Module 6 Journal(Go to FILE, the DOWNLOAD AS, and the pick a format that you can edit)

Your journals are meant to help you take notes and study as you move through the modules. They should be completed little by little as you do each lesson, not as a stand-alone assignment to be done all at once.

For each term the textbook definition has been provided to you. You will create an example, application, or other means of helping you remember the term. The last column should be written in a complete and grammatically correct sentence. It should not be a repeat of other examples.

Term Definition or DescriptionHow will you remember? (Written in a complete

sentence. Do not repeat previous examples.)

6.01 Memory and Models of Memory: Accessing the Data Bank

1. Memory (e-text) An active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, and organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage

2. Encoding Set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage system.

3. Storage Holds information for some period of time.

4. Retrieval Getting information an individual knows

that they have, out of storage.

5. Information-processing model

An approach that focuses on the way information is handled or processed through three different systems of memory. The processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval. Also can be referred to as, stages of memory.

6. Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model

A model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections.

7. Levels-of-processing model

Model of memory that assumes information that is more “deeply processed.” Or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound of physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time.

6.02 Info Processing and Sensory Memory: What was it I just saw?

8. Sensory memory The very first stage of memory, where raw information from the senses is held for a very brief period of time.

9. Iconic memory Visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second.

10. Eidetic imagery The ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more.

11. Echoic memory Auditory sensory memory, lasting only 2-

4 seconds.

6.03 Short-Term and Long-Term Memory

12. Short-term memory (STM)

The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used.

13. Selective attention The ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input.

14. Working memory An active system that processes the information in short-term memory.

15. Maintenance rehearsal Practice of saying some information to be remembered over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-term memory.

16. Long-term memory (LTM)

The system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently.

17. Elaborative rehearsal A method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way.

18. Nondeclarative (implicit) memory

Type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses. These memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior.

19. Procedural memory The long-term memory of skills and hot to perform them.

20. Anterograde amnesia Loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories.

21. Declarative (explicit) memory

Type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known.

22. Semantic memory Type of declarative memory containing general knowledge, such as knowledge of language and information learned in formal education.

23. Episodic memory Type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events.

24. Semantic network model Model or memory organization that assumes information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion, with concepts that are related stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related.

25. Prospective memory A form of memory that involves remembering to perform a particular task a particular time.

26. Mnemonic devices (lessons)

A memory trick or strategy to help people remember.

6.04 Retrieval: Getting it out of Storage

27. Retrieval cue A stimulus for remembering.

28. Encoding specificity The tendency for memory of information to be improved if related information (such as surroundings or psychological state) that is available when the memory is first formed is also available when the memory is being retrieved.

29. Recall Type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be “pulled” from memory with very few external cues.

30. Recognition The ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact.

31. Serial position effect Tendency of information at the beginning and end of a body of information to be remembered more accurately than information in the middle of the body of information.

32. Primacy effect Tendency to remember at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows.

33. Recency effect Tendency to remember information at the end of a body of information better than the information that precedes it.

34. False positive Occurs when someone thinks he or she has recognized (or even recalled) something or someone but in fact does not have that something or someone in

memory.

35. Automatic encoding Tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding.

36. Flashbulb memories Type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it.

37. Constructive processing Referring to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered revised, or influenced by newer information.

38. Hindsight bias The tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event.

39. Misinformation effect The tendency of misleading information presented after an event to after the memories of the event itself.

6.05 Forgetting: I Can’t Find My Keys

40. Curve of forgetting A graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then tapers off gradually.

41. Distributed practice Spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between

study periods.

42. Encoding failure Failure to process information into memory.

43. Memory trace Physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed.

44. Decay Loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used.

45. Disuse Another name for decay, assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear.

46. Proactive interference Memory problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the learning of newer information.

47. Retroactive interference Memory problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information.

48. Consolidation The changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when a memory is formed.

49. Retrograde amnesia Loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past.

50. Anterograde amnesia Loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories.

51. Alzheimer’s Disease Most common type of dementia found in adults and elderly. Starts with Anterograde Amnesia. The memory loss is mild at first, but becomes more severe over time.

52. Infantile amnesia The inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3.

53. Autobiographical memory

The memory for events and facts related to one’s personal life story.

54. Effortful processing (lessons)

The learning or storing (encoding) that requires attention or effort.

6.06 Thinking: As the Gears Turn in our Head

55. Thinking (cognition) Mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others.

56. Concepts Ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities.

57. Prototype An example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of the concept.

58. Schemas The concept or framework that organizes the information.

59. Problem solving Process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and

behaving in certain ways.

60. Decision making Process of cognition that involves identifying, evaluating, and choosing among several alternatives.

61. Trial and error (mechanical solution)

Problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found.

62. Algorithms Very specific, step by step procedures for solving certain types of problems.

63. Heuristic Mental shortcut based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a “rule of thumb.”

64. Representativeness Heuristic

Assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category.

65. Availability Heuristic Estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is for us to think of related examples.

66. Functional fixedness A block to problem solving that comes from thinking that about objects in terms of only their typical function.

67. Mental set The tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have

worked for them in the past.

68. Confirmation bias The tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs.

69. Framing How an issue is phrased; affects decision making.

70. Cognitive Psychologists (lessons)

Psychologists who study the way people think, remember, and mentally organize information.

71. Superordinate concept The first level of the hierarchical model of concept classification. It is the most general form of concept.

72. Subordinate concept The third level of the hierarchical model of concept classification. The most specific form of concept.

73. Mental Images Mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picturelike quality.

74. Trial and Error Problem-solving method in which on possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found.

75. Algorithm Very specific, step by step procedures for solving certain types of problems

76. Insight The sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to

come quickly.

77. Overconfidence The tendency to be more confident than correct – to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgements.

6.07 Intelligence: How Smart are We!

78. Creativity (on page 275) The process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways.

79. Convergent Thinking Type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic.

80. Divergent Thinking Type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point.

81. Intelligence The ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems.

82. G factor The ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence

83. Triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg’s theory that there are three kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.

84. Analytical intelligence The ability to break problems down into

component parts, or analysis, for problem-solving.

85. Creative intelligence The ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems.

86. Practical intelligence The ability to use information to get along in life and become successful.

87. Intelligence quotient (IQ) A number representing a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of one’s mental age by one’s chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100.

88. Deviation IQ scores A type of intelligence measure that assumes that IQ is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15.

89. Crystallized Intelligence Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that tend to increase with age.

90. Fluid Intelligence Ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease in late adulthood.

91. Intellectual Disability (intellectual development disorder)

Condition in which a person’s behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age; may also be referred to as developmentally delayed. This condition was formerly known as mental retardation.

92. Gifted The 2 percent of the population falling on the upper and of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above.

93. Emotional Intelligence The awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions to facilitate thinking and attain goals, as well as the ability to understand emotions in others.

94. Heritability (p. 294) Degree to which the changes in some trait within a population can be considered to be due to genetic influences; the extent individual genetic differences affect individual differences in observed behavior. In IQ, proportion of change in IQ within a population that is caused by hereditary factors.

95. Stereotype threat (p. 296) Condition in which being made aware of a negative performance stereotype interferes with the performance of someone that considers himself or herself part of that group.

6.08 Testing: Construction Zone!

96. Reliability The tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people.

97. Validity The degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure.

98. Aptitude Tests (lessons) A test designed to predict a person’s

future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.

99. Achievement Tests A test designed to assess what a person has learned.

6.09 Language

100. Language A system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others.

101. Grammar The system of rules governing the structure and use of a language.

102. Phonemes The basic units of sound in language.

103. Morphemes The smallest units of meaning within a language.

104. Syntax The system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences.

105. Semantics The rules for determining the meaning of words and inferences.

106. Pragmatics Aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others, or the social “niceties” of language.

107. Linguistic relativity hypothesis

The theory that thought processes and concepts are controlled by language.

108. Cognitive universalism Theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language.

109. Babbling stage (lessons) At about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

110. Telegraphic stage Early speech stage, in which a child speaks like a telegram – “eat cookie”- using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words.

111. Overgeneralization Distortion of thinking in which a person draws sweeping conclusions based on only one incident or event and applies those conclusions to events that are unrelated to the original; the tendency to interpret a single negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat and failure.

112. Language acquisition device

It is the smallest unit of sound in a language.

113. Nativist theory of language acquisition

Humans have inborn/innate/native ability to develop language; inborn universal grammar.

The People of Psychology (for each person listed, explain who they are and what they are known for. Write in complete sentences)

114. Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

115. George Sperling

116. Alan Baddeley

117. George Miller

118. Elizabeth Loftus

119. Hermann Ebbinghaus

120. E. C. Tolman

121. Charles Spearman

122. Raymond Cattell

123. Howard Gardner

124. Robert Sternberg

125. Daniel Goleman

126. Theodore Simon

127. Alfred Binet

128. Lewis Terman

129. David Wechsler

130. B.F. Skinner

131. Noam Chomsky

132. Benjamin Whorf