Introduction to Communication Communication is the process of sharing ideas, information and messages with others in a particular time and place. Is the process in which the message moves from source to destination. According to Harold Lasswell (political scientist & communication theorist), communication is “Who says, what, in which channel, to whom , and with what effect.

Communication includes:1. Writing and talking2. Nonverbal communication (such as facial expressions, body language, gestures)3. Visual communication (images, pictures, painting, photography, video, film)4. Electronic communication (telephone calls, e-mails, cable tv, satellite broadcasts)

Communication PrinciplesCommunication begins with the self. It involves others. It has both a content and a relational dimension

“Sit down”“Would you care to be seated?”

• It is complicated• Its quantity does not increase its quality• It is inevitable, irreversible and unrepeatable• Communication Has Purpose & it is often continuous• Communication messages vary in conscious thought• Communication is guided by cultureCommunication Functions Information Dissemination Instruction Persuasion Debate and discussions Cultural promotion Integration Entertainment Transmission of knowledge Social contactCommunication tools

Communication equipments in businesses1. Fax machines2. Video cameras3. Cd players4. Printing presses5. PCs6. Telephones7. Internet8. Spokespersons9. Newspapers, printing materials, press releases

Communication Process• It’s a very basic lesson but also perhaps the most imp lesson.• It serves as the foundation and understanding on how communication process

works and how to apply it to everyday situations. That serves as the foundation of all other communication skills.

• It helps in improving professional and personal communication skills.What is the Goal of Communication?• The actual goal of communication is • To create a shared meaning• Whatever message we sent must be accurately received.

BASIC COMPONENTS of Communication Process• You have the Sender, who uses verbal and non-verbal means to initiate

communication.• They have a message, the verbal and non-verbal expression of the sender’s

purpose.• Then there is a receiver, the target of the sender’s communication. They can be

listener or observer or both.• But there is problem with the model. We don’t usually communicate in such a uni-

directional manner. A one-way version of communication.Dual Role• We have a sender but they pick up the dual role of a receiver as well.• Sender sends a message in a simple manner.• The receiver has also picked up a secondary role of a Sender.• What do they send? They send Feedback.• Feedback is the response of the receiver to the sender’s message. Which tells the

sender how the message is received.• But it is not always as simple and does not work smoothly.Encode, Decode• There is more to the process.• The Sender/Receiver needs to encode their msg.• The Receiver/Sender encodes their feedback.• On the sending side, they need to encode their msg in such a way that it gets

received correctly.• On the receiving end, they need to decode the msg correctly as well.• Encoding is the sender’s selection of the means of expression. E.g How do I shape that

smile? What kind of tone do I put in my hello?Do I record the msg in English?• Decoding is how the receiver gives meaning to the msg in their own perception. Interference• Decoding could be the hardest.• Why? Due to Interference.• Interference is anything that disrupts or prevents the receiver’s interpretation of the

sender’s message as the sender intended it.• E.g. may be I am not feeling well, which makes my Hello sounds erratic and receiver

decodes it as sarcastic. And their feedback may be a puzzled expression.• That make the sender reiterate the message to make it accurately understandable.Context• It becomes little more complicated if we add the idea of context.• It brings in more potential interference.• It is the physical, social, psychological and time elements in which the

communication takes place.

• How can it effects the msg?• e.g. if a person had a bad day and I come in and say hello. He might not be in a state

of mind to receive my msg in a way that I intended. •

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Components/Elements of Communication ProcessThe main components of communication process are as follows:• Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This

context may be physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication proceeds with context. The sender chooses the message to communicate within a context.

• Sender / Encoder/Source - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A sender makes use of symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the required response. For instance - a training manager conducting training for new batch of employees. Sender may be an individual or a group or an organization. The views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge of the sender have a great impact on the message. The verbal and non verbal symbols chosen are essential in ascertaining interpretation of the message by the recipient in the same terms as intended by the sender.

• Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It is a sign that elicits the response of recipient. Communication process begins with deciding

about the message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is clear.

• Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The sender must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message else the message might not be conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of appropriate medium of communication is essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. This choice of communication medium varies depending upon the features of communication. For instance - Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and there.

• Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon various factors such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of encoder on decoder.

• Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of memos, reports, etc.

Contexts of communicationThe environment in which communication takes place is called the context of communication. Some of the important contexts are discussed below:

1. Intrapersonal communication Communication that takes place within oneself is called intrapersonal communication. Conversation with self and planning or thinking about the schedule of your study for an examination, are the examples of intrapersonal communication.

2. Interpersonal communication It is the process in which communication takes place between two or a small group of persons. Interpersonal communication always takes place into a face to face situation and the communicator and destination are known to each other.

3. Mass CommunicationMass communication is the one in which the message is sent simultaneously to a greater number of people through a mass medium ike radio, tv or newspaper. The receivers of the mass communication are separated, heterogeneous and unknown to each other as well as to the communicator. The process of feedback in this type of communication is mostly slow and delayed. 4. Extrapersonal communication

When human beings communicate with non-human things, this is called extrapersonal communication. For example, communication with animals, plants etc.5. Group CommunicationWhen communication takes place between groups of people, it is known as group communication. West and Turner say that a group comprises three to eight people.

6. Organizational CommunicationThe communication within an organization or between organizations is termed as organizational communication. The official correspondence falls into this category.

7. Inter-cultural CommunicationCommunication among sub-cultures or different cultures physically away from one another is called inter-cultural communication. This type of communication is usually carried out with the help of mass communication.

Barriers of communication 1. Physical hurdles/impediments2. Psychological hurdles

a. Field of experience (Attitudes, lessons, perceptions, and value that an individual or a group brings to a situation or problem.)

b. Cognitive dissonance (mental stress or discomfort experienced by an individual who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same time; performs an action that is contradictory to one or more beliefs, ideas, or values; or is confronted by new information that conflicts with existing beliefs, ideas, or values.)

c. Frame of reference (a set of criteria in relation to which judgements can be made) e.g. I look at a group of young people wearing hooded sweatshirts and immediately assume they are social deviants who out looking for trouble. I avoid eye contact and breathe a sigh of relief when they have passed by.

d. Misunderstanding (failure to understand something)e. Stereotypesf. Restricted experienceg. Culture, norms and values

3. Semantic hurdles (Semantic barriers occur when the sender and receiver have different understandings of the message sent. For example, a person who uses the word “bimonthly” might mean twice per month while the person hearing it thinks it means every other month.• Semantic barriers are usually either denotative or connotative. In denotative

barriers, sender and receiver disagree about the straight definition of a word or phrase, often without knowing it. The word “bimonthly” is an example.

• A connotative barrier includes how a word is meant in a particular context. For example, someone might describe a game as “simple.”

•  Generally, both sender and receiver agree on the straight definition of the word, but the sender of the message might mean the game was a little slow and boring where the receiver might think he means it was fun and easy.

• Another example of a semantic barrier is technical language. Different industries tend to use different terms in different ways. Unless everyone working at a particular company knows what a particular term means, miscommunication often results due to the semantic barrier. After all, there are often many different people from different fields working in the same company, such as engineers, psychologists and biomedical scientists.)

Behavioural Communication• Communication occurs in many guises.• It occurs in English or urdu or sign language, body language, emotions.• Fourth form of communication is through BEHAVIOUR.• It can be more problematic because individuals who use this unconventional form

of communication are often unable to communicate themselves. • There is a logical reason behind behavior adopted and message communicated.• Misbehaviour may not seems productive or rational from our point of view but it

must be understood by the other person’s pov.• Communication behaviours/Behavioual communication• A psychological construct that addresses people's use of day-to-day behaviors as a

form of communication.• Specifically, it refers to people's tendency to express feelings, needs, and thoughts

by means of indirect messages and behavioral impacts.• Any behavior (or its absence when one is expected) may be judged as

communicative if it has the intent to convey a message. • E.g, an expressive hairstyle, a show of a certain

emotion, stonewalling (emotional withdrawal), or simply doing (or not doing) the dishes all can be means by which people may convey messages to each other.

Different types of communication behavior• Instead of focusing on the right way to communicate all the time, focus on the

situations where you are likely to communicate in certain ways and determine if your communique would be better received if delivered differently.

• Our thoughts and feelings are constantly communicated to others whether we aware of it or not.

• There are 4 different types of communication behavior.Aggressive CommunicationAggressive communication tends to violate the rights of others. It is not uncommon for aggressive communicators to be verbally or physically abusive, or both. Aggressive

communication is typically the result of low self-esteem, often caused by past physical or emotional abuse, unhealed emotional wounds, and feelings of powerlessness.Aggressive individuals display a low tolerance for frustration, use humiliation, interrupt frequently, and use criticism or blame to attack others. They use piercing eye contact, and are not good listeners. • Aggressive people express statements implying that:• E.g. The other person is inferior, wrong, and not worth anything• The problem is the other person’s fault• They are superior and right• They will get their way regardless of the consequences• The other person ‘owes’ them.Passive CommunicationPassive communication avoids expressing opinions or feelings, protecting one’s rights, and identifying or meeting one’s needs. People who communicate passively usually have poor eye contact and slumped body posture, and tend to speak softly or apologetically. When passive people talk, they usually convey one of the following: e.g.• “I’m unable to stand up for my rights.”• “I get stepped on by everyone.”• “I’m weak and unable to take care of myself.”• “People never consider my feelings.”Assertive CommunicationAC clearly states one’s opinions, feelings, & firmly advocates for his rights & needs without violating the rights of others. Assertive communication is the result of high self-esteem. They value themselves, their time, & their emotional, spiritual, & physical needs.They are strong advocates for themselves — while being very respectful of the rights of others.Assertive people feel connected to other people.. They are in control of their emotions and speak in calm and clear tones. They are good listeners, maintain good eye contact and create a respectful environment for others, and do not allow others to abuse or manipulate them.When assertive people communicate with others, they send the messages:• “I am confident about who I am.”• “I cannot control others, but I control myself.”• “I know I have choices in my life, and I consider my options. I am fully responsible

for my own happiness.”Passive-Aggressive Communication

Passive-aggressive person uses a communication style in which the individual appears passive on the surface, but is really acting out anger in a subtle, indirect, or behind-the-scenes way.Passive-aggressive communication usually has an undercurrent of powerlessness, feeling stuck, and resentful. People who are passive-aggressive are often alienated from others, feel incapable of dealing directly with the object of or the person whom they resentments. Instead, they express their anger by subtly undermining the real or imagined object/person whom they resentment. Frequently they mutter to themselves instead of confronting another person. They often smile at you, even though they are angry, use subtle sabotage, or speak with sarcasm.When passive-aggressive individuals communicate, they send the following messages:• “I’m weak and resentful, so I sabotage, frustrate, and disrupt.”• “I’m powerless to deal with you head on so I must use Guerrilla warfare.”• “I will appear cooperative, but I’m not.”• MEANING OF MASS COMMUNICATION

‘Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of various means by which individuals and entities relay(communicate) information to large segments of the population all at once through mass media.’ Both mass communication and mass media are generally considered synonymous for the sake of convenience. Mass communication is a special kind of communication in which the nature of the audience and the feedback is different from that of interpersonal communication. Mass Media

According to Wilbur Schramm ‘a mass medium is essentially a working group organized around some device for circulating the same message, at about same time, to a large number of people’.Mass Communication

‘a process whereby mass produced messages are transmitted to large, anonymous and heterogeneous masses of receivers’. • By ‘mass produced’ we mean putting the content or message of mass

communication in a form suitable to be distributed to large masses of people. • ‘Heterogeneous’ means that the individual members of the mass are from a wide

variety of classes of the society. • ‘Anonymous’ means the individuals in the mass do not know each other. The

source or sender and receivers in mass communication are physically separated from each other and share no physical proximity. Finally, the individual members forming a mass are not united.

Models of Communication

A model is a representation of real world phenomenon in more abstract terms, which can be applied to different forms at different times.There are four stages in the development of communication models:

– Action– Interaction (communicate)– Transaction (Execute)– Convergence (tend to meet at a point)

Communication Models• How we try to understand communication• What are models?• Drawings• Charts• Diagrams• Pictograms• Schematics• CartoonsWhy are models useful?• They help simplify complex ideas

– For teaching purposes– For evaluation purposes

• They offer an organized way of looking at a complex process• What makes a model “good”?• All the main points of the relationship or process are described• The description is simple and clear• The description contains as little textual explanation as possible

The Shannon and Weaver Communication Model (Linear Model)Claude Elwood Shannon Warren Weaver• Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) model includes noise or interference that distorts

understanding between the speaker and the listener.• In 1948, Shannon was an American mathematician, Electronic engineer and Weaver

was an American scientist both of them join together to write an article in “Bell System Technical Journal” called “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” and also called as “Shannon-Weaver model of communication”.

• This model is specially designed to develop the effective communication between sender and receiver. Also they find factors which affecting the communication process called “Noise”. At first the model was developed to improve the Technical communication. Later it’s widely applied in the field of Communication.

• The model deals with various concepts like Information source, transmitter, Noise, channel, message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode and decode.

•  Interactive Model• The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way

process where speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and never speak or send messages.  

• Schramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also listens to the feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in both ways. 

• This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have common fields of experience, or fields which overlap (please refer to Figure 1.4): 

• The Shannon and Weaver Communication Model• Noise in the Modified Shannon and Weaver Model• Physical:

– Occurrences in the physical surroundings or in the media that can distort a message

• Physiological:– Physical discomfort in the body of either the sender or the receiver

• Psychological:– Negative feelings in the mind of either the sender or the receiver

• Noise, cont’d• Perceptual

– Incorrect perceptions of the message and the receiver by the sender, and vice-versa

• Semantic– Misinterpretation of words and sentences by the sender or receiver

• Sender  :  The originator of message or the information source selects desire message

• Encoder  : The transmitter which converts the message into signals• Note : The sender’s messages converted into signals like waves or Binary data which

is compactable to transmit the messages through cables or satellites. For example: In telephone the voice is converted into wave signals and it transmits through cables

• Decoder  : The reception place of the signal which converts signals into message. A reverse process of encode

• Note  : The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is comfortable and understandable for receiver. Otherwise receiver can’t receive the exact message and it will affect the effective communication between sender and receiver

• Receiver  : The destination of the message from sender• Note  : Based on the decoded message the receiver gives their feed back to sender. If

the message distracted by noise it will affect the communication flow between sender and receiver

• Noise :  The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel. During this process the messages may distracted or affected by physical noise like horn sounds, thunder and crowd noise or encoded signals may distract in the channel during the transmission process which affect the communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct message

• Note  : The model is clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or signals from external sources. For example: If there is any problems occur in network which directly affect the mobile phone communication or distract the messages

• Practical Example of   Shannon-Weaver model of communication  :• Thomson made call to his assistant “come here I want to see you”.  During his call,

noise appeared (transmission error) and his assistant received “I want” only. Again Assistant asked Thomson (feedback) “what do you want Thomson”.

• Sender       :   Thomson• Encoder     :   Telephone (Thomson)• Channel     :   Cable• Noise          :   Distraction in voice• Reception  :   Telephone (Assistant)• Receiver     :   Assistant.

• Due to transmission error or noise, Assistant can’t able to understand Thomson’s messages.

• *The noise which affect the communication flow between them.• Criticism of Shannon-Weaver model of communication  :• 1.       One of the simplest model and its general applied in various communication

theories2.       The model which attracts both academics of Human communication and Information theorist to leads their further research in communication3.       It’s more effective in person-to-person communication than group or mass audience4.       The model based on “Sender and Receiver”. Here sender plays the primary role and receiver plays the secondary role (receive the information or passive)5.       Communication is not a one way process.  If it’s behaved like that, it will lose its strength. For example: Audience or receiver who listening a radio, reading the books or watching television is a one way communication because absence of feedback6.       Understanding Noise will helps to solve the various problems in communication

Berlo’s SMCR Model• In 1960, David Berlo expanded Shannon and Weaver's 1949 linear model of

communication and created the Source-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) Model of Communication. The SMCR Model of Communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.

• The berlo’s model follows the smcr model this model is not specific to any particular communication.

SOURCE• MESSAGE• CHANNEL• RECEIVER• Source : The source is were the message originates.• Communication skills  – It is the individual’s skill to communicate (ability to read,

write, speak, listen etc…)• Attitudes   – The attitude towards the audience, subject and towards one self for e.g.

for the student the attitude is to learn more and for teachers wants to help teach.• Knowledge - The knowledge about the subject one is going to communicate for e.g.

whatever the teacher communicates in the class about the subject so having knowledge in what you are communicating.

• Note : It is not talking about the general knowledge it is all about the knowledge of the subject, so it is the familiarity of what you are communicating.

• Social system  – The Social system includes the various aspects in society like values, beliefs, culture, religion and general understanding of society. It is were the communication takes place.

• For e.g. class room differs from country to country like behaviors, how we communicate etc.

• Note : We can communicate only to the extent that the social system allows, when we communicate take social system into account.

• Culture : Culture of the particular society also comes under social system.• All to this model, only if you have the above in the proper or adequate proportion v

can communicate.• Encoder : The sender of the message (message originates) is referred as encoder, so

the  source is encoding the message here.• Message • Content  – The beginning to the end of a message comprises its content for e.g.  From

beginning to end whatever the class teacher speaks in the class is the content of the message.

• Elements  – It includes various things like language, gestures, body language etc, so these are all the elements of the particular message. Content is accompanied by some elements.

• Treatment   – It refers to the packing of the message. The way in which the message is conveyed or the way in which the message is passed on or deliver it.

• Note: When it is too much treatment also the communication will not happen properly.

• Structure - The structure of the message how it is arranged, the way you structure the message into various parts.

• Note : Message is the same but if the structure is not properly arranged then the message will not get to the receiver.

• Code - The code of the message means how it is sent in what form it could be e.g. language, body language, gestures, music and even culture is a code. Through this you get/give the message or through which the communication takes place or being reached.

• Note :  Only when the code is proper, the message will be clear, improper use may lead to misinterpretation.

• Channel -   It is nothing but the five senses through this only we do. The following are the five  senses which we use, Hearing, Seeing, Touching, Smelling, Tasting

• Whatever communication we do it is there either of these channels.• Hearing : The use of ears to get the message for e.g. oral messages, interpersonal etc.• Seeing : Visual channels for e.g. TV can be seen and the message is delivered.• Touching : The sense of touch can be used as a channel to communicate for e.g. we

touch and buy food, hugging etc.

• Smelling : Smell also can be a channel to communicate for e.g. perfumes, food, charred smell communicates something is burning, we can find out about which food is being cooked etc.

• Tasting  : The tongue also can be used to decipher e.g. Food can be tasted and communication can happen.

• Note : Despite not mentioning a medium we need to assume that as communication is taking place channels can be any of the 5 senses or combination.

• Decoder  : Who receives the message and decodes it is referred to as decoder.• Receiver : The receiver needs to have all the thinks like the source.• This model believes that for an effective communication to take place the source and

the receiver needs to be in the same level, only if the source and receiver are on the same level communication will happen or take place properly. So source and receiver should be similar

• For e.g. Communication skills on source side is good then the receiver should equally have good listening skills.

• We cannot say the entire message passed doesn’t reaches the receiver has it is because the receiver may not good in listening, so only for the effective communication the source and the receiver to be in the same level.

• Note : Self image differs from person to person, for communicating the person should consider the receiver. Keep the receiver in mind, speak accordingly and give them what they need.

• Berlo’s Elements, cont’d.• SOURCE

– Communication skills– Attitudes– Knowledge– Social system– Culture

• Berlo’s Elements, cont’d.• MESSAGE

– Content– Elements– Treatment– Structure– Code

• Berlo’s Elements, cont’d.• CHANNEL

– Seeing– Hearing– Touching

– Smelling– Tasting

• Berlo’s Elements, cont’d.• RECEIVER

– Communication skills– Attitudes– Knowledge– Social system– Culture– Criticism of berlo’s smcr model of communication:

• No feedback / don’t know about the effect• Does not mention barriers to communication• No room for noise• Complex model• It is a linear model of communication• Needs people to be on same level for communication to occur but not true in real life• Main drawback of the model is that the model omits the usage of sixth sense as a

channel which is actually a gift to the human beings (thinking, understanding, analyzing etc).

Harold Dwight Lasswell (February 13, 1902 — December 18, 1978)• Harold Dwight Lasswell, the American political scientist states that a convenient

way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions• Who• Says What• In Which Channel• To Whom• With what effect?

• In this model, the communication component who refers the research area called “Control Analysis”,

• Says what is refers to “Content Analysis”,• In which channel is refers to “Media Analysis”,• To Whom is refers to “Audience Analysis”• With What Effect is refers to “Effect Analysis”• This model is about process of communication and its function to society, According

to Lasswell there are three functions for communication:• Surveillance of the environment• Correlation of components of society• Cultural transmission between generation• Lasswell model suggests the message flow in a multicultural society with multiple

audiences. The flow of message is through various channels. And also this communication model is similar to Aristotle’s communication model.

• Example :• CNN NEWS – A water leak from Japan’s tsunami-crippled nuclear power station

resulted in about 100 times the permitted level of radioactive material flowing into the sea, operator Tokyo Electric Power Co said on Saturday.

• Who – TEPC Operator• What – Radioactive material flowing into sea• Channel – CNN NEWS (Television medium)• Whom – Public• Effect – Alert the people of japan from the radiation.• Advantage of lasswell model :• It is Easy and Simple• It suits for almost all types of communication• The concept of effect• Disadvantage of lasswell model :• Feedback not mentioned• Noise not mentioned• Linear Model•  • SCHRAMM’S LINEAR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

(1954) (Transactional Model)• BACKGROUND• THE PROPONENT Wilbur Schramm (1907-1987) The founder of the academic field of communication First Professor of communication

Schramm’s Communication Model• Based on Shannon & Weaver’s prior mathematical model.• the Fields of Experience• Role of Exchangeability• Feed back loops• Definition of Terms• Encoding• Decoding• Interpreting• Message• Source• Destination• Signal• Feedback

Schramm’s Model of Communication

••• Schramm’s Model of Communication with Feedback• Feedback “the return process in which the originator of a message also acts as the

recipient of a message resulting directly from the first message” – Tannenbaum• Two Sources of Feedback

• The message returning to the originator of the first message from the recipient (originated with Ferdinand de Saussure – 1915)

• People are constantly monitoring their personal communication behavior and evaluating it – what is sometimes called “self-monitoring”.

• * Feedback can initiate from sender or receiver.• Schramm’s Model of Communication with Feedback

Schramm’s Field of Experience Model

Field of Experience• Field of experience Field of experience• STRENGTHS• The model provides an additional perspective which is the ‘field of experience’• Included feedback, context and culture• Adapted by other model designers• WEAKNESS• Does not include multiple levels of communication• Why is this important?• Applying Communication to Educational Communication• Being able to identify noise• Helping Create Overlapping fields of experiences• Schramm’s model for everyday use• gaining attention (reception)• informing learners of the objective (expectancy)• stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)• presenting the stimulus (selective perception)• providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)• eliciting performance (responding)• providing feedback (reinforcement)• assessing performance (retrieval)• enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).