3600 (Slaves) o Episode 2mdash300-930 (Spanglish) 930-1500 (African AmericanEbonics) 1500-
2400 (California)
ldquoEbonicsrdquoo Also known as ldquoBlack English Vernacularrdquo amp ldquoAfrican-American Vernacular Englishrdquoo The Concept
Students and teachers need to understand each other Some African-American childrenrsquos English is so different from standard English they cannot be
understood by their teachers Schools often treat such children as sloppy wrong or stupid Schools should help children to learn standard English by building on the language they already
have and treat that language as distinct and worthy not ldquowrongrdquo The Controversy begins (from the Oakland California School District) ldquoAfrican people possess and utilize a language described as ldquoEbonicsrdquohellip studies have hellip
demonstrated that African Language Systems are genetically-based and not a dialect of English helliprdquo (December 18 1996)
o The Controversy ends ldquoAfrican-American students as a part of their culture and history as
African people possess and utilize a language described in various scholarly approaches as ldquoEbonicsrdquo hellip these studies have hellipdemonstrated that African Language Systems have origins in West [African] and Niger-Congo languages helliprdquo (January 15 1997)
The movement of languages Throughout history most languages have spread by relocation diffusion A few languages ndash including Chinese Latin French and English ndash have also spread by expansion diffusion
o Barriers to diffusion can be both physical and cultural
Official English No but hellip The English Language Empowerment Act (1996)
(1) The United States is comprised of individuals and groups from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds(3) Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been a common language(4) In order to preserve unity in diversity and to prevent division along linguistic lines the Federal Government should maintain a language common to all people(9) English should be recognized in law as the language of official business of the Federal Government
Excerpts from HR 123 July 30 1996
English Language Unity Act of 2003
1 The United States is comprised of individuals from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds and continues to benefit from this rich diversity2 Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been the English language3 Among the powers reserved to the States respectively is the power to establish the English language as the official language of the respective States and otherwise to promote the English language within the respective States subject to the prohibitions enumerated in the Constitution of the United States and in laws of the respective States
Excerpts from HR 997 February 27 2003 1048729 lsquoNational Language Act of 2007rsquo
English shall be the official language of the Government of the United States The Government of the United States shall preserve and enhance the role of English no person has a right
entitlement or claim to services or materials in any language other than English This does not apply to the use of a language other than English
(1) for religious purposes(2) for training in foreign languages for international communication(3) to programs in schools designed to encourage students to learn foreign languages
This does not prevent the Government from providing interpreters for persons over 62 years of age BILINGUAL ELECTION REQUIREMENTS [are] repealed
Excerpts from HR 769 January 31 2007
Official English laws in the US As of 2007 27 () US States have some kind of ldquoofficial Englishrdquo law The impact and scope of the laws vary ndash from being little more than a simple statement (as in Illinois ldquoThe
official language of the State of Illinois is Englishrdquo) to forbidding any activity of State or local government from doing anything which could be considered supporting the use of any language other than English
Two States ndash Hawaii and New Mexico ndash have specified that a language other than English is also official (Hawaiian and Spanish respectively)
A few States have taken the opposite position Oregon for example says that ldquothe use of diverse languages in business government and private affairs hellip is welcomed encouraged and protected in Oregonrdquo
The Top 20 US Languages (after English) Navajo is the Native American language with the largest number of speakers in the US today ndash 178014
Languages come in families A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common earlier language (just as brothers and sisters are descended from common parents)
How many languages are there Not an easy question to answero Living and Dead Languages (Italian vs Latin)o Revivals (Hebrew ndash from living to dead to living again)o New Discoveries (Amazon Papua New Guinea Africa etc)o ldquoLanguagesrdquo and ldquoDialectsrdquo (see below ndash hard to define)o Maybe 4000 Languages are spoken today Or more Or less
How many language families are thereo Families are constructed on the basis of similarities in vocabulary phonology and grammar
Lots of disputes about what is and what isnrsquot significant ndash and lots of variation in the numbers Maybe as many as 100 families Orhellip
Language families havehellip Branches ldquoa collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago
Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language familiesrdquo Example Indo-European family has eight (surviving) branches
o Germanic (ex German Danish English)o Romance (ex Italian French Romanian)o Balto-Slavic (ex Lithuanian Russian Polish)o Indo-Iranian (ex Farsi Kurdish)o Greek (ex Greek)o Albanian (ex Albanian)o Armenian (ex Armenian)o Celtic (ex Irish Breton Welsh)
Language Groups ldquoa collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabularyrdquo
o For example both English and Danish are in the Germanic branch but English is in the West Germanic Group while Danish is in the North Germanic Group
Origin of Indo-European two hypotheses The Kurgan Hypothesis (a war-like people expanding and conquering from the region north of the Black Sea) The Anatolian Hearth theory (farmers and pastoralists expanding slowly from a place of origin in what is now
Turkey)
Indo-European mutual comprehension Consider all of the following
o English ldquoOur Father who art in heaven helliprdquoo Dutch ldquoOnze Vader die in de hemelen zijt helliprdquoo Spanish ldquoPadre nuestro qe estaacutes en los cielos helliprdquoo Polish ldquoOjcze nasz ktoacuterys jest w niebiesiech helliprdquoo Greek ldquoPatera mas pougrave eiumlsai stougraves ouranougraves helliprdquoo Albanian ldquoAti yneuml qeuml je neuml quiell helliprdquoo Kurdish ldquoYauml baumlwk-iuml eumlma ka la aumlsmaumln-auml-y helliprdquoo Romany ldquoDaacutede amareacute kaj isieacuten krsquoo devleacute helliprdquoo Sanskrit ldquoBho asmaumlkham svargastha pitah helliprdquo
Notice the similarities (for example ldquopitahrdquo ldquopaterardquo ldquopadrerdquo or ldquofatherrdquo ldquovaderrdquo ldquodaacutederdquo) and differences
Major language families (families with more than 100000000 speakers)
Indo-European (ex English Russian Farsi Hindi)o About 3 billion speakers originally Europe-Asia now worldwide
Sino-Tibetan (ex Chinese Tibetan)o About 15 billion speakers mostly in China and surrounding areas
Afro-Asiatic (also called ldquoHamitic-Semiticrdquo) (ex Arabic Hebrew)o Almost frac12 billion speakers mostly in North Africa amp Southwest Asia
Austronesian (also called ldquoMalayo-Polynesianrdquo) (ex Hawaiian Malagasy)o More than frac14 billion speakers Pacific Ocean to Madagascar
Dravidian (ex Tamil Malayalam)o About frac14 billion speakers Southern India
Niger-Congo (ex Yoruba Swahili)o About 200000000 speakers Sub-Saharan Africa
Altaic (ex Turkish Mongol)o About 200000000 speakers Turkey to Mongolia
Japanese (ex Japanese)o About 125000000 speakers Japan (of course)
Some interesting minor language families AustromdashAsiatic Major languagemdashVietnamesemdashAbout 60000000 speakers KoreanmdashMajor language KoreanmdashAbout 50000000 speakers Nilo-SaharanmdashMajor language MasaimdashAbout 30000000 speakers Amerindian (not really a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor languages Quechua Navajomdash About
25000000 speakers (mostly in South America) Uralic (many authors combine Uralic with Altaic into one family)mdashMajor languages Finnish Hungarian CaucasianmdashMajor language GeorgianmdashAbout 6000000 speakers Indo-Pacific (or Papuan ndash not a family just a regional collectionmdashThere are about 800 languages spoken on the
island of New Guinea)mdashMajor language MotumdashAbout 3000000 speakers Khoisan (the ldquoclickrdquo languages)mdashMajor language KhoikhoimdashAbout 50000 speakers Australian Aborigine (not a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor language AruntamdashAbout 50000 speakers Isolates (languages which arenrsquot related to anything else such as Basque)
The urge to understand Mixing languages Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins creoles ldquoFranglaisrdquo
ldquoSpanglishrdquo etc) Lingua franca A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin English etc) Multilingualism Knowing and using more than one language Artificial language A constructed language which is supposed to be logical practical and easy to learn
(Esperanto etc) Translation and interpretation
o Translation Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another
o Interpretation A less literal translation emphasizing overall meaningo Transliterationmdashbaptism
Mixing languages Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other
o Examples SPANGLISH
Dolores dice Need advice Escriacutebeme (on the home page for the online magazine Latina)
Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija (overheard in the Western US) Haz clic aquiacute (commonly seen on Spanish-language Web sites)
Llamenos para delivery (seen on advertising signs in Peru) Tips para marketing (advertisement in Mexico)
JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH)o BRANDO NEW (brochure rack in Shiga)
NOTICE We have touched at point in under the boxes heads for keeping qualities Its very excuse (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore)
o Welcome to Mother Nature In here everyone are heroes Lets play YOUR drama (advertisement for a camping mattress)
o Lets play bowling Breaking down the pins and get hot communication
Pidgins and creoles Pidgin A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to
talk for trading or other reasons Creolemdashmixing of the colonizerrsquos language with the indigenous language (creole originally meant a slave who is
born in in the masterrsquos house in Latin)mdashfull-fledged formal language that has developed from a pidgin language
Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions expressions Usually short useful lifespan ldquoNobodyrsquos native languagerdquo
o Creole A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages a pidgin which has become a native language
Lingua franca A ldquolingua francardquo (either from ldquolanguage of the Franksrdquo or from ldquofree languagerdquo) is any widely-used language
used for commerce diplomacy science and technologymdashlanguage of trade and commerceo Lingua francas are often second languages and may be a mixture of several languages
Historically a number of languages have served as lingua francao Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean)o Arabico Swahili (Eastern Africa)o French (international diplomacy)o English (worldwide today in science commerce politics literature)
Multilingualism Most of the worldrsquos population is at least somewhat multilingual ndash that is most people have at least some
knowledge of more than one language Some nations are officially multilingual such as
o Paraguay (Spanish Guarani)o Switzerland (German French Italian Romansch)o South Africa (Afrikaans English Ndebele Pedi Sotho Swazi Tsonga Tswana Venda Xhosa and Zulu)o India (Hindi Bengali Telugu Marathi Tamil Urdu Gujarati Malayalam Kannada Oriya Punjabi
Assamese Kashmiri Sindhi Sanskrit also English and Hindustani)
Preserving language diversity Languages can die Today in the face of the global dominance of English and other ldquoworld languagesrdquo some
people are trying to preserve and even revive languages Maintaining survivors Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic Irish Gaelic Welsh (Cymru) Breton Bringing back the dead Hebrew Manx
o Why bother Because language is about more than just ldquocommunicating factsrdquo Language is about identity history continuity ndash language is a fundamental part of who you are
Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain
o Example Cajun a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country Example Abaza Avar Bats Chechen and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains
between the Black and Caspian Seas
Language and culture change and stability Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c 10000 years ago The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in
Pakistan It has been dated to 5500 years ago It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained but the Harappan language died out about 4000 years ago (See
Some believe that symbols found on 8600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing
The earliest sample of New World writing dated to about 900 BCE was discovered in 2006
Ways of writing Pictograms (also called ldquoLogogramsrdquo)
o Earliest system of writingmdashBegin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory)o Example Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs
ldquoIdeogramsrdquoo Abstract or conventional meanings often combining two or more pictogramsmdashNo longer have a clear
pictorial linkmdashrepresent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations Almost always ldquoimpurerdquo (or ldquologophoneticrdquo) with clues to pronunciation
Syllabarieso Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel)o Examples Japanese Katakana Cherokee
Cherokee ndashThis syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c 1770-1843) the great Cherokee leadermdashIts 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets but usage is entirely different
Alphabetso A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all soundsmdashAll alphabets appear to be descendants of
the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only vowels understood in context As far as we can tell all of the worldrsquos alphabets (including Cyrillic Hebrew Arabic and Roman)
are derived from the Phoenician alphabet
Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction Some languages such as English are written left-to-right Hebrew right to left (Arabic)
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Origins of English DevelopmentmdashNothing is known about the languages of Great Britain prior to the Celtic invasion (c 2000 BCE)
(the Celts provided some loan words but English is mostly a Germanic and Romance-descended language)o Old English (ldquoAnglo-Saxonrdquo) Invasion by West Germanic peoples (Jutes Angles Saxons) from Northern
Germany beginning 449 CE Periodic invasions from Scandinavia starting c 700 CE Originally all these Germanic tribes spoke a common languagemdashlong ago prior to a written
recordo Middle English Invasion by Normans 1066 CE (mixture with Romance branch)
ldquoThe Great Vowel Shiftrdquo (1350-1550 CE) French spoken by the elite English court Nobility Clergymdashlower classes continued to speak
English but began to fragment because those in leadership spoke other languages Statute of Pleadingmdashchanged official language back to English
o Modern English 1700-1800 CE English vocabulary enlarged grammar simplified codified
Old Middle amp Early Modern English Old English
o Faeligder ure thornuthorne eart on heofonum si thornin nama gehalgod tobecume thornin rice gewurthorne thornin willa on eorethan swa on heofonum urne gedaeligghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeligg and forgyf us ure gyltas swa we forgyfaeth urum gyltendum and ne gelaeligd thornu us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele sothornlice
Middle Englisho Oure fadir thornat art in heuenes halwid be thorni name thorni kyngdom come to be Be thorni wille don in herthorne as it is
dounin heuene Yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred And foryeue to us oure dettis thornat is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris thornat is to men thornat han synned in us And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl
Early Modern Englisho Our father which art in heaven hallowed be thy name Thy kingdom come Thy will be done in earth as
it is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread And forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors And lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil
Language dialect accent Standard Language Accepted norms of syntax vocabulary and pronunciation
o BRPmdashaccepted dialect from around Londonmdashused by politicians broadcasters and actors Dialect A recognizable speech variant
Dialects of English In England there are still at least three main dialect groups
o NORTHERNo MIDLANDo SOUTHERN
My Fair Lady-- httpwwwyoutubecomwatchv=jhninL_G3Fg
Drawing dialect boundaries isoglosses Isoglosses are a kind of isoline ndash in this case they are word-usage boundariesmdashglossophobia means fear of
public speaking (gloss means tongue in greek) Ideally researchers go out ask people what words they use for common things put dots on the map draw lines
around the dots and define boundaries between different dialectso Thatrsquos the ideal Itrsquos usually much messiero Can you guess what these different colored dots represent Give up These are all local words for
ldquodragonflyrdquo
In the USo Isolation (physical and political) created differences in vocabulary spelling and pronunciationo Today US dialects are most pronounced in the East and there are at least three main groups (and
perhaps five) NORTHERN MIDLAND SOUTHERN (some break this down further into Upland Gulf and Coastal Southern dialects)
Do you speak American o Episode 1mdash200-2100 (South) 2800-3600 (Slaves) o Episode 2mdash300-930 (Spanglish) 930-1500 (African AmericanEbonics) 1500-
2400 (California)
ldquoEbonicsrdquoo Also known as ldquoBlack English Vernacularrdquo amp ldquoAfrican-American Vernacular Englishrdquoo The Concept
Students and teachers need to understand each other Some African-American childrenrsquos English is so different from standard English they cannot be
understood by their teachers Schools often treat such children as sloppy wrong or stupid Schools should help children to learn standard English by building on the language they already
have and treat that language as distinct and worthy not ldquowrongrdquo The Controversy begins (from the Oakland California School District) ldquoAfrican people possess and utilize a language described as ldquoEbonicsrdquohellip studies have hellip
demonstrated that African Language Systems are genetically-based and not a dialect of English helliprdquo (December 18 1996)
o The Controversy ends ldquoAfrican-American students as a part of their culture and history as
African people possess and utilize a language described in various scholarly approaches as ldquoEbonicsrdquo hellip these studies have hellipdemonstrated that African Language Systems have origins in West [African] and Niger-Congo languages helliprdquo (January 15 1997)
The movement of languages Throughout history most languages have spread by relocation diffusion A few languages ndash including Chinese Latin French and English ndash have also spread by expansion diffusion
o Barriers to diffusion can be both physical and cultural
Official English No but hellip The English Language Empowerment Act (1996)
(1) The United States is comprised of individuals and groups from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds(3) Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been a common language(4) In order to preserve unity in diversity and to prevent division along linguistic lines the Federal Government should maintain a language common to all people(9) English should be recognized in law as the language of official business of the Federal Government
Excerpts from HR 123 July 30 1996
English Language Unity Act of 2003
1 The United States is comprised of individuals from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds and continues to benefit from this rich diversity2 Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been the English language3 Among the powers reserved to the States respectively is the power to establish the English language as the official language of the respective States and otherwise to promote the English language within the respective States subject to the prohibitions enumerated in the Constitution of the United States and in laws of the respective States
Excerpts from HR 997 February 27 2003 1048729 lsquoNational Language Act of 2007rsquo
English shall be the official language of the Government of the United States The Government of the United States shall preserve and enhance the role of English no person has a right
entitlement or claim to services or materials in any language other than English This does not apply to the use of a language other than English
(1) for religious purposes(2) for training in foreign languages for international communication(3) to programs in schools designed to encourage students to learn foreign languages
This does not prevent the Government from providing interpreters for persons over 62 years of age BILINGUAL ELECTION REQUIREMENTS [are] repealed
Excerpts from HR 769 January 31 2007
Official English laws in the US As of 2007 27 () US States have some kind of ldquoofficial Englishrdquo law The impact and scope of the laws vary ndash from being little more than a simple statement (as in Illinois ldquoThe
official language of the State of Illinois is Englishrdquo) to forbidding any activity of State or local government from doing anything which could be considered supporting the use of any language other than English
Two States ndash Hawaii and New Mexico ndash have specified that a language other than English is also official (Hawaiian and Spanish respectively)
A few States have taken the opposite position Oregon for example says that ldquothe use of diverse languages in business government and private affairs hellip is welcomed encouraged and protected in Oregonrdquo
The Top 20 US Languages (after English) Navajo is the Native American language with the largest number of speakers in the US today ndash 178014
Languages come in families A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common earlier language (just as brothers and sisters are descended from common parents)
How many languages are there Not an easy question to answero Living and Dead Languages (Italian vs Latin)o Revivals (Hebrew ndash from living to dead to living again)o New Discoveries (Amazon Papua New Guinea Africa etc)o ldquoLanguagesrdquo and ldquoDialectsrdquo (see below ndash hard to define)o Maybe 4000 Languages are spoken today Or more Or less
How many language families are thereo Families are constructed on the basis of similarities in vocabulary phonology and grammar
Lots of disputes about what is and what isnrsquot significant ndash and lots of variation in the numbers Maybe as many as 100 families Orhellip
Language families havehellip Branches ldquoa collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago
Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language familiesrdquo Example Indo-European family has eight (surviving) branches
o Germanic (ex German Danish English)o Romance (ex Italian French Romanian)o Balto-Slavic (ex Lithuanian Russian Polish)o Indo-Iranian (ex Farsi Kurdish)o Greek (ex Greek)o Albanian (ex Albanian)o Armenian (ex Armenian)o Celtic (ex Irish Breton Welsh)
Language Groups ldquoa collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabularyrdquo
o For example both English and Danish are in the Germanic branch but English is in the West Germanic Group while Danish is in the North Germanic Group
Origin of Indo-European two hypotheses The Kurgan Hypothesis (a war-like people expanding and conquering from the region north of the Black Sea) The Anatolian Hearth theory (farmers and pastoralists expanding slowly from a place of origin in what is now
Turkey)
Indo-European mutual comprehension Consider all of the following
o English ldquoOur Father who art in heaven helliprdquoo Dutch ldquoOnze Vader die in de hemelen zijt helliprdquoo Spanish ldquoPadre nuestro qe estaacutes en los cielos helliprdquoo Polish ldquoOjcze nasz ktoacuterys jest w niebiesiech helliprdquoo Greek ldquoPatera mas pougrave eiumlsai stougraves ouranougraves helliprdquoo Albanian ldquoAti yneuml qeuml je neuml quiell helliprdquoo Kurdish ldquoYauml baumlwk-iuml eumlma ka la aumlsmaumln-auml-y helliprdquoo Romany ldquoDaacutede amareacute kaj isieacuten krsquoo devleacute helliprdquoo Sanskrit ldquoBho asmaumlkham svargastha pitah helliprdquo
Notice the similarities (for example ldquopitahrdquo ldquopaterardquo ldquopadrerdquo or ldquofatherrdquo ldquovaderrdquo ldquodaacutederdquo) and differences
Major language families (families with more than 100000000 speakers)
Indo-European (ex English Russian Farsi Hindi)o About 3 billion speakers originally Europe-Asia now worldwide
Sino-Tibetan (ex Chinese Tibetan)o About 15 billion speakers mostly in China and surrounding areas
Afro-Asiatic (also called ldquoHamitic-Semiticrdquo) (ex Arabic Hebrew)o Almost frac12 billion speakers mostly in North Africa amp Southwest Asia
Austronesian (also called ldquoMalayo-Polynesianrdquo) (ex Hawaiian Malagasy)o More than frac14 billion speakers Pacific Ocean to Madagascar
Dravidian (ex Tamil Malayalam)o About frac14 billion speakers Southern India
Niger-Congo (ex Yoruba Swahili)o About 200000000 speakers Sub-Saharan Africa
Altaic (ex Turkish Mongol)o About 200000000 speakers Turkey to Mongolia
Japanese (ex Japanese)o About 125000000 speakers Japan (of course)
Some interesting minor language families AustromdashAsiatic Major languagemdashVietnamesemdashAbout 60000000 speakers KoreanmdashMajor language KoreanmdashAbout 50000000 speakers Nilo-SaharanmdashMajor language MasaimdashAbout 30000000 speakers Amerindian (not really a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor languages Quechua Navajomdash About
25000000 speakers (mostly in South America) Uralic (many authors combine Uralic with Altaic into one family)mdashMajor languages Finnish Hungarian CaucasianmdashMajor language GeorgianmdashAbout 6000000 speakers Indo-Pacific (or Papuan ndash not a family just a regional collectionmdashThere are about 800 languages spoken on the
island of New Guinea)mdashMajor language MotumdashAbout 3000000 speakers Khoisan (the ldquoclickrdquo languages)mdashMajor language KhoikhoimdashAbout 50000 speakers Australian Aborigine (not a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor language AruntamdashAbout 50000 speakers Isolates (languages which arenrsquot related to anything else such as Basque)
The urge to understand Mixing languages Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins creoles ldquoFranglaisrdquo
ldquoSpanglishrdquo etc) Lingua franca A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin English etc) Multilingualism Knowing and using more than one language Artificial language A constructed language which is supposed to be logical practical and easy to learn
(Esperanto etc) Translation and interpretation
o Translation Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another
o Interpretation A less literal translation emphasizing overall meaningo Transliterationmdashbaptism
Mixing languages Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other
o Examples SPANGLISH
Dolores dice Need advice Escriacutebeme (on the home page for the online magazine Latina)
Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija (overheard in the Western US) Haz clic aquiacute (commonly seen on Spanish-language Web sites)
Llamenos para delivery (seen on advertising signs in Peru) Tips para marketing (advertisement in Mexico)
JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH)o BRANDO NEW (brochure rack in Shiga)
NOTICE We have touched at point in under the boxes heads for keeping qualities Its very excuse (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore)
o Welcome to Mother Nature In here everyone are heroes Lets play YOUR drama (advertisement for a camping mattress)
o Lets play bowling Breaking down the pins and get hot communication
Pidgins and creoles Pidgin A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to
talk for trading or other reasons Creolemdashmixing of the colonizerrsquos language with the indigenous language (creole originally meant a slave who is
born in in the masterrsquos house in Latin)mdashfull-fledged formal language that has developed from a pidgin language
Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions expressions Usually short useful lifespan ldquoNobodyrsquos native languagerdquo
o Creole A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages a pidgin which has become a native language
Lingua franca A ldquolingua francardquo (either from ldquolanguage of the Franksrdquo or from ldquofree languagerdquo) is any widely-used language
used for commerce diplomacy science and technologymdashlanguage of trade and commerceo Lingua francas are often second languages and may be a mixture of several languages
Historically a number of languages have served as lingua francao Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean)o Arabico Swahili (Eastern Africa)o French (international diplomacy)o English (worldwide today in science commerce politics literature)
Multilingualism Most of the worldrsquos population is at least somewhat multilingual ndash that is most people have at least some
knowledge of more than one language Some nations are officially multilingual such as
o Paraguay (Spanish Guarani)o Switzerland (German French Italian Romansch)o South Africa (Afrikaans English Ndebele Pedi Sotho Swazi Tsonga Tswana Venda Xhosa and Zulu)o India (Hindi Bengali Telugu Marathi Tamil Urdu Gujarati Malayalam Kannada Oriya Punjabi
Assamese Kashmiri Sindhi Sanskrit also English and Hindustani)
Preserving language diversity Languages can die Today in the face of the global dominance of English and other ldquoworld languagesrdquo some
people are trying to preserve and even revive languages Maintaining survivors Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic Irish Gaelic Welsh (Cymru) Breton Bringing back the dead Hebrew Manx
o Why bother Because language is about more than just ldquocommunicating factsrdquo Language is about identity history continuity ndash language is a fundamental part of who you are
Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain
o Example Cajun a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country Example Abaza Avar Bats Chechen and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains
between the Black and Caspian Seas
Language and culture change and stability Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c 10000 years ago The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in
Pakistan It has been dated to 5500 years ago It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained but the Harappan language died out about 4000 years ago (See
Some believe that symbols found on 8600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing
The earliest sample of New World writing dated to about 900 BCE was discovered in 2006
Ways of writing Pictograms (also called ldquoLogogramsrdquo)
o Earliest system of writingmdashBegin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory)o Example Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs
ldquoIdeogramsrdquoo Abstract or conventional meanings often combining two or more pictogramsmdashNo longer have a clear
pictorial linkmdashrepresent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations Almost always ldquoimpurerdquo (or ldquologophoneticrdquo) with clues to pronunciation
Syllabarieso Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel)o Examples Japanese Katakana Cherokee
Cherokee ndashThis syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c 1770-1843) the great Cherokee leadermdashIts 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets but usage is entirely different
Alphabetso A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all soundsmdashAll alphabets appear to be descendants of
the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only vowels understood in context As far as we can tell all of the worldrsquos alphabets (including Cyrillic Hebrew Arabic and Roman)
are derived from the Phoenician alphabet
Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction Some languages such as English are written left-to-right Hebrew right to left (Arabic)
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
In the USo Isolation (physical and political) created differences in vocabulary spelling and pronunciationo Today US dialects are most pronounced in the East and there are at least three main groups (and
perhaps five) NORTHERN MIDLAND SOUTHERN (some break this down further into Upland Gulf and Coastal Southern dialects)
Do you speak American o Episode 1mdash200-2100 (South) 2800-3600 (Slaves) o Episode 2mdash300-930 (Spanglish) 930-1500 (African AmericanEbonics) 1500-
2400 (California)
ldquoEbonicsrdquoo Also known as ldquoBlack English Vernacularrdquo amp ldquoAfrican-American Vernacular Englishrdquoo The Concept
Students and teachers need to understand each other Some African-American childrenrsquos English is so different from standard English they cannot be
understood by their teachers Schools often treat such children as sloppy wrong or stupid Schools should help children to learn standard English by building on the language they already
have and treat that language as distinct and worthy not ldquowrongrdquo The Controversy begins (from the Oakland California School District) ldquoAfrican people possess and utilize a language described as ldquoEbonicsrdquohellip studies have hellip
demonstrated that African Language Systems are genetically-based and not a dialect of English helliprdquo (December 18 1996)
o The Controversy ends ldquoAfrican-American students as a part of their culture and history as
African people possess and utilize a language described in various scholarly approaches as ldquoEbonicsrdquo hellip these studies have hellipdemonstrated that African Language Systems have origins in West [African] and Niger-Congo languages helliprdquo (January 15 1997)
The movement of languages Throughout history most languages have spread by relocation diffusion A few languages ndash including Chinese Latin French and English ndash have also spread by expansion diffusion
o Barriers to diffusion can be both physical and cultural
Official English No but hellip The English Language Empowerment Act (1996)
(1) The United States is comprised of individuals and groups from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds(3) Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been a common language(4) In order to preserve unity in diversity and to prevent division along linguistic lines the Federal Government should maintain a language common to all people(9) English should be recognized in law as the language of official business of the Federal Government
Excerpts from HR 123 July 30 1996
English Language Unity Act of 2003
1 The United States is comprised of individuals from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds and continues to benefit from this rich diversity2 Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been the English language3 Among the powers reserved to the States respectively is the power to establish the English language as the official language of the respective States and otherwise to promote the English language within the respective States subject to the prohibitions enumerated in the Constitution of the United States and in laws of the respective States
Excerpts from HR 997 February 27 2003 1048729 lsquoNational Language Act of 2007rsquo
English shall be the official language of the Government of the United States The Government of the United States shall preserve and enhance the role of English no person has a right
entitlement or claim to services or materials in any language other than English This does not apply to the use of a language other than English
(1) for religious purposes(2) for training in foreign languages for international communication(3) to programs in schools designed to encourage students to learn foreign languages
This does not prevent the Government from providing interpreters for persons over 62 years of age BILINGUAL ELECTION REQUIREMENTS [are] repealed
Excerpts from HR 769 January 31 2007
Official English laws in the US As of 2007 27 () US States have some kind of ldquoofficial Englishrdquo law The impact and scope of the laws vary ndash from being little more than a simple statement (as in Illinois ldquoThe
official language of the State of Illinois is Englishrdquo) to forbidding any activity of State or local government from doing anything which could be considered supporting the use of any language other than English
Two States ndash Hawaii and New Mexico ndash have specified that a language other than English is also official (Hawaiian and Spanish respectively)
A few States have taken the opposite position Oregon for example says that ldquothe use of diverse languages in business government and private affairs hellip is welcomed encouraged and protected in Oregonrdquo
The Top 20 US Languages (after English) Navajo is the Native American language with the largest number of speakers in the US today ndash 178014
Languages come in families A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common earlier language (just as brothers and sisters are descended from common parents)
How many languages are there Not an easy question to answero Living and Dead Languages (Italian vs Latin)o Revivals (Hebrew ndash from living to dead to living again)o New Discoveries (Amazon Papua New Guinea Africa etc)o ldquoLanguagesrdquo and ldquoDialectsrdquo (see below ndash hard to define)o Maybe 4000 Languages are spoken today Or more Or less
How many language families are thereo Families are constructed on the basis of similarities in vocabulary phonology and grammar
Lots of disputes about what is and what isnrsquot significant ndash and lots of variation in the numbers Maybe as many as 100 families Orhellip
Language families havehellip Branches ldquoa collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago
Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language familiesrdquo Example Indo-European family has eight (surviving) branches
o Germanic (ex German Danish English)o Romance (ex Italian French Romanian)o Balto-Slavic (ex Lithuanian Russian Polish)o Indo-Iranian (ex Farsi Kurdish)o Greek (ex Greek)o Albanian (ex Albanian)o Armenian (ex Armenian)o Celtic (ex Irish Breton Welsh)
Language Groups ldquoa collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabularyrdquo
o For example both English and Danish are in the Germanic branch but English is in the West Germanic Group while Danish is in the North Germanic Group
Origin of Indo-European two hypotheses The Kurgan Hypothesis (a war-like people expanding and conquering from the region north of the Black Sea) The Anatolian Hearth theory (farmers and pastoralists expanding slowly from a place of origin in what is now
Turkey)
Indo-European mutual comprehension Consider all of the following
o English ldquoOur Father who art in heaven helliprdquoo Dutch ldquoOnze Vader die in de hemelen zijt helliprdquoo Spanish ldquoPadre nuestro qe estaacutes en los cielos helliprdquoo Polish ldquoOjcze nasz ktoacuterys jest w niebiesiech helliprdquoo Greek ldquoPatera mas pougrave eiumlsai stougraves ouranougraves helliprdquoo Albanian ldquoAti yneuml qeuml je neuml quiell helliprdquoo Kurdish ldquoYauml baumlwk-iuml eumlma ka la aumlsmaumln-auml-y helliprdquoo Romany ldquoDaacutede amareacute kaj isieacuten krsquoo devleacute helliprdquoo Sanskrit ldquoBho asmaumlkham svargastha pitah helliprdquo
Notice the similarities (for example ldquopitahrdquo ldquopaterardquo ldquopadrerdquo or ldquofatherrdquo ldquovaderrdquo ldquodaacutederdquo) and differences
Major language families (families with more than 100000000 speakers)
Indo-European (ex English Russian Farsi Hindi)o About 3 billion speakers originally Europe-Asia now worldwide
Sino-Tibetan (ex Chinese Tibetan)o About 15 billion speakers mostly in China and surrounding areas
Afro-Asiatic (also called ldquoHamitic-Semiticrdquo) (ex Arabic Hebrew)o Almost frac12 billion speakers mostly in North Africa amp Southwest Asia
Austronesian (also called ldquoMalayo-Polynesianrdquo) (ex Hawaiian Malagasy)o More than frac14 billion speakers Pacific Ocean to Madagascar
Dravidian (ex Tamil Malayalam)o About frac14 billion speakers Southern India
Niger-Congo (ex Yoruba Swahili)o About 200000000 speakers Sub-Saharan Africa
Altaic (ex Turkish Mongol)o About 200000000 speakers Turkey to Mongolia
Japanese (ex Japanese)o About 125000000 speakers Japan (of course)
Some interesting minor language families AustromdashAsiatic Major languagemdashVietnamesemdashAbout 60000000 speakers KoreanmdashMajor language KoreanmdashAbout 50000000 speakers Nilo-SaharanmdashMajor language MasaimdashAbout 30000000 speakers Amerindian (not really a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor languages Quechua Navajomdash About
25000000 speakers (mostly in South America) Uralic (many authors combine Uralic with Altaic into one family)mdashMajor languages Finnish Hungarian CaucasianmdashMajor language GeorgianmdashAbout 6000000 speakers Indo-Pacific (or Papuan ndash not a family just a regional collectionmdashThere are about 800 languages spoken on the
island of New Guinea)mdashMajor language MotumdashAbout 3000000 speakers Khoisan (the ldquoclickrdquo languages)mdashMajor language KhoikhoimdashAbout 50000 speakers Australian Aborigine (not a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor language AruntamdashAbout 50000 speakers Isolates (languages which arenrsquot related to anything else such as Basque)
The urge to understand Mixing languages Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins creoles ldquoFranglaisrdquo
ldquoSpanglishrdquo etc) Lingua franca A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin English etc) Multilingualism Knowing and using more than one language Artificial language A constructed language which is supposed to be logical practical and easy to learn
(Esperanto etc) Translation and interpretation
o Translation Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another
o Interpretation A less literal translation emphasizing overall meaningo Transliterationmdashbaptism
Mixing languages Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other
o Examples SPANGLISH
Dolores dice Need advice Escriacutebeme (on the home page for the online magazine Latina)
Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija (overheard in the Western US) Haz clic aquiacute (commonly seen on Spanish-language Web sites)
Llamenos para delivery (seen on advertising signs in Peru) Tips para marketing (advertisement in Mexico)
JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH)o BRANDO NEW (brochure rack in Shiga)
NOTICE We have touched at point in under the boxes heads for keeping qualities Its very excuse (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore)
o Welcome to Mother Nature In here everyone are heroes Lets play YOUR drama (advertisement for a camping mattress)
o Lets play bowling Breaking down the pins and get hot communication
Pidgins and creoles Pidgin A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to
talk for trading or other reasons Creolemdashmixing of the colonizerrsquos language with the indigenous language (creole originally meant a slave who is
born in in the masterrsquos house in Latin)mdashfull-fledged formal language that has developed from a pidgin language
Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions expressions Usually short useful lifespan ldquoNobodyrsquos native languagerdquo
o Creole A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages a pidgin which has become a native language
Lingua franca A ldquolingua francardquo (either from ldquolanguage of the Franksrdquo or from ldquofree languagerdquo) is any widely-used language
used for commerce diplomacy science and technologymdashlanguage of trade and commerceo Lingua francas are often second languages and may be a mixture of several languages
Historically a number of languages have served as lingua francao Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean)o Arabico Swahili (Eastern Africa)o French (international diplomacy)o English (worldwide today in science commerce politics literature)
Multilingualism Most of the worldrsquos population is at least somewhat multilingual ndash that is most people have at least some
knowledge of more than one language Some nations are officially multilingual such as
o Paraguay (Spanish Guarani)o Switzerland (German French Italian Romansch)o South Africa (Afrikaans English Ndebele Pedi Sotho Swazi Tsonga Tswana Venda Xhosa and Zulu)o India (Hindi Bengali Telugu Marathi Tamil Urdu Gujarati Malayalam Kannada Oriya Punjabi
Assamese Kashmiri Sindhi Sanskrit also English and Hindustani)
Preserving language diversity Languages can die Today in the face of the global dominance of English and other ldquoworld languagesrdquo some
people are trying to preserve and even revive languages Maintaining survivors Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic Irish Gaelic Welsh (Cymru) Breton Bringing back the dead Hebrew Manx
o Why bother Because language is about more than just ldquocommunicating factsrdquo Language is about identity history continuity ndash language is a fundamental part of who you are
Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain
o Example Cajun a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country Example Abaza Avar Bats Chechen and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains
between the Black and Caspian Seas
Language and culture change and stability Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c 10000 years ago The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in
Pakistan It has been dated to 5500 years ago It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained but the Harappan language died out about 4000 years ago (See
Some believe that symbols found on 8600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing
The earliest sample of New World writing dated to about 900 BCE was discovered in 2006
Ways of writing Pictograms (also called ldquoLogogramsrdquo)
o Earliest system of writingmdashBegin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory)o Example Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs
ldquoIdeogramsrdquoo Abstract or conventional meanings often combining two or more pictogramsmdashNo longer have a clear
pictorial linkmdashrepresent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations Almost always ldquoimpurerdquo (or ldquologophoneticrdquo) with clues to pronunciation
Syllabarieso Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel)o Examples Japanese Katakana Cherokee
Cherokee ndashThis syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c 1770-1843) the great Cherokee leadermdashIts 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets but usage is entirely different
Alphabetso A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all soundsmdashAll alphabets appear to be descendants of
the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only vowels understood in context As far as we can tell all of the worldrsquos alphabets (including Cyrillic Hebrew Arabic and Roman)
are derived from the Phoenician alphabet
Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction Some languages such as English are written left-to-right Hebrew right to left (Arabic)
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
1 The United States is comprised of individuals from diverse ethnic cultural and linguistic backgrounds and continues to benefit from this rich diversity2 Throughout the history of the United States the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been the English language3 Among the powers reserved to the States respectively is the power to establish the English language as the official language of the respective States and otherwise to promote the English language within the respective States subject to the prohibitions enumerated in the Constitution of the United States and in laws of the respective States
Excerpts from HR 997 February 27 2003 1048729 lsquoNational Language Act of 2007rsquo
English shall be the official language of the Government of the United States The Government of the United States shall preserve and enhance the role of English no person has a right
entitlement or claim to services or materials in any language other than English This does not apply to the use of a language other than English
(1) for religious purposes(2) for training in foreign languages for international communication(3) to programs in schools designed to encourage students to learn foreign languages
This does not prevent the Government from providing interpreters for persons over 62 years of age BILINGUAL ELECTION REQUIREMENTS [are] repealed
Excerpts from HR 769 January 31 2007
Official English laws in the US As of 2007 27 () US States have some kind of ldquoofficial Englishrdquo law The impact and scope of the laws vary ndash from being little more than a simple statement (as in Illinois ldquoThe
official language of the State of Illinois is Englishrdquo) to forbidding any activity of State or local government from doing anything which could be considered supporting the use of any language other than English
Two States ndash Hawaii and New Mexico ndash have specified that a language other than English is also official (Hawaiian and Spanish respectively)
A few States have taken the opposite position Oregon for example says that ldquothe use of diverse languages in business government and private affairs hellip is welcomed encouraged and protected in Oregonrdquo
The Top 20 US Languages (after English) Navajo is the Native American language with the largest number of speakers in the US today ndash 178014
Languages come in families A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common earlier language (just as brothers and sisters are descended from common parents)
How many languages are there Not an easy question to answero Living and Dead Languages (Italian vs Latin)o Revivals (Hebrew ndash from living to dead to living again)o New Discoveries (Amazon Papua New Guinea Africa etc)o ldquoLanguagesrdquo and ldquoDialectsrdquo (see below ndash hard to define)o Maybe 4000 Languages are spoken today Or more Or less
How many language families are thereo Families are constructed on the basis of similarities in vocabulary phonology and grammar
Lots of disputes about what is and what isnrsquot significant ndash and lots of variation in the numbers Maybe as many as 100 families Orhellip
Language families havehellip Branches ldquoa collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago
Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language familiesrdquo Example Indo-European family has eight (surviving) branches
o Germanic (ex German Danish English)o Romance (ex Italian French Romanian)o Balto-Slavic (ex Lithuanian Russian Polish)o Indo-Iranian (ex Farsi Kurdish)o Greek (ex Greek)o Albanian (ex Albanian)o Armenian (ex Armenian)o Celtic (ex Irish Breton Welsh)
Language Groups ldquoa collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabularyrdquo
o For example both English and Danish are in the Germanic branch but English is in the West Germanic Group while Danish is in the North Germanic Group
Origin of Indo-European two hypotheses The Kurgan Hypothesis (a war-like people expanding and conquering from the region north of the Black Sea) The Anatolian Hearth theory (farmers and pastoralists expanding slowly from a place of origin in what is now
Turkey)
Indo-European mutual comprehension Consider all of the following
o English ldquoOur Father who art in heaven helliprdquoo Dutch ldquoOnze Vader die in de hemelen zijt helliprdquoo Spanish ldquoPadre nuestro qe estaacutes en los cielos helliprdquoo Polish ldquoOjcze nasz ktoacuterys jest w niebiesiech helliprdquoo Greek ldquoPatera mas pougrave eiumlsai stougraves ouranougraves helliprdquoo Albanian ldquoAti yneuml qeuml je neuml quiell helliprdquoo Kurdish ldquoYauml baumlwk-iuml eumlma ka la aumlsmaumln-auml-y helliprdquoo Romany ldquoDaacutede amareacute kaj isieacuten krsquoo devleacute helliprdquoo Sanskrit ldquoBho asmaumlkham svargastha pitah helliprdquo
Notice the similarities (for example ldquopitahrdquo ldquopaterardquo ldquopadrerdquo or ldquofatherrdquo ldquovaderrdquo ldquodaacutederdquo) and differences
Major language families (families with more than 100000000 speakers)
Indo-European (ex English Russian Farsi Hindi)o About 3 billion speakers originally Europe-Asia now worldwide
Sino-Tibetan (ex Chinese Tibetan)o About 15 billion speakers mostly in China and surrounding areas
Afro-Asiatic (also called ldquoHamitic-Semiticrdquo) (ex Arabic Hebrew)o Almost frac12 billion speakers mostly in North Africa amp Southwest Asia
Austronesian (also called ldquoMalayo-Polynesianrdquo) (ex Hawaiian Malagasy)o More than frac14 billion speakers Pacific Ocean to Madagascar
Dravidian (ex Tamil Malayalam)o About frac14 billion speakers Southern India
Niger-Congo (ex Yoruba Swahili)o About 200000000 speakers Sub-Saharan Africa
Altaic (ex Turkish Mongol)o About 200000000 speakers Turkey to Mongolia
Japanese (ex Japanese)o About 125000000 speakers Japan (of course)
Some interesting minor language families AustromdashAsiatic Major languagemdashVietnamesemdashAbout 60000000 speakers KoreanmdashMajor language KoreanmdashAbout 50000000 speakers Nilo-SaharanmdashMajor language MasaimdashAbout 30000000 speakers Amerindian (not really a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor languages Quechua Navajomdash About
25000000 speakers (mostly in South America) Uralic (many authors combine Uralic with Altaic into one family)mdashMajor languages Finnish Hungarian CaucasianmdashMajor language GeorgianmdashAbout 6000000 speakers Indo-Pacific (or Papuan ndash not a family just a regional collectionmdashThere are about 800 languages spoken on the
island of New Guinea)mdashMajor language MotumdashAbout 3000000 speakers Khoisan (the ldquoclickrdquo languages)mdashMajor language KhoikhoimdashAbout 50000 speakers Australian Aborigine (not a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor language AruntamdashAbout 50000 speakers Isolates (languages which arenrsquot related to anything else such as Basque)
The urge to understand Mixing languages Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins creoles ldquoFranglaisrdquo
ldquoSpanglishrdquo etc) Lingua franca A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin English etc) Multilingualism Knowing and using more than one language Artificial language A constructed language which is supposed to be logical practical and easy to learn
(Esperanto etc) Translation and interpretation
o Translation Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another
o Interpretation A less literal translation emphasizing overall meaningo Transliterationmdashbaptism
Mixing languages Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other
o Examples SPANGLISH
Dolores dice Need advice Escriacutebeme (on the home page for the online magazine Latina)
Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija (overheard in the Western US) Haz clic aquiacute (commonly seen on Spanish-language Web sites)
Llamenos para delivery (seen on advertising signs in Peru) Tips para marketing (advertisement in Mexico)
JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH)o BRANDO NEW (brochure rack in Shiga)
NOTICE We have touched at point in under the boxes heads for keeping qualities Its very excuse (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore)
o Welcome to Mother Nature In here everyone are heroes Lets play YOUR drama (advertisement for a camping mattress)
o Lets play bowling Breaking down the pins and get hot communication
Pidgins and creoles Pidgin A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to
talk for trading or other reasons Creolemdashmixing of the colonizerrsquos language with the indigenous language (creole originally meant a slave who is
born in in the masterrsquos house in Latin)mdashfull-fledged formal language that has developed from a pidgin language
Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions expressions Usually short useful lifespan ldquoNobodyrsquos native languagerdquo
o Creole A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages a pidgin which has become a native language
Lingua franca A ldquolingua francardquo (either from ldquolanguage of the Franksrdquo or from ldquofree languagerdquo) is any widely-used language
used for commerce diplomacy science and technologymdashlanguage of trade and commerceo Lingua francas are often second languages and may be a mixture of several languages
Historically a number of languages have served as lingua francao Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean)o Arabico Swahili (Eastern Africa)o French (international diplomacy)o English (worldwide today in science commerce politics literature)
Multilingualism Most of the worldrsquos population is at least somewhat multilingual ndash that is most people have at least some
knowledge of more than one language Some nations are officially multilingual such as
o Paraguay (Spanish Guarani)o Switzerland (German French Italian Romansch)o South Africa (Afrikaans English Ndebele Pedi Sotho Swazi Tsonga Tswana Venda Xhosa and Zulu)o India (Hindi Bengali Telugu Marathi Tamil Urdu Gujarati Malayalam Kannada Oriya Punjabi
Assamese Kashmiri Sindhi Sanskrit also English and Hindustani)
Preserving language diversity Languages can die Today in the face of the global dominance of English and other ldquoworld languagesrdquo some
people are trying to preserve and even revive languages Maintaining survivors Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic Irish Gaelic Welsh (Cymru) Breton Bringing back the dead Hebrew Manx
o Why bother Because language is about more than just ldquocommunicating factsrdquo Language is about identity history continuity ndash language is a fundamental part of who you are
Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain
o Example Cajun a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country Example Abaza Avar Bats Chechen and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains
between the Black and Caspian Seas
Language and culture change and stability Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c 10000 years ago The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in
Pakistan It has been dated to 5500 years ago It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained but the Harappan language died out about 4000 years ago (See
Some believe that symbols found on 8600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing
The earliest sample of New World writing dated to about 900 BCE was discovered in 2006
Ways of writing Pictograms (also called ldquoLogogramsrdquo)
o Earliest system of writingmdashBegin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory)o Example Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs
ldquoIdeogramsrdquoo Abstract or conventional meanings often combining two or more pictogramsmdashNo longer have a clear
pictorial linkmdashrepresent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations Almost always ldquoimpurerdquo (or ldquologophoneticrdquo) with clues to pronunciation
Syllabarieso Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel)o Examples Japanese Katakana Cherokee
Cherokee ndashThis syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c 1770-1843) the great Cherokee leadermdashIts 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets but usage is entirely different
Alphabetso A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all soundsmdashAll alphabets appear to be descendants of
the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only vowels understood in context As far as we can tell all of the worldrsquos alphabets (including Cyrillic Hebrew Arabic and Roman)
are derived from the Phoenician alphabet
Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction Some languages such as English are written left-to-right Hebrew right to left (Arabic)
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Languages come in families A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common earlier language (just as brothers and sisters are descended from common parents)
How many languages are there Not an easy question to answero Living and Dead Languages (Italian vs Latin)o Revivals (Hebrew ndash from living to dead to living again)o New Discoveries (Amazon Papua New Guinea Africa etc)o ldquoLanguagesrdquo and ldquoDialectsrdquo (see below ndash hard to define)o Maybe 4000 Languages are spoken today Or more Or less
How many language families are thereo Families are constructed on the basis of similarities in vocabulary phonology and grammar
Lots of disputes about what is and what isnrsquot significant ndash and lots of variation in the numbers Maybe as many as 100 families Orhellip
Language families havehellip Branches ldquoa collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago
Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language familiesrdquo Example Indo-European family has eight (surviving) branches
o Germanic (ex German Danish English)o Romance (ex Italian French Romanian)o Balto-Slavic (ex Lithuanian Russian Polish)o Indo-Iranian (ex Farsi Kurdish)o Greek (ex Greek)o Albanian (ex Albanian)o Armenian (ex Armenian)o Celtic (ex Irish Breton Welsh)
Language Groups ldquoa collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabularyrdquo
o For example both English and Danish are in the Germanic branch but English is in the West Germanic Group while Danish is in the North Germanic Group
Origin of Indo-European two hypotheses The Kurgan Hypothesis (a war-like people expanding and conquering from the region north of the Black Sea) The Anatolian Hearth theory (farmers and pastoralists expanding slowly from a place of origin in what is now
Turkey)
Indo-European mutual comprehension Consider all of the following
o English ldquoOur Father who art in heaven helliprdquoo Dutch ldquoOnze Vader die in de hemelen zijt helliprdquoo Spanish ldquoPadre nuestro qe estaacutes en los cielos helliprdquoo Polish ldquoOjcze nasz ktoacuterys jest w niebiesiech helliprdquoo Greek ldquoPatera mas pougrave eiumlsai stougraves ouranougraves helliprdquoo Albanian ldquoAti yneuml qeuml je neuml quiell helliprdquoo Kurdish ldquoYauml baumlwk-iuml eumlma ka la aumlsmaumln-auml-y helliprdquoo Romany ldquoDaacutede amareacute kaj isieacuten krsquoo devleacute helliprdquoo Sanskrit ldquoBho asmaumlkham svargastha pitah helliprdquo
Notice the similarities (for example ldquopitahrdquo ldquopaterardquo ldquopadrerdquo or ldquofatherrdquo ldquovaderrdquo ldquodaacutederdquo) and differences
Major language families (families with more than 100000000 speakers)
Indo-European (ex English Russian Farsi Hindi)o About 3 billion speakers originally Europe-Asia now worldwide
Sino-Tibetan (ex Chinese Tibetan)o About 15 billion speakers mostly in China and surrounding areas
Afro-Asiatic (also called ldquoHamitic-Semiticrdquo) (ex Arabic Hebrew)o Almost frac12 billion speakers mostly in North Africa amp Southwest Asia
Austronesian (also called ldquoMalayo-Polynesianrdquo) (ex Hawaiian Malagasy)o More than frac14 billion speakers Pacific Ocean to Madagascar
Dravidian (ex Tamil Malayalam)o About frac14 billion speakers Southern India
Niger-Congo (ex Yoruba Swahili)o About 200000000 speakers Sub-Saharan Africa
Altaic (ex Turkish Mongol)o About 200000000 speakers Turkey to Mongolia
Japanese (ex Japanese)o About 125000000 speakers Japan (of course)
Some interesting minor language families AustromdashAsiatic Major languagemdashVietnamesemdashAbout 60000000 speakers KoreanmdashMajor language KoreanmdashAbout 50000000 speakers Nilo-SaharanmdashMajor language MasaimdashAbout 30000000 speakers Amerindian (not really a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor languages Quechua Navajomdash About
25000000 speakers (mostly in South America) Uralic (many authors combine Uralic with Altaic into one family)mdashMajor languages Finnish Hungarian CaucasianmdashMajor language GeorgianmdashAbout 6000000 speakers Indo-Pacific (or Papuan ndash not a family just a regional collectionmdashThere are about 800 languages spoken on the
island of New Guinea)mdashMajor language MotumdashAbout 3000000 speakers Khoisan (the ldquoclickrdquo languages)mdashMajor language KhoikhoimdashAbout 50000 speakers Australian Aborigine (not a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor language AruntamdashAbout 50000 speakers Isolates (languages which arenrsquot related to anything else such as Basque)
The urge to understand Mixing languages Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins creoles ldquoFranglaisrdquo
ldquoSpanglishrdquo etc) Lingua franca A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin English etc) Multilingualism Knowing and using more than one language Artificial language A constructed language which is supposed to be logical practical and easy to learn
(Esperanto etc) Translation and interpretation
o Translation Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another
o Interpretation A less literal translation emphasizing overall meaningo Transliterationmdashbaptism
Mixing languages Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other
o Examples SPANGLISH
Dolores dice Need advice Escriacutebeme (on the home page for the online magazine Latina)
Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija (overheard in the Western US) Haz clic aquiacute (commonly seen on Spanish-language Web sites)
Llamenos para delivery (seen on advertising signs in Peru) Tips para marketing (advertisement in Mexico)
JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH)o BRANDO NEW (brochure rack in Shiga)
NOTICE We have touched at point in under the boxes heads for keeping qualities Its very excuse (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore)
o Welcome to Mother Nature In here everyone are heroes Lets play YOUR drama (advertisement for a camping mattress)
o Lets play bowling Breaking down the pins and get hot communication
Pidgins and creoles Pidgin A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to
talk for trading or other reasons Creolemdashmixing of the colonizerrsquos language with the indigenous language (creole originally meant a slave who is
born in in the masterrsquos house in Latin)mdashfull-fledged formal language that has developed from a pidgin language
Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions expressions Usually short useful lifespan ldquoNobodyrsquos native languagerdquo
o Creole A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages a pidgin which has become a native language
Lingua franca A ldquolingua francardquo (either from ldquolanguage of the Franksrdquo or from ldquofree languagerdquo) is any widely-used language
used for commerce diplomacy science and technologymdashlanguage of trade and commerceo Lingua francas are often second languages and may be a mixture of several languages
Historically a number of languages have served as lingua francao Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean)o Arabico Swahili (Eastern Africa)o French (international diplomacy)o English (worldwide today in science commerce politics literature)
Multilingualism Most of the worldrsquos population is at least somewhat multilingual ndash that is most people have at least some
knowledge of more than one language Some nations are officially multilingual such as
o Paraguay (Spanish Guarani)o Switzerland (German French Italian Romansch)o South Africa (Afrikaans English Ndebele Pedi Sotho Swazi Tsonga Tswana Venda Xhosa and Zulu)o India (Hindi Bengali Telugu Marathi Tamil Urdu Gujarati Malayalam Kannada Oriya Punjabi
Assamese Kashmiri Sindhi Sanskrit also English and Hindustani)
Preserving language diversity Languages can die Today in the face of the global dominance of English and other ldquoworld languagesrdquo some
people are trying to preserve and even revive languages Maintaining survivors Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic Irish Gaelic Welsh (Cymru) Breton Bringing back the dead Hebrew Manx
o Why bother Because language is about more than just ldquocommunicating factsrdquo Language is about identity history continuity ndash language is a fundamental part of who you are
Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain
o Example Cajun a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country Example Abaza Avar Bats Chechen and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains
between the Black and Caspian Seas
Language and culture change and stability Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c 10000 years ago The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in
Pakistan It has been dated to 5500 years ago It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained but the Harappan language died out about 4000 years ago (See
Some believe that symbols found on 8600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing
The earliest sample of New World writing dated to about 900 BCE was discovered in 2006
Ways of writing Pictograms (also called ldquoLogogramsrdquo)
o Earliest system of writingmdashBegin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory)o Example Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs
ldquoIdeogramsrdquoo Abstract or conventional meanings often combining two or more pictogramsmdashNo longer have a clear
pictorial linkmdashrepresent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations Almost always ldquoimpurerdquo (or ldquologophoneticrdquo) with clues to pronunciation
Syllabarieso Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel)o Examples Japanese Katakana Cherokee
Cherokee ndashThis syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c 1770-1843) the great Cherokee leadermdashIts 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets but usage is entirely different
Alphabetso A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all soundsmdashAll alphabets appear to be descendants of
the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only vowels understood in context As far as we can tell all of the worldrsquos alphabets (including Cyrillic Hebrew Arabic and Roman)
are derived from the Phoenician alphabet
Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction Some languages such as English are written left-to-right Hebrew right to left (Arabic)
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Indo-European (ex English Russian Farsi Hindi)o About 3 billion speakers originally Europe-Asia now worldwide
Sino-Tibetan (ex Chinese Tibetan)o About 15 billion speakers mostly in China and surrounding areas
Afro-Asiatic (also called ldquoHamitic-Semiticrdquo) (ex Arabic Hebrew)o Almost frac12 billion speakers mostly in North Africa amp Southwest Asia
Austronesian (also called ldquoMalayo-Polynesianrdquo) (ex Hawaiian Malagasy)o More than frac14 billion speakers Pacific Ocean to Madagascar
Dravidian (ex Tamil Malayalam)o About frac14 billion speakers Southern India
Niger-Congo (ex Yoruba Swahili)o About 200000000 speakers Sub-Saharan Africa
Altaic (ex Turkish Mongol)o About 200000000 speakers Turkey to Mongolia
Japanese (ex Japanese)o About 125000000 speakers Japan (of course)
Some interesting minor language families AustromdashAsiatic Major languagemdashVietnamesemdashAbout 60000000 speakers KoreanmdashMajor language KoreanmdashAbout 50000000 speakers Nilo-SaharanmdashMajor language MasaimdashAbout 30000000 speakers Amerindian (not really a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor languages Quechua Navajomdash About
25000000 speakers (mostly in South America) Uralic (many authors combine Uralic with Altaic into one family)mdashMajor languages Finnish Hungarian CaucasianmdashMajor language GeorgianmdashAbout 6000000 speakers Indo-Pacific (or Papuan ndash not a family just a regional collectionmdashThere are about 800 languages spoken on the
island of New Guinea)mdashMajor language MotumdashAbout 3000000 speakers Khoisan (the ldquoclickrdquo languages)mdashMajor language KhoikhoimdashAbout 50000 speakers Australian Aborigine (not a family just a regional collection)mdashMajor language AruntamdashAbout 50000 speakers Isolates (languages which arenrsquot related to anything else such as Basque)
The urge to understand Mixing languages Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins creoles ldquoFranglaisrdquo
ldquoSpanglishrdquo etc) Lingua franca A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin English etc) Multilingualism Knowing and using more than one language Artificial language A constructed language which is supposed to be logical practical and easy to learn
(Esperanto etc) Translation and interpretation
o Translation Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another
o Interpretation A less literal translation emphasizing overall meaningo Transliterationmdashbaptism
Mixing languages Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other
o Examples SPANGLISH
Dolores dice Need advice Escriacutebeme (on the home page for the online magazine Latina)
Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija (overheard in the Western US) Haz clic aquiacute (commonly seen on Spanish-language Web sites)
Llamenos para delivery (seen on advertising signs in Peru) Tips para marketing (advertisement in Mexico)
JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH)o BRANDO NEW (brochure rack in Shiga)
NOTICE We have touched at point in under the boxes heads for keeping qualities Its very excuse (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore)
o Welcome to Mother Nature In here everyone are heroes Lets play YOUR drama (advertisement for a camping mattress)
o Lets play bowling Breaking down the pins and get hot communication
Pidgins and creoles Pidgin A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to
talk for trading or other reasons Creolemdashmixing of the colonizerrsquos language with the indigenous language (creole originally meant a slave who is
born in in the masterrsquos house in Latin)mdashfull-fledged formal language that has developed from a pidgin language
Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions expressions Usually short useful lifespan ldquoNobodyrsquos native languagerdquo
o Creole A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages a pidgin which has become a native language
Lingua franca A ldquolingua francardquo (either from ldquolanguage of the Franksrdquo or from ldquofree languagerdquo) is any widely-used language
used for commerce diplomacy science and technologymdashlanguage of trade and commerceo Lingua francas are often second languages and may be a mixture of several languages
Historically a number of languages have served as lingua francao Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean)o Arabico Swahili (Eastern Africa)o French (international diplomacy)o English (worldwide today in science commerce politics literature)
Multilingualism Most of the worldrsquos population is at least somewhat multilingual ndash that is most people have at least some
knowledge of more than one language Some nations are officially multilingual such as
o Paraguay (Spanish Guarani)o Switzerland (German French Italian Romansch)o South Africa (Afrikaans English Ndebele Pedi Sotho Swazi Tsonga Tswana Venda Xhosa and Zulu)o India (Hindi Bengali Telugu Marathi Tamil Urdu Gujarati Malayalam Kannada Oriya Punjabi
Assamese Kashmiri Sindhi Sanskrit also English and Hindustani)
Preserving language diversity Languages can die Today in the face of the global dominance of English and other ldquoworld languagesrdquo some
people are trying to preserve and even revive languages Maintaining survivors Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic Irish Gaelic Welsh (Cymru) Breton Bringing back the dead Hebrew Manx
o Why bother Because language is about more than just ldquocommunicating factsrdquo Language is about identity history continuity ndash language is a fundamental part of who you are
Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain
o Example Cajun a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country Example Abaza Avar Bats Chechen and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains
between the Black and Caspian Seas
Language and culture change and stability Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c 10000 years ago The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in
Pakistan It has been dated to 5500 years ago It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained but the Harappan language died out about 4000 years ago (See
Some believe that symbols found on 8600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing
The earliest sample of New World writing dated to about 900 BCE was discovered in 2006
Ways of writing Pictograms (also called ldquoLogogramsrdquo)
o Earliest system of writingmdashBegin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory)o Example Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs
ldquoIdeogramsrdquoo Abstract or conventional meanings often combining two or more pictogramsmdashNo longer have a clear
pictorial linkmdashrepresent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations Almost always ldquoimpurerdquo (or ldquologophoneticrdquo) with clues to pronunciation
Syllabarieso Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel)o Examples Japanese Katakana Cherokee
Cherokee ndashThis syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c 1770-1843) the great Cherokee leadermdashIts 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets but usage is entirely different
Alphabetso A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all soundsmdashAll alphabets appear to be descendants of
the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only vowels understood in context As far as we can tell all of the worldrsquos alphabets (including Cyrillic Hebrew Arabic and Roman)
are derived from the Phoenician alphabet
Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction Some languages such as English are written left-to-right Hebrew right to left (Arabic)
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Llamenos para delivery (seen on advertising signs in Peru) Tips para marketing (advertisement in Mexico)
JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH)o BRANDO NEW (brochure rack in Shiga)
NOTICE We have touched at point in under the boxes heads for keeping qualities Its very excuse (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore)
o Welcome to Mother Nature In here everyone are heroes Lets play YOUR drama (advertisement for a camping mattress)
o Lets play bowling Breaking down the pins and get hot communication
Pidgins and creoles Pidgin A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to
talk for trading or other reasons Creolemdashmixing of the colonizerrsquos language with the indigenous language (creole originally meant a slave who is
born in in the masterrsquos house in Latin)mdashfull-fledged formal language that has developed from a pidgin language
Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions expressions Usually short useful lifespan ldquoNobodyrsquos native languagerdquo
o Creole A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages a pidgin which has become a native language
Lingua franca A ldquolingua francardquo (either from ldquolanguage of the Franksrdquo or from ldquofree languagerdquo) is any widely-used language
used for commerce diplomacy science and technologymdashlanguage of trade and commerceo Lingua francas are often second languages and may be a mixture of several languages
Historically a number of languages have served as lingua francao Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean)o Arabico Swahili (Eastern Africa)o French (international diplomacy)o English (worldwide today in science commerce politics literature)
Multilingualism Most of the worldrsquos population is at least somewhat multilingual ndash that is most people have at least some
knowledge of more than one language Some nations are officially multilingual such as
o Paraguay (Spanish Guarani)o Switzerland (German French Italian Romansch)o South Africa (Afrikaans English Ndebele Pedi Sotho Swazi Tsonga Tswana Venda Xhosa and Zulu)o India (Hindi Bengali Telugu Marathi Tamil Urdu Gujarati Malayalam Kannada Oriya Punjabi
Assamese Kashmiri Sindhi Sanskrit also English and Hindustani)
Preserving language diversity Languages can die Today in the face of the global dominance of English and other ldquoworld languagesrdquo some
people are trying to preserve and even revive languages Maintaining survivors Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic Irish Gaelic Welsh (Cymru) Breton Bringing back the dead Hebrew Manx
o Why bother Because language is about more than just ldquocommunicating factsrdquo Language is about identity history continuity ndash language is a fundamental part of who you are
Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain
o Example Cajun a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country Example Abaza Avar Bats Chechen and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains
between the Black and Caspian Seas
Language and culture change and stability Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c 10000 years ago The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in
Pakistan It has been dated to 5500 years ago It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained but the Harappan language died out about 4000 years ago (See
Some believe that symbols found on 8600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing
The earliest sample of New World writing dated to about 900 BCE was discovered in 2006
Ways of writing Pictograms (also called ldquoLogogramsrdquo)
o Earliest system of writingmdashBegin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory)o Example Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs
ldquoIdeogramsrdquoo Abstract or conventional meanings often combining two or more pictogramsmdashNo longer have a clear
pictorial linkmdashrepresent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations Almost always ldquoimpurerdquo (or ldquologophoneticrdquo) with clues to pronunciation
Syllabarieso Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel)o Examples Japanese Katakana Cherokee
Cherokee ndashThis syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c 1770-1843) the great Cherokee leadermdashIts 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets but usage is entirely different
Alphabetso A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all soundsmdashAll alphabets appear to be descendants of
the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only vowels understood in context As far as we can tell all of the worldrsquos alphabets (including Cyrillic Hebrew Arabic and Roman)
are derived from the Phoenician alphabet
Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction Some languages such as English are written left-to-right Hebrew right to left (Arabic)
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Linguistic refuge areas Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain
o Example Cajun a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country Example Abaza Avar Bats Chechen and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains
between the Black and Caspian Seas
Language and culture change and stability Writing Earliest use of symbol tokens c 10000 years ago The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in
Pakistan It has been dated to 5500 years ago It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained but the Harappan language died out about 4000 years ago (See
Some believe that symbols found on 8600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing
The earliest sample of New World writing dated to about 900 BCE was discovered in 2006
Ways of writing Pictograms (also called ldquoLogogramsrdquo)
o Earliest system of writingmdashBegin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory)o Example Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs
ldquoIdeogramsrdquoo Abstract or conventional meanings often combining two or more pictogramsmdashNo longer have a clear
pictorial linkmdashrepresent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations Almost always ldquoimpurerdquo (or ldquologophoneticrdquo) with clues to pronunciation
Syllabarieso Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel)o Examples Japanese Katakana Cherokee
Cherokee ndashThis syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c 1770-1843) the great Cherokee leadermdashIts 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets but usage is entirely different
Alphabetso A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all soundsmdashAll alphabets appear to be descendants of
the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet Many consist of consonants only vowels understood in context As far as we can tell all of the worldrsquos alphabets (including Cyrillic Hebrew Arabic and Roman)
are derived from the Phoenician alphabet
Direction There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction Some languages such as English are written left-to-right Hebrew right to left (Arabic)
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Chapter 5 Language
Steps To A Definition The service and worship of God or the supernatural 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance
3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes beliefs and practices 4) a cause principle or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary
A set of beliefs and practices a social system through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature life and death Jordan amp Rowntree
Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet Napoleon Bonaparte That which is of ultimate concern Paul Tillich
Why Study Religion Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and
with their environment Religion has several geographic aspects
o Religion is fundamental to many cultureso Some religions vary in their distributions some are widespread others are very limited in distributiono Religions are important in the organization of spaceo Most religions require active participation or loyalty adopting one religion usually means giving up all
otherso Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion
Religion And Culture Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture
o Housing and architectureo Occupations and economicso Laws customs and politicso Relations between men and womeno Birth and deatho Land and landscapeo Food and drink
Recall the maps of ldquoDry and Wet Countiesrdquo vs Baptist amp Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class
See the maps of international wine and pork production below
Taxonomy Of Religion Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships For example if you were
going to come up with a transportation taxonomy it might look something like thiso MOTOR VEHICLE gt AUTOMOBILE gt 4-DOOR SEDAN gt HONDA gt ACURA
Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic systemo RELIGION (ex ldquoChristianityrdquo)o BRANCH (ex ldquoProtestantrdquo)o DENOMINATION (ex ldquoSouthern Baptistrdquo)o CONGREGATION (ex ldquoJohnson Ferry Baptist Churchrdquo)
ldquoCongregationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquoparishrdquo ldquowardrdquo ldquocovenrdquo etc ldquoDenominationrdquo is roughly equivalent to ldquosectrdquo ndash but ldquosectrdquo has other connotations ndash including ldquocultrdquo
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Monotheism vs Polytheism (and Animism) In a monotheistic religion there is only one God In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods In animism there may or may not be ldquogodsrdquo as such the whole world is ldquoanimatedrdquo
Universalizing vs Ethnic Universalizing religions seek out new members ndash generally speaking anybody in the whole universe can
potentially become a member Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups Generally speaking they donrsquot particularly
want new members (and sometimes they forbid it ndash no outsiders allowed)
Membership Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable ndash but itrsquos usually assumed that out of the worldrsquos
population of 6 billion there are abouto 2 billion Christianso 1frac14 billion Muslimso 1 billion Hinduso 13 billion Buddhistso frac12 billion members of other religionso Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs
Or to put it another way out of all the worldrsquos people roughlyo 13 are Christianso 15 are Muslimso 16 are Hinduso 16 have no religiono 112 are some other religiono 120 are Buddhists
Hearths Religions like other elements of culture develop in hearths ndash centers from which they may diffuse
o We can identify three major religious hearths The Middle East Hearth (Judaism Christianity Islam) The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism Buddhism) The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism Taoism Shintoism)
The Middle East Hearth
Judaismmdashan ethnic monotheistic religionmdashThere are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today the largest concentrations are in the United States and IsraelmdashTwo of the worldrsquos largest religions Christianity and Islam can be said to have been developed from Judaism
Judaism Origins and DevelopmentmdashBased on internal evidence the earliest records have been dated to c 4000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent
o Patriarchal period ndash Abraham Isaac Jacobo 3300 years ago ndash Moses exodus from Egypto 3000 years ago ndash united Jewish kingdom (Saul David Solomon)o Disunity ndash kingdoms of Israel and Judah
721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria population exiled 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon population exiled
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
522 BCE Judahrsquos population returns from exile 444 BCE Torah (written law) ldquodiscoveredrdquo 198 BCE Syrian occupation Helenization Maccabees revolt independent kingdom 63 BCE Rome arrives kingdom becomes part of the Empire 70 CE Revolt against Rome defeat temple destroyed 130 CE Second revolt and defeat Diaspora For the next 1800 years Jews in Europe the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods
of tolerance and persecution 19th Century founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism 1948 CE founding of Israel
Basic Beliefs of Judaismo God is the creator of all that exists He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the
universeo The Jews are Gods chosen peopleo God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophetso God monitors peoplersquos activities He rewards good deeds and punishes evilo Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of Godo The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish
life The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Lawo The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel There will be a
general resurrection of the dead at that time The Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 CE will be rebuilt
ChristianitymdashChristianity is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly two billion Christians around the world it is the dominant faith in the Americas Europe and Australia and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa
Christianity Origins and Developmento Roots in Judaism the ldquohistorical Jesusrdquo Jerusalem-based until 70 CEo Paul and the Roman Empire
Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians Christianity spreads through the Empire ndash periodic persecution
o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) Converts Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE ndash Nicene Creed (see below) moves capital of the Empire to
Constantinople 330 CE Eastern amp Western Christianity
o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne ldquoHoly Roman Emperorrdquoo 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each othero 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinopleo Protestantism
1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 ldquothesesrdquo questioning Catholic practices Printing press rise of nationalism assist ldquoprotest movementrdquo 1545 CE Council of Trent begins ldquocounter-reformationrdquo
o Modern Period Rise of science the Enlightenment Rationalism 20th Century Movements
Evangelic movement (ldquoFundamentalismrdquo) Ecumenical movement
The Three Main Branches of Christianityo Roman Catholic
About 50 of all Christians over one billion people Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe Latin America parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
o Protestantism lsquoAbout 24 of all Christians Dominant Northern Europe North America Australia parts of Africa
o Eastern Orthodox About 11 of all Christians Dominant in Southeastern Europe Russia and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean
o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church Ethiopian Church Armenian Church etc)
Basic Beliefs of ChristianitymdashKeep in mind there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian
o Some areas of general agreement Belief in God Belief in Jesus virgin birth Jesusrsquo sacrifice possibility of universal salvation Importance of baptism Importance of the church (community of believers) Belief in prayer
IslammdashIslam is a universal monotheistic religionmdashThere are roughly 1frac14 billion Muslims Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia it is also very important in Southeast Asia parts of South and East Asia and in Africa and is growing in the Americas
Origins and Developmento Mohammed (c 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)mdashOrphaned at age 6 adopted by his Uncle began
working on camel caravans when he was 9 Traveled throughout Middle East worked his way up eventually married caravan owner Khadija (c 605 CE)
o At age 40 (c 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel began to preach make conversions
o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) ndash the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated)
o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia conquers Meccao Mohammed dies 632 CE rapid expansion of Islam
632 Arabian Peninsula 650 Most of the Middle East 710 North Africa Spain 750 Central Asia to Western China
Some Basic Beliefs of Islamo here is a single indivisible God who is just omnipotent and mercifulo Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the
world and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam NoahAbraham Moses and Jesus)
o The Koran (Quran) is the word of God dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed It is the final universal message for all people All people are considered children of Adam and all children are born pure
o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell No individual can atone for anothers sins
o The 5 Pillars of Islam The creed ldquoThere is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophetrdquo Daily prayer Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca Charity Muslims are obligated to give to charity Fasting During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating drinking and all other
ldquosensual pleasuresrdquo during daylight hours
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Pilgrimage If at all possible every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime
Branches of Islamo SUNNI (from a word meaning ldquoorthodoxrdquo)mdashAbout 83 of all MuslimsmdashMost widespread brancho SHIrsquoITE (from a word meaning ldquosectarianrdquo or ldquopartisan of Alirdquo)mdashAbout 17 of all MuslimsmdashMostly
concentrated in and near Iran Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession belief in 12 heavenly Imams the final
Imam the Mahdi never died and will someday returno Other groups
Sufis Ahmadis Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth Zoroastrianism
o Universal (at least originally ndash now ethnic) ldquomonotheisticrdquoo Originated in Persia about 2500 years agoo About 200000 members today mostly in India and Iran
Baharsquoio Universal monotheistico Originated 19th Century teachings of Bahaullaho About six million worldwide nearly half in India
The Northern India Hearth
HinduismmdashHinduism is an ethnic polytheistic religionmdashThere are about one billion Hindus 97 located in India with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the worldmdashHinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia but has retreated
Origins and Development Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs but recent
archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6000 BCE Earliest religious texts
o 1500 BCE the Vedaso 800 BCE the Upanishadso 300 BCE the Mahabharata
Beliefs Focus mostly on actions not beliefs strong emphasis on ritual No central authority only a few universal beliefs or rituals Honor Brahmins (priests) protect cows
o Avoid eating meat marry within onersquos casteo Reincarnation
Classical period (c 2000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra Agni Varuna etc)
Post-Classical (c 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approacheso The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods ndash Brahma Shiva or Vishnu)o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic)
Castemdash Caste may have begun about 3500 years ago it may be much older Some think it may have begun as a kind of ldquoapartheidrdquo based on ethnicity (conquerors vs conquered)
o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty) Every individual is born into a particular social group
o Every aspect of life ndash social occupation marriage birth death etc ndash may be determined by your caste Four main castes (with thousands of subcastesmdashjati)
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Brahmin (priests administrators) Kshatriya (warriors rulers) Vaishya (traders merchants) Shudra (agricultural workers laborers)
Outside of the castes ldquooutcastesrdquo (also known as Dalits) the religiously uncleano The caste system became illegal in 1949 ndash but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas For that
reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism) This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year
BuddhismmdashBuddhism is a universal polytheistic religionmdashThere are at least 13 of a billion Buddhists Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia and there are Buddhists around the world
Origins and Developmento Siddhartha Gautama (c 563-480 BCE) Born a vaishya lived until 29 without awareness of the world
Became aware of death and suffering and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment After six years of meditation prayer and mortification sat quietly and became enlightened
(ldquobuddhardquo = ldquoenlightened one)o Understood ldquothe four noble truthsrdquo
Life is full of suffering Desire causes suffering Ending desire ends suffering To end desire follow ldquothe noble eight-fold pathrdquo (right views intention speech action
livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) If one follows these instructions one can achieve enlightenmentmdash If one is enlightened
one escapes reincarnation amp achieves nirvanao The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching
DevelopmentsmdashAfter Buddharsquos death there were disagreements about his teachings councils failed to unify beliefs
o Two main branches THERAVADA (ldquoteachings of the eldersrdquo)mdashMostly in Sri Lanka Myanmar Southeast Asia
Conservative very close to Buddharsquos teachingso Individuals work out ldquosalvationrdquo little interest in godso Strong focus on monasticism meditation
MAHAYANA (ldquothe greater vesselrdquo)mdashDominant in China Korea Japan New teachings may also be valid The Buddha was a divine being There can be other Buddhas human or divine People can become bodhisattvas save others postpone nirvana
o Numerous sects (Pure Land Zen Tibetan (Lamaism) etc) Other Religions from the North India Hearth
o JainismmdashFounded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) Emphasizes ahimsa non-injury to living things
o Sikhism Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Syncretism blending elements of Islam and Hinduism
The East Asia HearthConfucianismmdashConfucianism is not precisely a religion ndash itrsquos more of an ethical system
Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian since Confuciusrsquos teachings are fundamental to the culture of the regionmdashEast Asian faiths are not exclusive a person can be Buddhist Confucian Taoist and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Origins and Developmento Kung Fu-Tse (ldquoConfuciusrdquo born Kung Chrsquoiu) 551-479 BCEmdashConfucius was a philosopher and a teacher
at the age of 50 he became a government official He retired after five years and spent the rest of his life teaching
Basic concepts The importance of Li (ldquocorrect behaviorrdquo)
The five basic relationships Father to son (kindness filial piety) Elder brother to younger brother (gentility humility) Husband to wife (righteousness obedience) Elder to junior (consideration deference) Ruler to subject (benevolence loyalty)
o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education administration civil service Remained in charge until 1905 CE
TaoismmdashTaoism like Confucianism is more of an ethical system than a religion ndash although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics mythology etc
As with Confucianism virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist since those beliefs are part of the culture
Origins and Developmento Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]mdashPhilosopher court librarian in Henan at the end of his life he
despaired of people went into exile but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy ndash the Tao-te Ching (ldquothe way and its powerrdquo)
For several hundred years Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors
With the coming of Buddhism to China (c 100 CE) begins to merge and blend Development of numerous sects ndash from esoteric philosophy to magical interests in alchemy and
immortality Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949 but repression eased by the 1990s
Beliefs of Taoismo Society and its rules arenrsquot important people should follow ldquothe wayrdquo (tao)o The tao cannot be controlled or understoodo To be in harmony with the tao ldquodo nothingrdquo ndash do nothing unnatural donrsquot strive donrsquot be clevero Life is a fundamental goodo Like Confucianism recommends a kind of idealized feudalism ndash everyone has a place everyone stays in
their place Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation)
o One The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao The name that can be named is not the eternal name
o Two the sage goes about doing nothing creating yet not possessing working yet not taking credit work is done then forgotten therefore it lasts forever
o Three the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done then all will be well
o Twenty give up learning and put an end to your troubles
ShintomdashShinto (or kami no michi ldquothe way of the godsrdquo) is the traditional ethnic polytheistic religion of Japan It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities
but only about 3 consider Shinto their sole or primary faitho As with other East Asian religions Shinto is not exclusive ndash one can be a Buddhist Confucianist Taoist
and Shinto simultaneously
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Origins and Developmento Until c 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan Shinto had no name it was the beliefs of the
Japaneseo By c 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto
shrines and Shinto almost disappearedo Beginning in the 18th Century Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism Shinto became the
State religion under the Emperor Meiji The Emperor was considered divine and the Japanese superior to all other people
o After Japanrsquos defeat in the Second World War State Shinto ended the Emperor renounced divinityo Today there are 13 major Shinto sects and many smaller movements
The Worldrsquos Religions Other Faiths Animistic faithsmdashTribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas Africa Australia Asia
o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand Voudon (voodoo)mdashSyncretism blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity
o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas) and parts of West Africa
Modern pagansmdashRevived or re-created faiths based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systemso Found mostly in highly educated urban largely secular areas
The Non-Religious About one billion people worldwide are considered ldquonon-religiousrdquo
o Atheists Do not believe in any gods whatsoevero Agnostics God or gods may exist but the evidence is uncertaino Secular Only means ldquonot related to religionrdquo or ldquoindifferent to religionrdquo it is not a belief system (except
in the sense that a ldquosecularistrdquo would believe that there are things outside of religion ndash something some religious people would deny)
CosmogonymdashCosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe The importance of creation stories varies ndash it is often extremely important in universal religions
o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins but also with what happens next ndash what should we do with the universe
Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to changendashit has to be accepted as it is
The CalendarmdashCalendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local usually agricultural cycles Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion The basic problem of the calendar the solar year and the lunar year donrsquot match Cultures deal with this either
byo Ignoring the lunar year (Christian ndash except for Easter)o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim)o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish)
The Organization Of SpacemdashReligions are a part of culture and culture must deal with the world ndash with issues of space and place including
Holy Places and Pilgrimageo Many religions ndash both ethnic and universal ndash have declared certain locations holy (divine worthy of
reverence) In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the
religion (or with some other important figure) In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features ndash
mountains rivers etc
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Pilgrimage ndash a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes ndash is important in many religions both ethnic and universal
The HajjmdashThe hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note the Hindu ldquoKumbh Melardquo pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger at over 10 million people but only happens once every 12 years]
o ldquoIhramrdquo (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj men wear a simple white outfit women wear modest clothing and cover their heads)
o ldquoTawafrdquo (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Karsquobah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca)
o ldquoSarsquoyrdquo (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah)o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer)o ldquoWuqufrdquo (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of lsquoArafat where they
spend time standing or sitting in prayer some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah)
o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing)o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan)o Id al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice to commemorate Abrahams rejection of
Satan pilgrims sacrifice a sheep men shave their heads women cut off a lock of hair Pilgrims may return to normal clothing)
o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the ldquotawafrdquo and the ldquosarsquoyrdquo and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again) Pilgrims make a final ldquotawafrdquo the pilgrimage is officially ended Information from ldquoWelcoming Godrsquos Guestsrdquo by Samia El-Moslimany Saudi Aramco World (533)8-29
Place Nameso In many parts of the world places are named for saints holy people miraculous events or for other
sacred placeso This shouldnrsquot come as a surprise to anybody living in ldquoSan Diego Countyrdquo which contains communities
named ldquoSan Carlosrdquo ldquoSan Marcosrdquo and ldquoSan Ysidrordquo as well as natural features like the ldquoSan Luis Rey Riverrdquo ldquoSan Miguel Mountainrdquo ldquoSan Onofre Beachrdquo ldquoSan Pasqual Valleyrdquo and the ldquoSan Vicente Reservoirrdquo
Places Of Worshipo Sacred structures ldquoanchorrdquo religions most major religions have distinctive places of worshipo The function of such structures varies
Christian churches are often considered sacred ndash sanctified by God ndash and are usually places for the community to come together
Mosques are places for the community to come together but are not always considered sacred spaces
Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together
Places Of The Deado Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern and the proper disposal of the dead is
always of great importanceo There are several different methods that are widely used
BURIAL (favored by most Christians Muslims Jews and by the Chinese)mdashdates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombsmdashChinese remember Ban Po buried their dead in China cemeteries take up about 10 of the land in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries
BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)mdashstrain on the wood supply result of
overpopulationmdashpurification process EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
o Stupamdashmound-like structure containing Buddhist relics typically the ashes of deceased used by Buddhists as a place of meditation
Religious Settlementso Most settlements are established for economic reasons ndash but not all areo Types of religious settlements
MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes)
UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life) Shakersmdash is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious
Society of Friends Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture) and their model of equality of the sexes which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s
Administration Of Space
o Hierarchical religions such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism have a well-defined geographic structure Territory is organized into local regional and larger units in a hierarchy
o Autonomous religions such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists as well as most ethnic religions are basically self-governing ndash loosely organized with little or no hierarchy
Religion And Conflicto Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons
Conflicts between traditional religious values and new outside ideas Hinduism caste and ideas of equality
Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs values or communities Communist states and religious communities
Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion Northern Ireland
Conflicts between different religions Christians vs Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE) Hindus vs Muslims (Kashmir) Jews vs Muslims (Palestine)
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Ethnicity (Chapter 7)
Terms Ethnicity
o Ethnic from the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo or ldquonationalrdquoo ldquoidentity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearthrdquoo ldquoa group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and
cultural traditionsrdquoo No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Persons Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits including Language (Quebec Belgium) Religion (Northern Ireland) National Origin (Italian-Americans Polish-Americans etc) Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian ldquohillbilliesrdquo)
Different groups base their identities on different traits Examples Jews ethnicity primarily means religion Amish- folk culture and religion African American- skin color German American- ancestral language Cuban American-anti-Castro anti-Marxist sentiment There is a we they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity
o Ethnic Groups Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions Focal point for various social interactions Provide group identity and friendships marriage partners recreational outlets business success
political power base Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups Can give rise to suspicion friction distrust clannishness and even violence
Raceo Defining Race
Definitions from your textbook ldquoidentity with a group of people who share a biological ancestorrdquo ldquoidentity with a group of people descended from a common ancestorrdquo
o These are not identical The first is a modern biological definition the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to ldquothe French racerdquo ldquothe Arab racerdquo etc)
Race vs Ethnicity A persons race may or may not be the same as a persons ethnicity
o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused ndashsometimes by law
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
ldquoAsianrdquo is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan China Japan Papua New Guinea etc will all be classified as being of the same ldquoracerdquo)
ldquoAfrican-Americanrdquo is recognized as a race but it is not necessarily the same as ldquoblackrdquo There are many ldquoBlacksrdquo who trace their cultural heritage ndash and their ethnic identity ndash to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America
ldquoHispanicrdquo (Latino) is considered an ethnicity not a race Hispanics may therefore be of any race
US Ethnicities Regional Concentrations General pattern
o African-Americans in Southeast Hispanics in Southwest Asians in West Native Americans in Southwest amp Plains
o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution African-Americans
African-Americans are about frac14 of the population in Alabama Georgia Louisiana and South Carolina and about 13 of the population in Mississippi
African-Americans are less than 1 of the population in Maine Hampshire Vermont Idaho Montana North and South Dakota Utah and Wyoming
ldquoHispanicsrdquo (Latinos) ldquoHispanicsrdquo are about 15 (or more) of the population in California New Mexico and
Texas ldquoHispanicsrdquo are less than 1 of the population in Maine Vermont North and South
Dakota West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Alabama Mississippi and Arkansas
ldquoAsiansrdquo ldquoAsiansrdquo are about 5 (or more) of the population in Alaska California Washington
Nevada Minnesota New York Vermont Massachusetts New Jersey Maryland and Virginia
ldquoAsiansrdquo are less than 1 of the population in 29 States Native Americans (ldquoIndiansrdquo and Alaska Natives)
Native Americans are 10 or more of the population in Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Montana and South Dakota
Native Americans are less than 1 of the population in 27 States
Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the USo Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries)
During the era of the African slave trade 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery During the 17th 18th and 19th centuries between one-half and one Africans were brought to
the British Colonies and the US ldquoThe Triangle Traderdquo Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20 th centuries)
o After the Civil War slavery ended ndash but most former slaves had no education or training Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land paying in crops) Nevertheless a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern
cities Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldnt just settle anywhere they
wanted in Northern cities Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live Options
are limited or nonexistent Involuntary community Two practices redlining and blockbusting created urban ghettos
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
o Blockbusting ldquoreal estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettosrdquo
o Redlining ldquodrawing lines on a map to identify areas hellip [where banks realtors insurance agents etc] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services]rdquo (see Chapter 13)
o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century) Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s racial was legally ended White FlightmdashCourts ordered the integration of schools Many whites refused rather than
integrate they fled to the suburbs Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor) African-Americans who can afford to
have also tended to migrate out of the cities and into the suburbs
Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons well be getting to
soon) In some States the urban concentration can be extreme
o Detroit is 82 African-American the rest of Michigan is 6 African Americano Chicago is 39 African-American the rest of Illinois is 7 African-Americano New York City is 24 Latino the rest of New York is 4 Latino
Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americanso Gary IN 840o Detroit MI 816o Birmingham AL 735o Jackson MS 706o New Orleans LA 673o Baltimore MD 643o Atlanta GA 614
Ethnic Neighborhoodsmdash Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice ndash group cohesiveness ndash what are the benefits
In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groupso The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over timeo In the 19th and early 20th Centuries cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic
neighborhoods made up of European immigrantso Today many of these have changed composition to being predominant made up of people from Latin
America Asia or African-Americanso Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migrationo Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices
African-Americans Legal Status in the US 1776-1954 ldquoRepresentatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States hellip according to their respective
Numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons including those bound to Service for a Term of Years and excluding Indians not taxed three fifths of all other Personsrdquo US Constitution Article I
ldquo[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect hellip Persons of color in the judgment of Congress were not included in the word citizens and they are described as another and different class of personshelliprdquo Scott vs Sanford 1857
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
ldquohellip on the 1st day of January AD 1863 all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then thenceforward and forever freehelliprdquo Emancipation Proclamation 1862
ldquoEvery civil officer shall and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer helliprdquo Mississippi ldquoBlack Coderdquo c 1870
ldquohellip separate but equal hellip However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United Statesrdquo Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
ldquoWe conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place Separate educational facilities are inherently unequalrdquo Brown vs Board of Education 1954
Race in South Africa History of South Africa
o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (ldquoHottentotrdquo) peopleso Dutch arrived 1652 established Cape Towno Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centurieso British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806 purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for
pound6 milliono In 1822 English became the official language in 1833 slavery was abolishedo In protest in 1833 12000 ldquoBoersrdquo made the ldquovoortrekrdquo inland eventually establishing the Transvaal
and the Orange Free Stateo Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886 British miners were denied civil rights and
taxed heavily Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902)o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empireo In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of ldquoapartheidrdquo (separation ndash or
ldquoapartnessrdquo ndash by race) Race and Apartheid
o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African ldquoracesrdquo White (13 of the population) Black (76 of the population) Asian (3 of the population ndash descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan) Coloured (9 of the population ndash people of mixed race)
Under apartheid races were kept legally separate ndash where you lived worked went to school shopped owned land who you could marry etcndash was determined by race
South African Homelandso Because of its racial policies many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa
during the 1970s and 1980so In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century South Africa
devised a plan Since other countries objected to South Africas disenfranchising frac34 of its citizens ndash make them
citizens of somewhere elseo Homelands
Ten ldquohomelandsrdquo were established Bophuthatswana Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa Qwaqwa Transkei and Venda
One black group would be dominant in each region and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten based on tribal affiliation
The homelands were supposed to be ldquoindependentrdquo but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa ndash so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa
Four homelands ndash Transkei Bophuthatswana Ciskei and Venda ndash were declared independent between 1976 and 1981 but no other country recognized them
Dismantling of Apartheid
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
o In 1991 in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola the South African government began to dismantle apartheid
o The African National Congress Party after being banned for 30 years was made legalized and its leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27frac12 years
o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africas first black President Truth amp Reconciliation
o Established in 1995 the Truth amp Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses
o The TRC concluded that all sides ndash black and white ndash were guilty of crimeso However ldquoThe state hellip was hellip the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South
Africahelliprdquoo ldquoRacism hellip constituted the motivating core of the South African political orderhellip This created a climate in
which gross atrocities hellip were seen as legitimaterdquoo In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22000 identified victims of victims of Apartheido There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries including Argentina
Chile El Salvador Fiji Sierra Leone and East Timor
Ethnicity and Nationalism National from a Latin word ldquonascirdquo ldquoto have been bornrdquo (recall that the Greek ldquoethnikosrdquo originally meant
ldquonationalrdquo)o Nationality
ldquoidentity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular countryrdquo
ldquoa group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural traditionrdquo
Nationalism ldquoloyalty and devotion to a nationality Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all othersrdquo
Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate In the US nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct you can be of any ethnicity and still
be an American In other countries the situation can be very different
Nations Nation-States and Nationalismo For over a century the idea of self-determination ndash the idea that groups of people have a right to
choose their own governments without outside interference ndash has been among the most important political principles
o Nation-States ndash independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) ndash have been an ideal for many nationalists
States encourage nationalism Symbols (flags songs public events) Nationalism can be an important centripetal force ndash a force encouraging unification
(centripetal force) Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts ndash for example creating unity by using
stereotypes and new enemies
Creating New Nationalitieso In the 18th and 19th centuries competing European Empires encouraged the development of national
identity in each others territorieso In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became
independent ndash there were now dozens of new nations new nationalitieso ProblemsmdashOverlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European
colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
Who are the Palestinians1048729 Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves ldquoPalestiniansrdquobull People living in the West Bank Gaza and East Jerusalembull Israeli citizens who are Muslim rather than Jewishbull People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 warbull People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 warbull Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselvesto be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the1948 or 1967 wars)
Lebanon Nationalities Ethnicities and Conflict1048729 Lebanon smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less thanfour million has 17 officially recognized ethnicities However nocensus has been taken since 1932 so there are no accurate populationfigures for the different groups1048729 Current estimatesbull 55 Muslim (66 Sunni 34 Shiite)bull 38 Christian (60 Maronite 5 Greek Orthodox also GreekCatholic Armenian Syrian Orthodox etc)bull 7 Druzebull There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1 of thepopulation)1048729 In the 1943 Lebanons Constitution required each group be represented inParliament based on its population in the 1932 censusbull Chamber of Deputieso 30 Maroniteso 11 Greek Orthodoxo 6 Greek Catholicso 4 Armenian Christianso 3 Other Christianso 20 Sunnio 19 Shiiteso 6 Druzebull By agreement the Executive Branch was also represented on the basisof ethnicityo President ndash Maronite Christiano Premier ndash Sunni Muslimo Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies ndash Shiite Muslimo Foreign Minister ndash Greek Orthodox Christian1048729 Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932 by the 1970sthey were hopelessly incorrect Palestinian refugees took control ofSouthern Lebanon civil war broke out between Christians and Muslimsin 1975 Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978 and thegovernment collapsed1048729 Todaybull Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially dividedequally between Muslims and Christiansbull Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000 but cross-border violencecontinues
Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing1048729 Forced migration has occurred throughout history ndash people of a certain
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic groups armies1048729 In the 1990s a new term was coined ldquoethnic cleansingrdquo to describe whatsome groups in Europe were doing to each otherbull Ethnic cleansingo ldquoa process in which a more powerful ethnic group forciblyremoves a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous regionrdquoo ldquoEthnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicityso that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitantsrdquoBalkanization1048729 At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried aboutsomething called ldquoBalkanizationrdquobull ldquoThe process by which a state breaks down through conflicts amongits ethnicitiesrdquo1048729 Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace because conflictsbetween ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war Balkanizationcertainly helped to cause World War I
To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future a multiethnicstate was created in the Balkans ndash YugoslaviaEthnic Cleansing Example Yugoslavia1048729 After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up TheBalkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups)into a new multi-ethnic nation1048729 Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormousbull Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria Greece Italy AlbaniaBulgaria Hungary and Romania)bull Four official languages (Croatian Serbian Macedonian Slovene)bull Three major religions (Roman Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam)bull Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene Cyrillic forMacedonian and Serbian)bull Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia ndash Bosnia ampHerzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia and Sloveniabull Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicityBosnia amp Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities1048729 Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century butwith the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s politiciansin several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gainpower1048729 All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to becomeindependent countries1048729 Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide ndash andbecause of the concept of self-determination ndash Serbs and Croats bothused ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territoryGenocide1048729 Beyond removing an ethnic group there is ldquogenociderdquobull Destroying a national ethnic racial or religious group1048729 In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples ofgenocide and attempted genocidebull 1915-1923 between 600000 and 1frac12 million Armenians were killedor forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to denythat this was an act of genocide)
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-
bull 1930s-1945 six million Jews as well as hundreds of thousands ofSlavs Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis
bull 1975-1979 three million Cambodians were killed by the KhmerRouge in Cambodiabull 1994 500000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutusbull 2004-2007 An estimated 300000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by statesupported militias (see httpnewsbbccouk2hiafrica4349063stm ) A 60 daycease-fire was agreed in January 2007 ndash and immediately violated1048729 Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948 whethercommitted during wartime or peacetime1048729 All signatories to the ldquoConvention on Prevention and Punishment of theCrime of Genociderdquo are obligated to enforce the treaty and punishindividuals responsible for acts of genocide Critics have pointed out thatwhile there are procedures in place to punish genocide there is no realinternational mechanism today for preventing it
Race Reality Research into genetic diseases has shown that ldquoracerdquo is not a very good predictor of who is and who isnrsquot going
to get various genetic diseases (eg cystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs etc)o Since the human genome has been sequenced we now know that skin color eye color etc arenrsquot very
good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is For example in America
African-Americanrsquos West African genetic heritage varies from 20 to 100 30 of Americans who consider themselves ldquowhiterdquo have less than 90 European
ancestry
Hate Crimes Also known as ldquobias motivated crimesrdquo The Federal Government does not classify crimes as ldquohate crimesrdquo State and local law enforcement agencies
collect (and classify data)o Standards vary from State to State ndash and even from town to town ndash so national statistics are
questionableo Nevertheless the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year In the year 2004 there
were more then 7600 reported hate crimes in the US The largest number (over 4000) were motivated by race
Race Racism and Prejudice Racism ldquobelief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences
produce an inherent superiority of a particular racerdquoo Racist ldquoa person who subscribes to the beliefs of racismrdquoo Prejudice a preformed unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people based
on stereotypes
- Northern Tradition
- Southern Tradition
- Western Style
- African-American
- ldquoBilly Boyrdquomdashexample of folk culture
-