1

Saving Souls and Bodies: The United States Christian Commission in the Civil War

By

Ashley Miller

May 2018

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Dual-Degree Program in History and Archives Management

Simmons College

Boston, Massachusetts

The author grants Simmons College permission to include this thesis in its Library and to make it available to the academic community for scholarly purposes.

Submitted by

____________________________

Ashley Miller

Approved by:

___________________________ ________________________________

Stephen Berry Sarah Leonard

Associate Professor of History Associate Professor and Chair of History

2018, Ashley Miller

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 2

Historiography 6

Early Work of the USCC 13

Reading Materials 20

Loan Libraries 26

Literacy Programs and Schooling 31

Women and the USCC 34

Special Diet Kitchens 40

Conclusion 46

Bibliography 55

Part I: Introduction

From the 1830s until the Civil War, Northern Evangelical Protestants undertook a large array of social reform efforts. Established preachers led reform movements in education, health, temperance, criminal justice, and abolition. These groups distributed food, clothing, and money to the poor, vagrant, sick, and uneducated. In the 1840s and 1850s, city churches and religious organizations in the North turned their attention to serving the needs of new immigrants and native poor.[footnoteRef:1] Several chapters of the Home Missionary and Tract Societies built mission churches and Sunday schools. They even offered aid with job placement. In Philadelphia, with the help of five thousand volunteers, the city was divided into sections for systematic visitation and relief for every needy home.[footnoteRef:2] Educational reform was particularly an evangelical priority.[footnoteRef:3]In New York, a Methodist minister created an early type of settlement house, complete with schoolrooms, shops, living quarters, and a chapel.[footnoteRef:4] By reforming the sinful parts of society, evangelists sought to bring the United States closer to their religious ideology. Freedom, patriotism, and voluntarism had become hallmarks of religious practice within the United States.[footnoteRef:5] These reform efforts did not cease once the first shots were fired at Fort Sumter, but they instead took on new zeal, with one prominent organization leading the charge against the weary souls and bodies of Union soldiers. [1: Frances Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals: The Struggle to Shape America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2017), 45. ] [2: Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals, 45. ] [3: Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals, 44-45. ] [4: Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals, 45. ] [5: George C. Rable, Gods Almost Chosen Peoples: A Religious History of the American Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 3.]

The United States Christian Commission, or USCC, was formed at a meeting of the Young Mens Christian Association in New York City on November 14 and 15, 1861, just months after the inception of the Civil War. Its two founding members Vincent Colyer, an artist and humanitarian, and George Stuart, a businessman, created the organization in response to the suffering troops faced during the First Battle of Bull Run. Their purpose was to organize a central agency to systematize, combine, and extend the work of the YMCA. The goal of the Commission was to minister to the spiritual needs of soldiers, to distribute supplies and religious material, to write for soldiers, to receive and respond to inquiries concerning the whereabouts of soldiers, and to aid chaplains.

In the spirit of evangelical Protestantism, the USCC emphasized Bible preaching and immediate conversions. For most of the nineteenth century, evangelists felt a strong duty to spread the word of Christ. Delegates extended that word to the battlefield. While the original plan for the Commission was to aid clergy members in the armed forces, the chaplaincy program only had about thirty members who were quickly overwhelmed by both the scale of battle and the number of casualties. The Commission was eager to aid in religious healing for soldiers. Religion undoubtedly helped to sustain army morale and lengthen the war.[footnoteRef:6] It helped overcome soldiers fears of dying and allowed them to find meaning in the horrors of the battlefield. Seeking conversions formed a large part of the Commissions work. Evangelists characterized instantaneous conversions as a sudden and overwhelming demonstration of Gods grace, particularly imperative for dying soldiers. [footnoteRef:7] Administering to soldiers spiritual needs, especially before death, was the most important work. [6: Rable, Gods Almost Chosen Peoples, 8. ] [7: Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals, 13. ]

Five thousand volunteers, or delegates, from the Commission served during the War. They were sent to hospitals, field camps, and battlegrounds to serve. Some delegates were seminary students, but most were simply concerned Christians; even Walt Whitman served as a delegate. Delegates served two-week or six-week terms. While women also participated, often accompanying their husbands while they served the Commission.

The Commission reached its stride in the years 1863 and 1864. Its popularity, support, and recognition culminated in increased and varying types of aid that reflected pre-war evangelical reform impulses mobilized for the war effort. It expanded its work to include special diet kitchens, loan libraries, and literacy programs. Moreover, in May 1864 the Ladies Auxiliary Christian Commission emerged with the mission to write letters to soldiers, fundraise, make clothing, gather and send supplies, work in special diet kitchens, and serve as nurses. With the increased support, the USCC kept record of how donations and stores were used and how exactly delegates served.

Delegates kept strict records about the terms they served with the army. Each delegate tracked how many reading matters, testaments, hymn books, hymn and psalm books, Soldiers books, pages of tracts, papers, and pamphlets that he distributed in a Delegates Statement and Report. Other statistical records found in this report included the number of sermons given, meetings participated in and conducted, funeral services conducted, soldiers conversed with, soldiers benefited from gifts of hospital stores or personal ministrations, number of letters written for soldiers, and the number of soldiers assisted on the battlefield. Each report would also include a summary of the delegates experiences, including where and how long he served, what he did, with whom he served, and any unique experiences. These reports were then sent to their respective offices. As the reports themselves state, their purpose was to show the nature, necessity, and benefit of the work of the Christian Commission to potential donors.[footnoteRef:8] [8: Delegates Statement and Report, United States Christian Commission 11/15/1861-1/1/1866, Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant General's Office, 1762 1984, National Archives, Washington DC. ]

Initially, the delegates faced great difficulty in accessing the troops. The Commission needed official approval from the federal government in order to be recognized by the Union. Moreover, military authorities challenged the usefulness of the Commission. The Commission only started to gain favor in the army after it built a reputation for relieving the suffering of soldiers. [footnoteRef:9] The USCCs usefulness especially became apparent on the battlefields of Second Bull Run, Antietam, Fredericksburg, and Gettysburg. By October 1863, Ulysses S. Grant permitted the delegates free access to all troops in the West and free passage for their supplies. [footnoteRef:10] [9: James O. Henry, The United States Christian Commission in the Civil War, Civil War History, (1960): 376.] [10: Henry, USCC in the Civil War, 376. ]

Over the course of the war the Commission took on much more work than simply administering to the spiritual needs of soldiers by caring for their physical needs as well. According to the First Annual Report of the Commission, delegates had to nurse, dress wounds, strip off filthy garments, wash the blood and dust of hard marches off of the soldiers, cleanse them of vermin, and put upon them clean clothing; dig graves for the dead, lift and open boxes, make wearisome visits on foot, sleep on the ground,... and often work from daylight until midnight, or all night long, with little to eat except dry bread and crackers.[footnoteRef:11] Over the course of war, the Commission created various programs to furnish troops with necessary supplies. [11: Henry, USCC in the Civil War, 382. ]

The US Christian Commission disbanded on January 1, 1866. After nearly five years of caring for soldiers, the delegates distributed more than six million dollars worth of goods and supplies in hospitals, camps, prisons, and battlefields. With modest goals set in traditional pre-war evangelicalism, the USCC expanded to cater to the physical needs of soldiers, grounding the roots of the later Social Gospel Movement. The USCC was afforded the opportunity to aid countless soldiers during trying times, minister to their spiritual needs, and provide them with the comforts of home, saving their souls and bodies.

Part II: Historiography

This project weaves together religious discourses, the impact of religious groups on societal norms, and evangelical charities. Though my historical analysis draws from such histories, the primary historiography that contextualizes this project concerns the United States Christian Commission. The USCC has rarely received its dues in the historical narrative, with a bulk of the materials about the commission written in the 1960s. Therefore, this project will expand upon the brief historiography of the USCC.

There has been little written about the USCC. Only one great tome of work exists about the commission, and it was created by the organization itself. The Annals of the U.S. Christian Commission was written and compiled by Lemuel Moss, an executive committee member, and published in 1868, just a few short years after the commission officially dissolved. Leading the wave of denominational histories in the late nineteenth century, this text is largely self-congratulatory and glorifies the work of the USCC. Most of the works created about the organization were published in the 1960s, as a direct result of the renewed interest in the war, garnered by the centennial anniversary. The modern discussions of the organization are mere mentions about aid distribution, the famed volunteer Walt Whitman, or comparisons to other relief organizations. This project not only brings together several fields of scholarship, but seeks to distinguish the USCC as its own unique organization.

USCC vs. USSC

In the little that has been written about the USCC, there is the tendency to compare and contrast it with the Sanitary Commission. There is debate among historians over whether not these organizations should be compared. Both were created after the First Battle of Bull Run. The organizations shared similar goals, yet went about their work differently. Those working for the USSC were paid, while the USCC ran primarily on volunteer service. The USSC sought to only care for the physical needs of soldiers, while the USCC took a multifaceted approach. These differences have played out in Civil War literature as a contentious rivalry between the two organizations. Martin T. Buinickis article, The Needs of Means Additional: Walt Whitmans Civil War Fundraising, the author states that In spite of both its official imprimatur and its continual public efforts to place itself at the center of charitable efforts during the war, undirected donations would continue to pour in, and the USSC would find itself competing with other organizations, including most importantly the Christian Commission, founded by the YMCA a short time later and devoted to both the spiritual and physical well-being of the soldiers.[footnoteRef:12] Not only were the two organizations competing for resources to aid soldiers, but historians have traditionally pitted them against each other in terms of effectiveness and likeability. George C. Rables work, Gods Almost Chosen Peoples: A Religious History of the American Civil War, even utilizes President Lincoln to compare the two organizations, stating perhaps Christian Commission officials seemed too much like the pesky clerical delegations that kept showing up at his door. In any case, during a trip to Philadelphia, Lincoln offered warmer praise for the rival Sanitary Commission.[footnoteRef:13] According to Robert H. Bremner, the rivalry might have been less intense had the agencies not differed so widely in ideology. The Christian Commission embraced the traditional views of charity as a religious obligation, alleviative in nature, and particularly sanctified when directed toward spiritual ends. The Sanitary Commission, adopting a more secular attitude, made prevention its watchword; suspicious of spontaneous benevolence, it sought to discipline the nations charitable impulses and tum them toward practical goals.[footnoteRef:14] Bremner even goes so far as to state that the opinion of the present writer is that the United States Sanitary Commission rendered the greatest service to the general cause of philanthropy.[footnoteRef:15] There is debate, however, as to the usefulness of such commentary to the historical narrative. [12: Martin T. Buinicki, The Need of Means Additional: Walt Whitmans Civil War Fundraising, Walt Whitman Quarterly Review 31, no. 4 (2010): 2. ] [13: Rable, Gods Almost Chosen Peoples, 219.] [14: Robert H. Bremner, The Impact of the Civil War on Philanthropy and Social Welfare, Civil WarHistory. (1966): 301. ] [15: Bremner, Civil War Philanthropy, 302. ]

While these comparisons are frequent in Civil War discourse, there is debate as to whether these groups should even be compared. Because both commissions had differing goals, it is useless to contend that one group was more or less effective than the other. In his article, The United States Christian Commission, James O. Henry states that

One of the mistakes consistently made by historians in their evaluation of the work of the Christian Commission is to judge it on the basis of the work of the Sanitary Commission. This usually places the Christian Commission in an unfavorable light. To arrive at a fair evaluation by this method is an impossibility, especially in view of the two opposite goals these organizations set for themselves. When judged in light of its overall goal, the Christian Commission will rise to the same level of the Sanitary Commission, which has occupied a commendable position in American history.[footnoteRef:16] [16: Henry, The United States Christian Commission in the Civil War, 387. ]

Henry firmly believed that the Commissions work was just as efficacious as the Sanitary Commissions work. Just as historians have compared the USCC to the USSC, so has the USCCs likeability among soldiers been dissected.

Mixed Reviews of USCC

The response to the USCC and its delegates changed over the course of the war. The USCC became increasingly popular, yet historians have discussed quotes from soldiers that display their dislike of the commission. These mixed reviews of the commission reveal the complex nature of this religiously bound aid. Soldiers responses and reactions to the delegates and their work were mixed. According to M. Hamlin Cannons article, The United States Christian Commission, the delegates of the USCC frequently faced official apathy and even hostility in the course of its welfare work among the federal forces.[footnoteRef:17] Philip Katchers article, Union Soldiers had Mixed Verdict on the Effectiveness of the U.S. Christian Commission, provides a laundry list of examples of the disdain soldiers harbored for USCC delegates. For example, Katcher states that Delegates often refused to give soldiers items they wanted if their wants differed from what the delegates thought they should have.Forexample, Delegate Ashley noted that a man came in this A.M. who on being asked if he was a Christian, ans. Promptly yes. He wound up by asking if he could get some novels off us. The soldier went away disappointed, however; Delegate Ashley disapproved of novels.[footnoteRef:18] Furthermore, Katcher also describes an instance where soldiers got physical with delegates, Delegates were often unaware of the feelings of soldiers like Westervelt, and were surprised when they were treated inhospitably. Pastor Ashley described one unpleasant experience: This afternoon went among 46th Ill., many of whom were very drunk and beastly. One struck me, but a doz. hands were at once ready to restrain him.[footnoteRef:19]Of course, when describing their own experiences, delegates reports almost always discussed pleasant, grateful interactions with soldiers. Although there were a handful of negative interactions and views of USCC delegates and their work, a majority of soldiers had positive views of the USCC and appreciated their aid and religious guidance. [17: M. Hamlin Cannon, The United States Christian Commission, The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 38, No. 1 (1951): 61. ] [18: Philip Katcher, Union soldiers had a mixed verdict on the effectiveness of the U.S. Christian Commission, America's Civil War 15, no. 4 (2002): 12.] [19: Philip. Union soldiers had a mixed verdict, 12.]

Evangelical Reform Society

While there are a number of texts regarding wartime evangelical reform society, for the sake of brevity and the length of this project, a small selection was chosen.[footnoteRef:20] In the late twentieth century, studies of religion during the Civil War emerged. Previously neglected, this major field of study has been dissected by such historians as Drew Gilpin Faust and Steven E. Woodworth. As George C. Rable notes in his 2010 work, Gods Almost Chosen Peoples: A Religious History of the American Civil War, the grand and sweeping narratives of the sectional crisis and Civil War from James Ford Rhodes to Bruce Catton to Shelby Foote and beyond have seldom paid attention to religion much less tried to create a religious narrative of the conflict.[footnoteRef:21] This project utilizes several such works to contextualize the work of the USCC in the space of evangelical reform society. [20: While there are a number of works involving religion during the Civil War, my project focuses on those relating to the Northern United States, as the US Christian Commission was designed to serve the Union Army. ] [21: Rable, George C. Gods Almost Chosen Peoples. 5. ]

Although the United States Christian Commissions work was heavily tied to evangelical reform culture, the USCC makes few, if any, appearances in texts regarding the subject. The Pulitzer Prize winning The Evangelicals: The Struggle to Shape America by Frances Fitzgerald skips from pre-war America to post Civil War, disregarding the war years and the evangelical reform effort that took place throughout that time.[footnoteRef:22] Fitzgerald does make one mention of the USCC when discussing the1873 work of one of its former volunteers.[footnoteRef:23] This lack of information, on the USCC is a recurring theme throughout several texts regarding wartime evangelicalism.[footnoteRef:24] [22: Fitzgerald, The Evangels, 56-57.] [23: Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals, 85.] [24: This can be observed in George C. Rables Gods Almost Chosen Peoples: A Religious History of the American Civil War, James M. McPhersons Battle Cry of Freedom, Harry S. StoutsUpon the Altar of the Nation: A Moral History of the Civil War, and Shelby Footes The Civil War: A Narrative, among others. ]

While many historians, such as David Goldfield, list religion as one of the factors of the start of the war, religion undoubtedly helped to sustain morale and lengthen the war, yet there is still much debate over whether the war created a more devout society. [footnoteRef:25] In M. Hamlin Cannons article, The United States Christian Commission, he states that The Civil War was ushered in on a wave of religious revival. In point of total numbers, however, this revival did not affect a majority of the people. In 1860 only a little more than 5,000,000, of a population of 22,200,000 over the age of ten, listed themselves as members of an evangelical denomination.[footnoteRef:26] Yet according to Philip Schaff, theologian and church historian, in 1854 the United States harbored probably more awakened souls, and more individual efforts and self-sacrifice for religious purposesthan in any other country in the world.[footnoteRef:27] Evangelical Protestantism was the dominant religious force in the country for most of the nineteenth century, and this group undertook a large array of social reform efforts. [25: David Goldfield, America Aflame: How the Civil War Created a Nation,(New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2011). Rable, Gods Almost Chosen Peoples, 8.] [26: Cannon, The United States Christian Commission, 61. ] [27: Rable, Gods Almost Chosen Peoples, 11.]

Womens Work

There are few discussions of womens work in societal reform efforts in the Civil War. Womens work is often only mentioned in the context of the larger body of male work which do not discuss their efforts are not discussed at length, nor are their relief organizations. Fernanda Perrones article, I Prayed and Sung in Every Tent: Israel Silvers, US Christian Commission Delegate from New Jersey, the USCC, reflecting the masculine Christianity of the YMCA tradition, the Christian Commission had no women on its governing board. Only twelve women, all but one of whom was from the Midwest, were issued credentials as delegates. Women sometimes accompanied their husbands to the front, and played an important support role through local aid societies.[footnoteRef:28] This quote not only captures the muscular Christianity of the USCC but also notes the important work women accomplished for such aid societies. Perrone is one of the few authors to tell of the importance of women in the USCC. The only other extensive mention of women working for the USCC was by Martin T. Buinicki, in his article, The Needs of Means Additional: Walt Whitmans Civil War Fundraising. Buinicki states that several of the leading women of society were particularly ambitious and forward thinking, forming the Womens Central Relief Association (WCRA) in an effort to organize and coordinate the charitable efforts on the homefrontSoon the work of the WCRA was subsumed by the new organization, the USSC, which subsequently made great efforts to become the conduit for assisting the soldiers and the wounded during the war.[footnoteRef:29] Both Perrone and Buinickis articles were written in 2014. Clearly observing a more modern view, even these two articles do not discuss womens work at length. [28: Fernanda Perrone,I Prayed and Sung in Every Tent: Israel Silvers, US Christian Commission Delegate from New Jersey, The Journal of Rutgers University Libraries 1, no.66 (2014): 83. ] [29: Buinicki, Needs of Means Additional, 9-11. ]

My thesis intends to rectify the prior absence of evangelical reform culture from the discussion of the USCC. Utilizing reform efforts made by the USCC, I will situate their early work such as providing religious reading materials as following the principles pre-war evangelicalism, while contextualizing their later work of providing special diet kitchens as the precursor to the Social Gospel Movement. My project will rectify the absence of womens relief efforts by discussing the work of women for the USCC and the Ladies Auxiliary to the United States Christian Commission. Moreover, I do not intend to compare the USCC to the USSC. By examining a number of texts created by the USCC, including Delegates Statements and Reports, a booklet explaining the creation of the Ladies Christian Commission, and the Annals of the U.S. Christian Commission, I will not only expand the scholarship of the USCC, but provide a more complete, rounded narrative of their work.

Part III: Early Work of USCC

The early work of the USCC focused on providing for the spiritual needs of soldiers. Their proven success and support, as well as the exigencies of the war, allowed the USCC to expand their work to include and cater to the bodily needs of Union troops.

The support of the Christian Commission grew steadily throughout its life, culminating in more aid, donations, and volunteers. By the middle of 1862, the USCC was at first regarded by the public with general indifference.[footnoteRef:30] Even religious presses were not quick to recognize and assist the USCC because of a general lack of confidence in the organization and its goals. [footnoteRef:31] This lack of confidence could be due in part to its slow beginnings. It was not until May 14, 1862, a full year after the inception of the war, that the first delegates were sent to the army.[footnoteRef:32] By the time they arrived, there were already a large number of aid societies that collected supplies and donations for Union soldiers. Once the Commission proved itself on and around the battlefields, Gettysburg being particularly important for allowing the USCC to become more recognized, support increased. [30: Lemuel Moss, Annals of the U.S. Christian Commission (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1868), 117.] [31: Moss, Annals of USCC. 118.] [32: Moss, Annals of USCC, 122. ]

The Battle of Gettysburg, though half-way through the war, provided the USCC with the perfect venue to demonstrate the value of its work. It remains the bloodiest battle in the western hemisphere, with casualties totaled around fifty-five thousand. The delegates were quick to offer medical attention, food and supplies, minister to the dying soldiers, and bury the dead. C. L. Pascal, a delegate who served at Gettysburg from July 6 to July 18, gave a chilling description of not only the services he rendered, but the aftermath of the battle: Not having received any thing to eat, except perhaps a Small piece of hard dry biscuit and a little water for over 8 days (after the battle), and oh how thankfully was received nourishing food with wines + jellies by poor helpless Soldiers, at the hands of the Christian Commission. [footnoteRef:33] Pascal also detailed two interactions he experienced aiding Confederate soldiers. The first soldier, Spencer Samson of the 22nd Regiment, Georgia Infantry was found [33: Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant Generals Office. NARA.]

carried out from a filthy Stable and laid against the side of the Barn to die. His wounds in the fore part of the head, which lay open + the Brains coming out + worms at work therein , as he lay with his chin resting on his breast I approached him + asked a question, No answer, another + another, No answer placed my tin cup to his lips + he clinched it beneath his teeth + held fast till all was gone, I gave him a Farena Cracker, he chewed it, but one at least crumbled out his mouth, I Soaked one he ate it, another + So, he ate I gave about 20 of them a dozen ginger + several slices of bologna sausage and made him comfortable, The next day he could talk, his wound was dressed + he kept getting better up to the time of my leaving, I spoke to him of his future, He said I have made my peace with God. And desired me to write home to his wife (+ his children) These words. Say to her I have great faith in Jesus. I have prayed forgiveness of my Sins My prayers have not been in vain. That thee Shall bring my children up in the fear of God, and if it is Gods will that we shall not meet in this Earth, We will meet in Heaven. [footnoteRef:34] [34: Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant Generals Office. NARA.]

Despite the USCCs mission to only cater to Union troops, Pascal could not simply leave this man to suffer alone. He catered both to his spiritual and physical needs, making him as comfortable as possible. Pascal also aided another Confederate soldier at Gettysburg, demonstrating evangelical behavior and aiding those in need.

Another poor Soldier (Rebel) lay on the cold ground near at hand in a dieing state In a Loud voice he called me to him, to drive the flies off him, none were in him, a glance at his wounds revealed the mistery, it was worms cralling in his flesh, I talked with him, told him he was laid there to die + to lose no time in making his head with God, his only helper, I told him that I could give him a drink or something to eat and covered his bear limbs with a shirt He was prayed to + he prayed + prayed for himself, Gentle night he died and I have no doubt his Spirit went to heaven + many were the blessings the Christian Commission the dieing Soldiers and dearest friend on earth.[footnoteRef:35] [35: Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant Generals Office. NARA.]

Pascals report affirmed the need for the work of the USCC. In the statistical portion of his report, Pascal stated that he personally assisted three hundred wounded soldiers on the battlefield. Union soldiers mostly received the Commissions aid, but as Pascals report shows, delegates took mercy on Confederates too, administering to them food, water, and spiritual guidance.

The efficacy of the spiritual ministrations by delegates can also be observed from this report. In both examples of aiding Confederate soldiers, each one prayed to God. In the first example, the soldier was so touched by the delegates aid that he had Pascal write home to his family so that they may immediately take up good Christian lifestyles. In the latter example, Pascal was certain that the soldiers immediate conversion to Christianity in the little time remaining before death set in would secure him a place in heaven. Another delegate, C. W. Holstein, shared both his initial feelings about the USCC prior to his at Gettysburg service, and how those feelings changed afterward.

When I entered upon the work of the Christian Commission, I was laboring under Some prejudice against accounts I had previously received of its operations. had I an opportunity of seeing its workings, and from actual observation, than all such prejudice was dispelled, like the mist before the morning Sun:- and not only not only did these feelings of prejudice pass away, but the place was soon occupied by others of an entirely different nature I felt that if there ever was an institution deserving if the patronage of the patriotic and Christian people of the land, this was just the one:- every effort should be made, Every nerve strained to keep it in active operation:- it is so thoroughly adapted in every respect to the wants of the brave Soldiers suffering from the untold horrors of the Battle-field, administering, as it does, alike to their spiritual + temporal necessities[footnoteRef:36] [36: Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant Generals Office. NARA.]

Holsteins account demonstrates the virtues of the USCCs work. As someone who did not previously believe the praising accounts of the organizations work, Holstein experienced it firsthand.

I know that had it not been for the Christian Commission many of those noble Soldiers, most of them maimed for life, would have suffered from the want of very many articles that tend materially to the everyday comforts and necessities of human life:- Hence it is that in my Statement under the headings of Number of Soldiers benefitted by gifts of Hospital Stores, I have made the remark that it could not be estimated orders were continually pouring into the Tent from Division + Ward Surgeons, Ward Masters, Nurses, +e. for supplies, and they were always cheerfully filled, the only regret being that Sometimes the article called for was not on hand.[footnoteRef:37] [37: Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant Generals Office. NARA.]

Holstein did not support the USCC prior to his work at Gettysburg, but upon observing the organization and its work in so dire a situation, he instantly saw its virtues. The USCC was effective, organized, and well supplied. They had not only large quantities of supplies, but the volunteers necessary to distribute it. Moreover, Holsteins account serves as a call to action. He believed that the work of the Christian Commission should be sustained and that every effort should be made to keep up its work. Holsteins report reflects the nations growing admiration and support for the Commission at that time.

Aid societies that once had their own interests began contributing to the USCC. In 1864, The New Hampshire Soldiers Aid Societys annual report noted that the USCC possessed more recognition with a larger range than their organization, stating that the better known and wider spread organizations of the Sanitary and Christian Commissions, to which the larger towns and cities now send their contributions directly, instead of through the medium of this Society as formerly, to a great extent.[footnoteRef:38] The NHSAS donated to the USCC, yet prior to 1864, there are no mentions of the USCC in any of the NHSASs annual reports. About one-half of the USCCs entire work, as measured by money and supplies received and by the number of delegates commissioned, was accomplished during the year 1864.[footnoteRef:39] At the end of the war, the Commissions entire cash receipts totaled $2,524,512.56.[footnoteRef:40] Due to the overwhelming support, the USCC gained access to several parts of the Union Army. [38: New Hampshire Soldiers Aid Society Annual Report for 1864. Concord Public Library. 5.] [39: Moss, Annals of USCC, 165. ] [40: Moss, Annals of USCC, 687. ]

Even the army grew to trust the aid of the Commission. On December 12, 1863, General Ulysses S. Grant granted the USCC was granted access to the West, or the Military Division of Mississippi. With the aid given and religious services provided, It was generally felt, especially during the last two years of the war, that the Christian character of a young man was as safe in the army as in any place out of it.[footnoteRef:41] A number of generals expressed their gratitude for USCC delegates. General Grant wrote to George Stuart, a co-founder of the USCC, on January 12, 1866 that It affords me pleasure to bear evidence to the services rendered, and the manner in which they have been rendered. By the agency of the Commission much suffering has been saved, on almost every battle-field and in every hospital during the late rebellion. No doubt thousands of persons now living attribute their recovery, in great part, to volunteer agencies sent to the field and hospital.[footnoteRef:42] General William T. Sherman also gave his impressions of the USCCs work in a January 19, 1866 letter to Stuart, That the agents for the application of this charity did manifest a zeal and energy worthy the object, I myself am a willing witness; and I would be understood as heartily endorsing, without reserve, their efforts, when applied to the great hospitals and rendezvous in the rear of our great armies.[footnoteRef:43] The support of these generals enabled the Commission was able to effectively adhere to and complete its mission in assisting the Union Army. There were, in fact, a multitude of ways in which the USCC sought backing. [41: Moss, Annals of the USCC, 59-60. ] [42: Moss, Annals of USCC, 238. ] [43: Moss, Annals of USCC, 238. ]

The establishment of delegates reports was used to drum up support. They were A system of reportsnot perfected and fully introduced, however, until a year later [1863]furnished the requisite information for the Agents and for the Executive and Auxiliary Committees. This information also, so far as desirable, was communicated to the public through various channels. Thus an interest in the work was sustained.[footnoteRef:44] These reports not only provided statistical data of aid given but documented the achievements of the Commission. The reports tracked the number of days a delegates service occupied, the meetings they conducted, the number of meetings participated in, the number of sermons and addresses delivered, the number of funeral services conducted, the number of soldiers personally conversed with about their spiritual interest, the number of soldiers benefitted by gifts of Hospitals Stores or personals ministrations, the number of letters written for soldiers, the number of wounded soldiers assisted on battle-fields, the number reading matter distributed, scriptures, hymn and psalm books, soldiers books, pages of tracts, papers, and pamphlets.[footnoteRef:45] Each report included a section for Report of Work and Incidents, where delegates were to write, particulars and incidents with the purpose to show the nature, necessity, and benefit of the work of the Christian Commission.[footnoteRef:46] By publicizing all the work being done by its delegates, support for the organization grew, allowing increased donations. At the conclusion of their service delegates created statistical reports on the aid distributed, the data may not be the most accurate. As Delegate Alex M. Lauglin admitted in his October 16, 1863 Delegates Statement and Report, Reading matter distributed I gave an account every evening, so that I cannot give an accurate account here of the amount distributed.[footnoteRef:47] One can hardly blame the delegate for not correctly tallying the hundreds of pages of tracts given to weary soldiers. Yet, support for the USCCs efforts came through using this data. [44: Moss, Annals of USCC, 145. ] [45: Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant General's Office. NARA. ] [46: Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant Generals Office. NARA. ] [47: Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant Generals Office. NARA. ]

Several soldiers expressed their reverence for the delegates of the USCC. Of the sacrifices of the delegates, Said a soldier to Chaplain Thomas at Bermuda Hundred: What a blessed institution this Christian Commission is! Your delegates care for us in the hospital, follow us on the march, and in the hour of battle they hover around us like ministering angels.[footnoteRef:48] Those serving in the Commission followed the troops, wherever they were, to administer aid and cater to their spiritual needs. Due to the obvious and overwhelming needs, the Commission provided the soldiers with physicians, Many eminent physicians are sent out by the Commission, who render very important service. Among these were Drs. Reed, Goodman, and Parker. The latter reports that with his own hands he made three thousand dressings for wounds at Fredericksburg. The gratitude of the relieved for such labor cannot be expressed; yet this is only an instance among hundreds of like exertions. [footnoteRef:49] It does not need to be stated the importance of this kind of work, the very health of the Union Army depended on it. The soldiers too appreciated the sacrifice and toils of the delegates. It inspired such trust in the soldiers, The following is an instance of the unbounded confidence the soldiers have in the delegates of the Commission: After the 2d Connecticut Regiment was paid off, they put their several packages into a bag and sent it to the Commission tent, only requesting that they be sent to their homes. On overhauling it, it was found to contain about seventeen thousand dollars, which was expressed to their friends at home. Hundreds of watches and other valuables are given to the delegates for safe keeping. [footnoteRef:50] Evidently, the USCC had formed a strong reputation among soldiers as a good and trustworthy organization. [48: Ladies Christian Commission: Auxiliary to the U.S. Christian Commission (Philadelphia: C. Sherman, Son & Co., Printers, 1864), 24. ] [49: Ladies Christian Commission, 23. ] [50: Ladies Christian Commission, 23.]

Reading Materials

While the USCC always had a strong focus on distributing reading materials for soldiers, that focus was amplified with both the invention of loan libraries and literacy programs. Delegates kept strict records of what types of reading material they distributed and in what quantity. In the Delegates Statement and Report, completed after delegates finished serving their volunteer terms, they outline how many scriptures, hymn books, hymn and psalm books, soldiers books, pages of tracts, papers, reading matter, and pamphlets they personally dispersed to Union soldiers.[footnoteRef:51]At first, The Commission, in this as in other respects, did not at first aim to be more than the forwarder of what the people might supply, and the earliest shipments of reading-matter therefore consisted mainly of such second-hand tracts, newspapers, and books as were offered.[footnoteRef:52] Seeing the benefit of these tracts, the USCC began the regular distribution of religious weekly papers in the fall of 1863.[footnoteRef:53] The Commission's goals and distributions changed as the war went on and their organization garnered more support. [51: NARA U.S. Christian Commission. ] [52: Moss, Annals of USCC, 685. ] [53: Moss, Annals of USCC, 686. ]

The dissemination of reading material to the army gained quick support, both with troops and those looking to provide aid. Publishers were eager to support the cause, some creating special tracts, Then the small publications of the Tract Soci[e]ties were addedsome of them having been specially prepared for army circulation.[footnoteRef:54] The American Messenger, Tract Journal, and Christian Banner were all distributed among troops. While the work of spreading literature was not as dire as providing basic provisions, the Commission and army all felt the importance of this work, The work of distributing publications throughout the army by the Christian Commission possessed several points of special interest. More than any other part of their labors it furnished an index of the character of the soldiers; and the evidence was as gratifying as it was remarkable, that a large proportion of the army were men to whom serious and solid literature was a necessity.[footnoteRef:55]The Commission also provided literature to African American troops: [54: Moss, Annals of USCC, 685. ] [55: Moss, Annals of USCC, 685. ]

Reference has several times been made to the labors of the Commission among the colored troops. They were supplied with elementary school books of all kinds, and also with periodicals, Scripture portions, and other publications suited to their circumstances and attainments. Not a few of them could appreciate the reading-matter furnished for general distribution, and none showed greater eagerness or gratification than they. To be able to read the New Testament was to these new-made men a marvelous acquisition, and to own the Book itself was to secure an incalculable prize.[footnoteRef:56] [56: Moss, Annals of USCC, 711-712. ]

The troops undoubtedly appreciated the furnished reading materials, with the desire for more growing constantly.

The USCC sought to increase the amount of reading material available for troops. In the fall of 1863, the USCC prepared to increase the volume and quality of reading matter provided for troops. The Commission made heavy purchases, instead of relying merely on donations, to ensure the best possible texts for soldiers.

Not a few of the subscribers to them went into the ranks, and requested that their papers should follow them; sometimes the chaplain would make up a club from his regiment; the publishers generally gave notice that their journals would be furnished for soldiers at the simple cost of productionThe same considerations that suggested this increase of religious periodicals operated also to improve the quality of the books used. Less reliance was placed upon tracts and the smallest kind of publications, although they continued to be abundantly circulated, and a better and more expensive class of works was purchased, alike for the knapsack and the library. Many of these books were printed and bound in substantial and attract styles, and were every way worthy of the wide circulation and eager reception which they received. [footnoteRef:57] [57: Moss, Annals of USCC, 686. ]

The USCC not only received numerous donations of reading materials from citizens but cooperated with of several publishing societies to increase their work. There was indeed a large circulation of Scriptures in the army. Under date of Sept. 18, 1862about the time that the headquarters of the Christian Commission was established in PhiladelphiaMr. Stuart wrote to the American Bible Society, asking if it would grant to the Commission what Bibles and Testaments they may need in their work. To this request Rev. Dr. Taylor, Corresponding Secretary of the Bible Society, replied on the 20th: Your letter can have only one response. Most cheerfully will our Committee and Board grant all that you require in your noble labors.[footnoteRef:58] The Bible Society provided millions of volumes of reading material to the Union army: Besides the grants to the Christian Commission, amounting to 1,451,748 volumes, valued at $179.824.99, the Bible Society also sent to the army, through other agencies, not less than 574,512 volumesmaking their total issues for this purpose, during the period of the civil war, amount to the vast number of 2,026,260 volumes.[footnoteRef:59] [58: Moss, Annals of USCC, 686. ] [59: Moss, Annals of USCC, 690-691. ]

Working closely with the Commission, the Bible Society was able to furnish reading matter to troops throughout the nation. Generous offers from publishing societies poured into the Commission:

The two American Tract Societies, at Boston and New York, early gave attention to the wants of the armyBoth co-operated cordially with the Christian Commission, making to it donations of books and papers, and selling at the lowest prices. In June, 1864, the Boston Society adopted the following resolutions:

1. That the Committee on Charities be authorized to grant to the Christian Commission the publications of this Society, to such amount as the charitable funds will permit, provided that said Commission shall purchase an equal quantity of said publications at cost.

2. That if the Christian Commission shall accept the above proposal, and thus distribute our publications through the army, our own independent system of distributions shall be discontinued.[footnoteRef:60] [60: Moss, Annals of USCC, 698-699. ]

The American Tract Societies had such faith and confidence in the Commissions work that they were willing to give up their own independent distribution to the army in favor of using the Commissions network. Moreover, the Societies granted the Commission innumerable books and papers to provide for soldiers, for free or for a small price. This sort of charitable work by the American Tract Societies undoubtedly earned the USCC an elevated reputation among other religious publishing societies. Other publishing societies quickly followed suit and were eager to share in the Commissions work. The American Sunday-School Union, Tract Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Presbyterian Board of Publication, Presbyterian Publication Committee, American Baptist Publication Society, Protestant Episcopal Book Society, Massachusetts Sabbath-School Society, American Reform Tract and Book Society, New York Sabbath Committee, and others, along with many private publishers, gave their cooperation, and were desirous of a share in the patriotic and Christian work of furnishing the army with attractive and wholesome reading.[footnoteRef:61] [61: Moss, Annals of USCC, 700.]

American publishing societies were taken by the Commissions patriotic religiosity. Their work of supporting the Union was not only a noble one, but harkened to the ideals of muscular, American Christianity. Its mission catered to the vision of a strong, united America, one without sin, where voluntarism and reformation were at the forefront. In the monthly and weekly religious newspapers distributed, all the evangelical publishing societies were represented and all the evangelical denominations.[footnoteRef:62] The success of the USCCs endeavor is evident in its statistics, The figures show that the total newspaper circulation by the Commission rose from less than two hundred and fifty thousand copies per month in 1863, in which year it may be said really to have begun (the previous distributions having been mainly donations of second-hand papers), to more than one million five hundred thousand copies per month in the beginning of 1865. With the cooperation of these religious publishing societies the USCC was able to provide soldiers with not just a way to pass time, but encouraged moral, evangelical pursuits. [62: Moss, Annals of USCC, 700-701.]

The USCC sought to aid the widest possible audience. While the Commissions original intentions were to aid the Union troops, their work did extend to those in the Confederacy. Moreover, their work extended to reach immigrants, and those practicing other religions. The USCC sought to reach a wide audience, including in their provided reading material, The various nationalities of our troops were well shown by the several languages in which these Scriptures were printedone request being for Testaments in English, German, French, Danish, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese.[footnoteRef:63] The Commission not only distributed Protestant reading materials, but The Roman Catholic version (Douay) of the Bible was gratuitously distributed to some extent, by the Christian Commission and other agencies, to those soldiers and sailors who preferred it. The Commission would not appropriate funds for this version, but distributed such copies as were donated.[footnoteRef:64]Despite their own evangelical Protestant preferences, the members of the USCC were willing to supply the soldiers with what they wanted. [63: Moss, Annals of USCC, 689. ] [64: Moss, Annals of USCC, 698. ]

The Commission distributed secular literature as well, but on a restricted basis. Allotting secular literature for troops was the work of one man in particular, Chaplain Thomas. As early as December 1862, he began to supply his regiment with the best and freshest periodical literature, both secular and religious, regularly at the least expensive cost to the USCC. [footnoteRef:65] With publishers willing to provide publications at half price, and the Adams Express Company willing to carry all packages for free, other chaplains were eager to cooperate and join the movement. In 1863, Chaplain Thomas plan was greatly expanded. It soon included the best books, and the formation of portable libraries for regiments, hospitals, etc.[footnoteRef:66] [65: Moss, Annals of USCC, 714-715. ] [66: Moss, Annals of USCC, 714-715. ]

The USCC, was of course, wary of dispensing non-religious materials, especially considering its mission:

In September 1863, Chaplain Thomas was detailed by General G. H. Thomas (not a relative) as General Reading Agent for the Army of the Cumberland. He at once set about perfecting and carrying out his plan. For some time he had felt the necessity of being in close connection with one of the national societies at work in the army, in order to give greater comprehensiveness and efficiency to his movement, and urged its adoption by the Christian Commission. The Commission hesitated about engaging in such an enterprise, partly because it involved the receiving of pay from the soldiers for the reading-matter distributed to them, and partly because it involved the distribution of secular literatureneither of which were sanctioned by the Commissions ordinary methods of operation. After a few months, however, the work was undertaken, with very beneficial results.[footnoteRef:67] [67: Moss, Annals of USCC, 715. ]

Secular reading was only provided for certain parts of the army, The distribution of secular periodical literature through the Commission did not include newspapers, but only magazines and reviews; nor did it become general, but was confined to the Western armies.[footnoteRef:68] Despite their hesitations, the USCC still provided soldiers, albeit a small portion of them, with the reading material they craved. In April 1864, the Christian Commission began distributing leading secular magazines and reviews in the Army of the Cumberland.[footnoteRef:69] While Chaplain Thomas could only secure secular reading for troops within the Army of the Cumberland, his plan did create the successful portable lending libraries for soldiers. [68: Moss, Annals of USCC, 716. ] [69: Moss, Annals of USCC, 713. ]

Loan Libraries

In 1864 the Commission established and maintained libraries at stations of the Commission, military posts, in general hospitals, and on the naval vessels and river gunboats.[footnoteRef:70] They provided soldiers with a moral, educational pastime. The libraries included both secular and non-secular works. These libraries were an immense success, with both the soldiers and delegates singing their praises. [70: Moss, Annals of USCC, 687.]

Chaplain Thomas created the plan for libraries throughout the Commission. The loan library system functioned as follows: books were purchased from leading publishers at half price. Like the unsecular papers and tracts, publishers gave the USCC generous discounts to supply their libraries. Chaplain Thomas compiled an army catalog where books were chosen under this restriction, None but the best works; none but the best, most suitable and cheapest editions; secular works as well as religious; utility rather than variety; publishing centers in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati acted as agents to receive, pack, and forward all purchases without charge. These houses were, Gould & Lincoln, Boston; Chas. Scribner & Co., New York; Ashmead & Evans, Philadelphia; and Poe & Hitchcock, Cincinnati. The government supplied the cases for the libraries. The first sixty cases were made by order of General Thomas, subject to the approval of the Secretary of Warthe Commission being meanwhile responsible for the expense. The Secretary approved the order, and granted a requisition also for two hundred and forty more. Each library contained 125 volumesstandard popular books of history, biography, poetry, fiction, science, religion, etc.all appropriately labeled and numbered, and neatly covered and numbered on the cover. On the inside door of each library was a catalogue, in large type, with the names of the books arranged alphabetically by authors, and numbered, with additional numbers and spaces up to 160. Additional catalogues on cards were also provided, for the special convenience of patients who were unable to go to the library. [footnoteRef:71] The Commission then loaned the libraries to hospitals, camps, vessels, or other places of deposit to be returned when the library was no longer needed. The role of caring for the library was thus an onerous task: [71: Moss, Annals of USCC, 717-720. ]

The library was confided to the chaplain, surgeon, or other responsible person who consented to act as librarian. He was required to sign a pledge, promising attention to his duties as librarian, a faithful care of the books, and promptness in sending monthly reports of the condition and use of the library. Each library was provided with a register or record book, so arranged as to preserve, with little trouble, a complete history of every volume.[footnoteRef:72] [72: Moss, Annals of USCC, 717-720. ]

The cases secured the books while the library was not in use, and only the delegate overseeing the library had access to the key, safeguarding its contents. The catalogs not only kept track of circulation but served as an additional security measure. Moreover, it justified the purchase of certain kinds of books. Citizens also donated books. Those that were not used in libraries were given to troops, Frequent appeals were addressed to the public for valuable books for the soldiersspecial efforts being made in this direction at the holiday seasonsand these were responded to with more or less liberality. The books thus secured were variously usedsome being put into Loan Libraries and the rest otherwise distributed.[footnoteRef:73] Initially, the Commission prepared two hundred fifteen libraries, containing the full number of 125 volumes each. Besides these there were 70 Libraries of half the size, containing 75 volumes each, making in all 285 Libraries and 32,125 volumes at a cost of not less than one dollar per volume.[footnoteRef:74] The USCC delegates cared for and ran these libraries. The delegates kept strict records of what books were checked out, by whom, and how many times. [73: Moss, Annals of USCC, 724.] [74: Moss, Annals of USCC, 721. ]

Delegates kept strict reports for their libraries with registers to detail all pertinent information. Each contained 172 pages160 for regular entries and 12 for incidental memorandaFrom this register were made up the monthly reportsshowing how many times a volume had been drawn during the month, or that it had remained in the library, or that it had been lost, with such illustrative incidents as were deemed valuable. The monthly reports were forwarded to the General Library Agent, who thus knew the exact location and condition of every library.[footnoteRef:75] The reverence for the libraries can be observed in their monthly reports. While there are several examples of reports singing the praises of these libraries, only a select few appear here: [75: Moss, Annals of USCC, 720-721. ]

Library 11. Volumes drawn, two hundred and eighty-nine; volumes lost, none. Marked improvement in the social life and general deportment of the patients and attendants of this hospital has taken place since the introduction of the libraries. We have more correspondence between soldiers and their friends; more social purity, less boisterous and rude conduct. The mental and moral conditions of the men have been revealed, and not a few scholars, Christians, and gentlemen have been found beneath the humble attire and title of private.[footnoteRef:76] [76: Moss, Annals of USCC, 722. ]

Delegates and officers alike observed the benefits of the loan libraries. For soldiers, it provided them with a replacement for bad behavior. Instead of gambling or drinking, soldiers were learning and reading. As a result, there was increased friendliness and comradery. Another Chaplain detailed the praises of his regiments library:

Library 70. Second Wisconsin Cavalry, Alexandria, La. Report, by Chaplain B. L. Brisbane. For June, 1865: Volumes drawn, one hundred and eleven; volumes lost, none. The library is a fine collection. It is doing immense good. It is the best thing the Christian Commission has done for the service. Every regiment should have one. It has deep and abiding influence intellectually, morally, and spiritually. For July: Volumes drawn, two hundred; volumes lost, none. The longer we have the library, the more useful we find it. For August: Volumes drawn, sixty-one; volumes lost, none. Have been on the march to Hempstead, Texas. For September: Volumes drawn, three hundred and thirty; volumes lost, seven. Some men in the hospital were sent off and discharged, without returning, some of whom carried off books. We are very thankful for the library. No estimate can be made of the good it is doing. For October: Volumes drawn, one hundred and twenty-nine; volumes lost, three. Some books carried off by deserters, or others. Library has already well paid for itself. A number of souls lately converted. A good work going on in the regiment. I ascribe much to the library.[footnoteRef:77] [77: Moss, Annals of USCC, 722-723.]

The library not only caused good behavior among the men, but grew the number of conversion the Commission was able to obtain. This can be observed in another librarys report log:

Library 99. Hempstead, Texas. Report for September, 1865, by Rev. S. J. Orange, Agent Christian Commission. Volumes drawn, five hundred and twenty-five; volumes lost, none. The library has been invaluable to the men. They all praise the selection of books; and so interested were they that I turned the library over to the First Iowa Cavalry. For November, by Chaplain J. S. Rand: Volumes drawn, three hundred and seven; volumes lost, three. At the end of October we were on the march to Austin, Texas. The soldiers have employed much of their time in reading, instead of card-playing. We have a chapel tent, in which we keep the library, and have prayer-meetings every evening. We have some clear conversions.[footnoteRef:78] [78: Moss, Annals of USCC, 723.]

Even with long marches and men returning home after the war, the libraries lost relatively few books.

The libraries succeeded in turning the soldiers away from immoral behaviors such as drinking, card playing, and drinking. Furthermore, it increased interactions between soldiers and those aiding them, and fostered a friendly environment between the two. It provided soldiers with a way to effectively pass time, while also serving to educate them. The libraries even worked to convert some souls to Christianity, a clear victory for the USCC. The following report demonstrated not only an example of a naval library, but of the impact the libraries have on the soldiers overall morale, Library 228. United States Flag Ship New Hampshire, Port Royal Harbor, S. C. Report for October 1865, by Chas. Wiener, Librarian. Volumes drawn, two hundred and sixty-six; volumes lost, one. The library is having a good effect. It is lessening profanity and intoxication.[footnoteRef:79] The libraries were an immense success for the Commission. They increased morale, promoted moral behavior, and even converted soldiers to Christianity. Their effectiveness cannot be overestimated. [79: Moss, Annals of USCC, 723. ]

Unfortunately, Many of the Libraries were lost in the final breaking up of hospitals, camps, etc., at the close of the war. But more than fifty permanent forts and posts throughout the country, and twenty-five United States war steamers, were supplied, and the libraries were still in use by them at the beginning of 1867.[footnoteRef:80] Fewer than half of the libraries survived the end of the war. Moss ended his discussion of the Loan Libraries, by again stating the popularity of the program, The library work of the Commission, in a systematic form, was one of its latest movements, but none was more thoroughly appreciated by the soldiers, and it was very fruitful in permanent good.[footnoteRef:81] The USCCs loan libraries furthered the work of catering to the spiritual needs of soldiers while also providing them with educational secular texts. [80: Moss, Annals of USCC, 723. ] [81: Moss, Annals of USCC, 723. ]

Literacy Programs and Schooling

Not only did the Christian Commission provide literature to soldiers, but they actively promoted literacy wherever they went. They created schools in Commission chapels, provided the necessary materials, and taught the illiterate children, poor adults, soldiers, and African American troops how to read and write. The success of this facet of their work is evident.

It is difficult to discuss the Commissions education efforts, without first discussing the creation and use of chapels. Prior to 1864, there were few chapels within the Union Army, In November, 1863, the Commission had but four chapel tents in the Army of the Potomac. In the correspondence between the Central Office and Mr. Cole, General Field Agent, it had been suggested that the Commission could perhaps furnish to each brigade a canvas roof, technically called a fly, as a covering for a chapel, if the soldiers would put up the walls.[footnoteRef:82] At the December 29, 1863 meeting of the Executive Committee of the USCC, it was voted to furnish, as needed, six chapel tents and forty canvas roofs for chapels to be erected by the soldiers.[footnoteRef:83] It was then reported that an unusual religious interest pervaded the army and that multitudes were converted to Christ.[footnoteRef:84] It was also observed that some of these houses of worship were very largesixty feet in length by thirty-five feet in widthseveral of this size being put up in the Twenty-fifth Corps, and used both as chapels and school-rooms.[footnoteRef:85] It was common for these chapels to serve multiple purposes: places of worship, meeting spaces, libraries, and classrooms. They provided both the classrooms, and all the classroom supplies including roofing, stoves, lights, primers, blackboards, pens, slates, ink, and readers. The USCC even provided their student soldiers with teachers.[footnoteRef:86] Because of these efforts, the USCC was able to educate a large number of students. [82: Moss, Annals of USCC, 177.] [83: Moss, Annals of USCC, 178. ] [84: Moss, Annals of USCC, 178. ] [85: Moss, Annals of USCC, 442. ] [86: Moss, Annals of USCC, 442. ]

Seeking educational reform, the USCC worked to promote literacy among marginalized groups. In the latter part of the war, the Commission worked heavily with the black troops in the Twenty-Fifth Corps, For this work the Commission employed experienced teachers, and furnished to each regiment or brigadeeverything that was needed to give to all an opportunity for mental improvement. The soldiers were very thankful for these advantages, and showed great eagerness to learn.[footnoteRef:87] The delegates for these troops established Brigade schools and there was great anxiety on their part is manifested to improve the advantages thus extended to them.[footnoteRef:88] The Commission not only offered education to soldiers, but also opened schools to the poor children and adults affected by the war, The quartermaster of the post offered a tent, benches, and desks, if the Commission would open a school for the children of the poor white employees of the government.[footnoteRef:89] Another example can be observed at Bridgeport in the Eleventh Corps, In addition to the usual religious services in the chapel, a Sabbath-school was organized for soldiers and the children and the adult poor whites. General Howards adjutant was superintendent, and the General had a class of poor girls, none of whom could read.[footnoteRef:90] Despite its focus on aiding Union troops, the Commissions literacy efforts extended to former members of the Confederacy. Supplemental to their other work, and at the request of General William T. Sherman, this Branch assisted in relieving the wants of the many refugees and deserters from the rebel army that gathered [in Louisville, Kentucky]. They were helped to employment, gathered into Sunday-schools, taught to read, and they had opportunities of hearing the gospel preached.[footnoteRef:91] By extending their services to those not in the army, the Commission went above and beyond its mission to Union soldiers by delivering to education and reform to others affected by the war. [87: Moss, Annals of USCC, 437-438. ] [88: Moss, Annals of USCC, 196. ] [89: Moss, Annals of USCC, 464. ] [90: Moss, Annals of USCC, 480.] [91: Moss, Annals of USCC, 329.]

The literacy programs and schools proved quite successful. Schools were established in each regiment at Wild Station, and it was reported that hundreds of those who could not read at the beginning of the winter were sufficiently advanced at its close to read in the Testament; and many of them had learned to write with rapidity and elegance. It was no uncommon thing for one, riding along the line of works held by his corps, to see men at every step of his progress, reading or studying in their primers, politely bowing as he passed, as if they recognized in him the giver of the blessings they had found.[footnoteRef:92] The success of these schools inspired innumerable soldiers to attend, and provided an outlet for their spare time. The men came in by reliefs, as picket and fatigue duty would allow, three thousand in a week, for their turn to drink at this little stream of knowledge. They showed great eagerness to learn.[footnoteRef:93] The schools were held during day and evening sessions. With soldiers spending so much time learning, reading, and writing, there wass little time for sinful behavior such as drinking or card playing. The efficacy of this program was evident: [92: Moss, Annals of USCC, 453.] [93: Moss, Annals of USCC, 453.]

Some, without any knowledge of the alphabet, learned to read in easy sentences in six days. And for the majority, according to the uniform report of the teachers, the average time required to learn to read in easy sentences was only four weeks. The pupils carried out the normal system thoroughly, for as soon as they had acquired one letter they cast about at once to teach it to someone more ignorant than themselves. So that one teacher, multiplied in this geometrical ratio, was very soon felt as an educating power in the entire regiment.[footnoteRef:94] [94: Moss, Annals of USCC, 453.]

The soldiers thus spent their time teaching each other how to read and write, amplifying not only the overall education of the regiment, but the will to learn. Those soldiers who did learn were perceived to be more disciplined, respectful, and free from vice.

The Commissions literacy efforts made by the Commission not only served to educate soldiers, but increased comradery between them. It was reported that the results of these school were very satisfactory, the soldiers learning rapidly, and showing a great desire to improve.[footnoteRef:95] The soldiers became more cooperative as a result of their teachings: It was the uniform testimony of the chaplains and the officers of the regiments that those taught in our schools were more obedient and respectful to their officers; discipline was improved; habits of vice were checked, and in many cases genuine religious interest was excited. [footnoteRef:96] Another such example is found here, I gave primers to boys employed in the regiment. One of them, the colonel told me to-day, lay by his fire until midnight, trying to decipher his letters. I gave another to a bright youngster, and a few minutes after I saw him sitting on a stump, while a little drummer-boy was teaching him to read.[footnoteRef:97] [95: Moss, Annals of USCC, 442. ] [96: Moss, Annals of USCC, 453. ] [97: Moss, Annals of USCC, 712. ]

The USCCs reform efforts were certainly attained when it came to their schools and literacy programs. The USCCs literacy programs harkened back to the educational reform of pre-war evangelical culture.

Women and the USCC

Initiated by a group of men belonging to a male Christian group, the USCC did not formally incorporate women into its relief programs until 1864. Several Ladies Christian Commissions did exist in major cities such as Buffalo, Detroit, and San Francisco, but not until May 1864 did the USCC actively seek to establish a Ladies Christian Commission in every community throughout the loyal states.[footnoteRef:98] Spearheaded in Philadelphia, the movement grew rapidly, with women providing ideas and services for the USCC. Of the 266 ladies auxiliaries that formed at this time, eighty of them were in the city of Philadelphia alone.[footnoteRef:99] These auxiliary groups were located in seventeen different states of the Union. [98: Moss, Annals of USCC, 356. ] [99: Moss, Annals of USCC, 358.]

The Commission sought a wide range of contributions from women with several proposed ways for them to serve.

If the Ninevites could consent to fast, and clothe themselves in sack-clothe at the call of a strange prophet, surely the Christian women of the Republic can consent to express a sympathy with their suffering and imperiled country, by self-denial in dress and food; by simplicity in both, to give outward and appropriate expression to their grief for sins which have so provoked their beloved Redeemer, and called forth from him such expressions of displeasureAnd this leads me to show another thing each of you can do. Love your country, and judge the characters of others in part, by their regard for it. Love your country, and willingly sacrifice anything its interests demand.[footnoteRef:100] [100: Ladies' Christian commission, 6.. ]

This not only highlights the patriotic evangelicalism favored by the Commission, but places the Civil War as punishment for the sins of the nation, namely slavery, from God. The Commission told women to Love your country. It is worthy of your love. None was ever more so. Its institutions, its national character, its relations to the human race, and its coming history, its relations to the church of Christ, all claim for it a high place in our affections. [footnoteRef:101] The nurturing idyllic vision of women was used to portrayed the United States as some heroic lover, worthy of love from the Ladies Christian Commission. Of course, the religious nature of the Commissions goals was never forgotten, Pray for your country, the government, the army, and the navy.[footnoteRef:102] Moreover, the sacrifices of the enemy were used to inspire Northern women into their own sacrifice, If Southern women will dress in calicoes for such a government as their leaders are seeking to establish, surely Northern women can for as much for our Government.[footnoteRef:103] This sentiment also harkens back to the economic purchasing power of women; in times of need or political turmoil, this force has been called upon for boycotts and resource conservation. Furthermore, the women were encouraged to influence others within their community to join the relief effort. The USCC sought women to establish monthly collections, to make clothing for the soldiers, to gather stores, and to collect contributions.[footnoteRef:104]This puts the women serving the Commission as influential participants of society, having the persuasive means to garner donations of time, money, and materials from various members of their communities. Women purchased goods, made clothing, cooked meals, You cannot over-estimate the power of your sex in certain directions.[footnoteRef:105] The Commission suggested activities that would even have been deemed inappropriate, Might not every lady send a letter to the army every month; not only to kindred there, but to friends, or even strangers? The times and circumstances would remove from it every shade of impropriety. Ascertain if any young man from your neighborhood is without friends, or if a family find it difficult to write frequently to the husband and father.[footnoteRef:106] These activities allowed women the opportunity to participate in the war effort. [101: Ladies Christian Commission, 7.] [102: Ladies Christian Commission, 8.] [103: Ladies Christian Commission, 8.] [104: Ladies Christian Commission, 19.] [105: Ladies Christian Commission, 7.] [106: Ladies Christian Commission, 7.]

The war effort challenged social practices and even gave women the power to organize their own groups within the Commission. In the movement to initiate a Ladies Christian Commission, the Reverend J. G. Maxwell offered a demanding course of action, Do what you can to sustain the Christian CommissionWithin your own parish see to it that a society be organized, if agree-able to the officers and members of the Church, to secure a yearly subscription in money, and such labor for the army as the Central Committee, from time to time, may show to be needed for furnishing the soldiers with hospital garments. See to it that while the necessity for this kind of effort shall continue, your association be kept in vigorous operation.[footnoteRef:107] The USCC was not just asking for help from these women, but full participation. The women responded with fervor and excitedly took on the resolutions the Reverend put forward: [107: Ladies Christian Commission, 9.]

The Reverend J. G. Maxwell also put forth these resolutions, which were unanimously adopted:

Resolved, As the unanimous expression of the sentiment of this meeting that we recommend to the ladies of the various Evangelical Churches in the loyal States, that they organize Ladies Christian Commissions in each congregation, auxiliary to the United States Christian Commission.

Resolved, That the United States Christian Commission be requested to issue a circular embodying a form of organization, with hints as to the process of organizing.[footnoteRef:108] [108: Ladies Christian Commission, 10.]

The creation of Ladies Christian Commission groups throughout the loyal states gave women the opportunity work within their own congregations to further the goals of the USCC. Women thus took charge of their own sub-groups of the USCC assuming the leadership roles, fundraising, and work assignments. This empowered the women to take control of not only their own work, but their own finances as well. These Ladies Commissions were to be organized either by establishing one in each church, or by forming a union society for all the churches in the same neighborhood, as it might seem most desirable in several localitiesMembership in the ladies societies was to either be associate or active. Associate membership might include all of either sex and every age who should pay into the treasury one dollar annually; active membership would include the ladies who gave also their time and service in collecting and preparing clothing and stores for the soldiers.[footnoteRef:109] Women had a say in whether or not they would be active or passive members. Finally, charging the women a membership fee not only ensured the cooperation of the women involved, but also raised funds for the Commission to enact new programs and purchase supplies. [109: Moss, Annals of USCC, 356-357.]

The Ladies Christian Commission not only inspired excitement in the women, but the men of the USCC were grateful for their aid. The confidence in the women was strongly felt,

Of them, and for them, we may confidently say, that nothing will be left undone, which Christian women can with propriety possibly do, to promote either the bodily welfare or religious benefit of those who fight the battles of our nation. The loyal Christian women of our beloved country will take double pleasure in honoring our dear Redeemer while they bless the defenders of the Union, and relieve those who suffer in its cause. It will give them the profoundest joy to add to the cup of cold water ministered to the thirsty soldier on the field of blood, the Christian grace of having it given by a disciple of Jesus, and accompanied by the comforting words of salvation. If, while they aid in saving the nation by saving, cheering, strengthening its defenders, and serve the cause of humanity by mitigating anguish and ministering comfort to the sick, the wounded, the dying, they can at the same time in all they do, glorify the precious Saviour who died for us, their delight will be full, their reward abundant.[footnoteRef:110] [110: Ladies Christian Commission, 10-11.]

It is clear that the work of the women was not just to aid soldiers but to honor Jesus. Just as Jesus relieved believers suffering, so too did the women of the Ladies Christian Commission relieve the soldiers suffering. By serving the USCC, they act as conduits of God. The feasibility and confidence in the establishment of the Ladies Christian Commission can be observed in its plan of action. The Commission was certain that few churches will refuse to enter into it because Most of them will rejoice in placing themselves side by side with the great body of the churches of our Lord Jesus in so great a movement and so good a work. Few, if any, who love our Saviour, our country, and the brave men of our army and navy, will refuse to aid by giving their names and the small fee required.[footnoteRef:111] There was general sureness that churches would organize at once and the women in particular, would be willing to cheerfully visit, without salary, such churches as need any one to aid them in organizing, and thus this great national movement can be thoroughly carried out without the expense of a salaried agency.[footnoteRef:112] The USCCs work would bring together nearly all in all our evangelical congregations, present the whole church united in one grand work of patriotic Christian benevolence, and secure to the United States Christian Commission an immense fund, not less than a million of dollars, for the unlimited expansion and vigorous prosecution of its great work in all parts of the army and navy.[footnoteRef:113] [111: Ladies Christian Commission, 11-12. ] [112: Ladies Christian Commission, 11-12.] [113: Ladies Christian Commission, 11-12.]

The establishment of the Ladies Christian Commission not only provided women with the opportunity to contribute, but established a web of evangelical congregations, all working together in patriotic harmony to assist the Union troops. The needs of the country and the love of Jesus were so intertwined that one could not be separated from the other, Happily, a plan has been formed, which, if carried out, cannot fail of honoring the Saviour, benefiting the soldier, and helping the country on a truly national scale.[footnoteRef:114] Contributing to the relief effort was intrinsic to their faith. The Commission firmly believed its honorable mission would be enacted swiftly, without compensation for those involved, but that they would be willing to take up its noble sacrifice. [114: Ladies Christian Commission, 11.]

The Ladies Christian Commission undoubtedly provided immeasurable aid to not only the overall efforts of the USCC, but to the broader war relief effort. The amassed money from these groups, as reported to the Commission, amounted to nearly two hundred thousand dollars.[footnoteRef:115] While the Commission recognized potential discrepancy within these numbers, these figures can by no means convey an adequate idea of the amount of self-denying labor performed by these societies, or the results of such labor. They cannot be estimated. Neither are they complete as regards to the amount contributed, for the reason that a very large amount of stores and boxes of clothing, prepared by ladies societies, were forwarded to the Commission, whose valuation could not be obtained.[footnoteRef:116] It was felt that And everywhere, whether distinctly named or not, the ladies were the most numerous and successful workers in providing means for the Commission.[footnoteRef:117] The women, while providing the most basic bodily needs for soldiers, also were able to advance their work and gain managerial roles within the USCC, as displayed by the creation of special diet kitchens. [115: Moss, Annals of USCC, 358. ] [116: Moss, Annals of USCC, 358-359. ] [117: Moss, Annals of USCC, 356.]

Special Diet Kitchens

The USCC established special diet kitchens in the beginning of 1864. They provided soldiers in hospitals with diets specifically designed for them to aid in their healing. The special diet kitchens were an invention of Annie Wittenmyer, a former Sanitary Agent for the state of Iowa. During her work with the Iowa troops in the Western armies, she received and distributed donated supplies under the direction of the state government. Being granted such close access to troops, Wittenmyer turned her attention to relieving the mens suffering within hospitals. Lemuel Moss stated

Her observation of the sufferings and necessities of the men, and her desire to see them effectually relieved, turned her thoughts to the subject of hospital diet. While noticing the efforts made by surgeons and their assistants to give to their patients a suitable diet, and also noticing the endeavors to supplement these efforts by voluntary labors, as described above, she saw that the great want could not be overcome except by some plan, comprehensive and exact, that should maintain military discipline on the one hand while on the other it met the special necessities of every individual patient. The result of her observations and thoughts took shape in the system of Christian Commission Special Diet Kitchens, with which her name will be forever associated.[footnoteRef:118] [118: Moss, Annals of USCC, 663-664. ]

She quickly developed a plan for the special diet kitchens. Wittenmyer, who became the General Superintendent of this service, proposed her plan in the latter part of 1863, and it was adopted by the USCC January 29, 1864.[footnoteRef:119] The Commission authorized Wittenmyer to act in consultation and co-operation with Reverend Edward P. Smith, General Field Agent of the United States Christian Commission for the Army of the Cumberland, and with the Field Agents for the other armies of the West and Southwest, and with the Branches of the United States Christian Commission in Pittsburg, Indianapolis, Louisville, St. Louis, Peoria, Chicago, and other places, for the establishment of special diet kitchens in connection with such hospitals in the Western and Southwestern departments, and for their supply with the proper stores for preparation, as they mutually deem wise and best.[footnoteRef:120] [119: Moss, Annals of USCC, 666-667. ] [120: Moss, Annals of USCC, 668. ]

Wittenmyers plan for special diet kitchens took a disciplined, multi-faceted approach. Her plan placed medicine and food on an equal level when it came to the overall health of troops. Moreover, special diets were only to be prescribed by physicians. Her plan embraced the following points: the special diet kitchens, while part of the regular hospital, were government kitchens and under the control of the surgeon in charge, thus distinct from general hospital kitchens; the USCC supplemented the government kitchens with cooking utensils and supplies to secure the highest standards and the variety of food necessary for such specialized diets; experienced and competent Christian women managed each of the special diet kitchens; these women derived their authority from the USCC, received compensation from, made reports to, and cooperated with agents and delegates of the Commission; these women were in charge of all supplies and stores furnished; they also had the privilege of visiting patients, reading to them, writing letters for them, etc.; ward surgeons prescribed diets based on regular diet lists with as much care as he prescribed medicine, these lists were then returned to the kitchen, and governed the distribution of the food; finally, all patients who were in too poor a condition to go to the general table or to eat the food prepared in the general kitchen, had their meals ordered from the special diet kitchen.[footnoteRef:121] [121: Moss, Annals of USCC, 665-666. ]

Since the special diet kitchens were under the control of the government, the soldiers were in some small way able to hold onto their regimented lifestyle even when sick or wounded. The surgeon prescribed and controlled their diet, while kitchen workers prepared everything the soldiers consumed. The special diet kitchens assured their needs would be met through supplemental supplies, food, and funding coming from the USCC. These also ensured that high-quality food would remain available to soldiers. Moreover, the Commission provided and selected women to work within the special diet kitchens, ensuring the constant presence of available workers. These women workers not only prepared the food, but delivered it to patients in a home-like manner, read to them, prayed with them, and wrote letters for them, just as male USCC delegates did. Not only did women start the kitchens but the kitchens also served as an important avenue of service for women. The women carried with them some authority, and were treated as managers by fellow workers, and even received compensation for their work, though it is not clear how much. The women, in preparing these meals for soldiers, were in a sense concocting their medicationsthe special diets were prescribed as carefully, and their healing properties were strongly felt.

The value of a good diet in easing the wounded soldiers suffering cannot be overestimated. Moss stated that It can hardly be needful now to dwell upon the importance of a proper diet for the sick. And yet Miss Nightingales terrible statement is probably still true, that thousands of patients are annually starved, in the midst of plenty, from want of attention to the ways which alone make it possible for them to take food.[footnoteRef:122] The special diet kitchens sought to combat this desire for attentive care. In order to accomplish their goals, the special diet kitchens were heavily regulated: [122: Moss, Annals of USCC, 664. ]

A Diet Bulletin is issued every day to the wards, exhibiting the articles of full, half, and low diet appropriate for that day, together with a list of articles which can be ordered on extra d