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COURSE TITLE: GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
COURSE CODE: BSPH 112
LESSON 01
Objectives of the lesson
By the end of the lesson students should know:
1. The definition of Social Psychology.
2. Major theoretical perspective of Social Psychology.
3. The Social Self concept and factors affecting it.
4. The meaning of attribution and some attribution biases.
Introduction to Social Psychology
Definition of Social Psychology
1. The Scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours are influenced
by others.
2. Social psychology as a scientific study can be divided into categories description and
explanation.
a. Careful description is the first step to account for any phenomenon i.e.
migration and intertribal warfare. Scientists develop reliable and valid
methods to help them avoid biased description.
b. Social Psychologists also seek to explain why people influence one another in
the way they do. A good scientific explanation can connect many unconnected
observations into an interconnected, coherent and meaningful manner.
c. Scientific explanations that connect and organise existing observations are
called theories.
d. Scientific theories organise what is already known and give hints about future
occurrences. A good theory provides information on how to solve the
problem.
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e. Social psychological theories are more likely to suggest searching elsewhere
for the causes of social behaviour – in a person’s interpretation of his or her
immediate social environment.
f. Finally, scientific theories can help people to make predictions about future
events.
3. Social Psychology is an interdisciplinary bridge – Social psychologists consider
interaction of social behaviour at different level of analysis. For example studies of
societies in the world have found that cultural differences in friendliness and
sociability are linked to geographic variations in disease prevalence – Where there are
more diseases, people have traits that lead them to avoid with others.
MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSECTIVES OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
The four (04) major theoretical perspectives (families of theories) of Social Psychology are:
1. The Sociocutural Perspective
a. It states that a person’s prejudices, preferences and political preferences are
affected by factors that work at the level of the group such as nationality,
social class, and current historical trend.
b. Sociocutural theorists’ focus on the importance of social norms or rules about
appropriate behaviour.
c. At the centre of the Sociocutural perspective is the concept of culture which is
a set of beliefs, customs, beliefs and language shared by the people living in a
particular time and place. Culture includes man made features of the
environment houses and clothings. Technological features of the culture (i.e.
cell phones, internet sites) can affect social behaviour.
2. Evolutionary Perspective
a. The evolutionary perspective contends that social behaviours developed
through genetics and inheritance.
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b. Emphasizes the role of biology and gene transmission across generations to
explain current behaviour.
c. The central driving force of evolution is natural selection, the process whereby
animals pass to their off spring those characteristics that help them to survive
and reproduce. New characteristics that are well suited to particular
environments - called adaptations - will replace the characteristics that are less
well suited to the demands and opportunities of those environments present.
d. McDougall and Charles Darwin suggested that human social behaviour (such
as smiling, sneering and other emotional expressions) had evolved along with
physical features such as upright posture.
3. Social Learning Perspective
a. Social learning perspective views social behaviour as driven by each
individual’s past learning experiences with reward and punishment.
b. Not everything the individuals learn is positive, he/she can also learn
something that is negative imitating aggressive people.
c. There are three ways in social behaviour can be acquired:
(1) Association or Classical Conditioning
(2) Reinforcement- learning based on rewards:
(3) Observational- people learn through observing others’ behaviour,
attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviours.
4. Social-Cognitive Perspective
a. The Sociocutural, evolutionary and social learning perspective of Social
Psychology all emphasize the objective environment. Each perspective assumes that
our social behaviours are influenced by real events in the world.
b. According to the social – cognitive perspective, social behaviour is driven by
each person’s subjective interpretations of events in the world.
c. The Socio – Cognitive theorists (i.e. Kurt Lewin) emphasized on the
importance of the interaction of the situation and the person’s interpretation on the
importance of the formation of the social behaviour.
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d. The emphasise on the interaction between inner experience and the outside led
to close association between social psychology and cognitive psychology.
e. Cognitive psychologists study the mental process involved in the noticing,
interpreting, judging and remembering the events of the world.
Summary of the major theoretical perspective of Social Psychology
S/ No Perspective What drives social behaviour Example01 Socio - cutural Large in large social groups. People who work in offices are
more likely to wear suits. 02 Evolutionary Inherited tendencies to respond to
social environment in ways that would have helped our ancestors survive and produce.
Human infants are born with a set with a set of behaviour mechanism (sucking, crying and cooing).
03 Social learning Rewards and punishments. Observing how others people are rewarded and punished for their social behaviour.
A teenage boy decides to become a musician after watching an audience scream in admiration of the lead singer at a concert.
04 Social Cognitive What we pay attention to in a social situation, how we interpret it and how we connect the current situation to related experiences.
If you pass a homeless person on the street, you may be more likely to help if you interpret this plight as something beyond his control and if he reminds you of the parable of the good Samaritan
THE SOCIAL SELF
Social Self can be defined as how an individual perceive others are perceiving him or her or a
conscious understanding of how one sees oneself in relation to social situations.
Components of self-concept
The basic components of the self - concept include:
1. The ideal self - This is what a person would like to be, such as a good, moral, and
well- respected person.
2. The real self - This is what the person really thinks about oneself.
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3. The Public self - This is what the person thinks others think of him. The public self
influences the ideal and real self.
The self-concept is formed on various levels:
1. Cognitive level (intellectual) - it constitutes the ideas, opinions, beliefs, perceptions and the processing of exterior information. We base our self-concept on past experiences and beliefs.
2. Emotional level - this is the judge of our values (our personal qualities). This implies a pleasant or unpleasant feeling that we see in ourselves.
3. Behavioural level - this is the decision to act, to practice a consistent behaviour.
Characteristics of a Positive Self concept
Positive self-concept and good mental health results when all three components of the self
concept (the ideal, real and public self) are compatible. Characteristics of an individual with
positive self concept are as follows:
1. Have Self-confidence.
2. Have the ability to accept criticism and not being defensive.
3. Sets achievable goals.
4. Willingness to take risks and try new experiences.
Factors affecting the self concept
The factors that can affect the development of the self concept are as follows:
1. Life Experiences - Life experiences, including success and failure, will develop and
influence a person’s self-concept. Experiences in which the individual has
accomplished a goal and achieved success will positively reinforce the development
of a healthy self-concept. Difficult experiences and/or failures can negatively impact a
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person’s self-concept unless they have established coping strategies to deal effectively
with these challenges to their self-concept.
2. Heredity and Culture - Individuals typically grow up learning and integrating their
family’s heredity and culture into their life. Beginning at birth, heredity and culture
shape and influence a person’s self-concept. Individuals who have integrated their
heredity and culture into their life tend to have a healthier self-identity and self-
concept.
3. Stress and Coping - Common stressors include financial, work-related, relationship,
and health issues. Individuals react and deal with stress in different ways depending
on their past experiences and success and failure with dealing with stress. Individuals
who learn and use effective coping strategies to deal with stress will most likely
develop a positive self-concept. People who become overwhelmed with stress may
feel hopeless and powerless, leading to a feeling of low self-confidence and self-
esteem.
4. Health Status - People tend to take their good health for granted. When they become
ill, their altered health status can change their self-concept.
5. Developmental Stage - Growth and development begins at birth and continues into
adulthood. Typically a person will achieve specific developmental tasks as one passes
through each stage of life. The successful accomplishment of each task will influence
and reinforce the development of a healthy self-concept. Individuals who experience
developmental delays or situations in life that prevent or delay the accomplishment of
developmental tasks can have an altered or negative self-concept.
Interventions of promoting a positive self-concept
The interventions of promoting a positive self –concept in an individual are as follows:
1. Identify the individual’s strengths.
2. Listen to the individual’s self-description.
3. Involve the individual in decision making.
4. Keep goals realistic.
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5. Encourage the individual to think positively.
6. Maintain an environment conducive to individual self-expression.
7. Explain to the client how to use positive self-talk instead of negative self-talk.
Self - esteem
Self - esteem is a personal opinion of oneself and is shaped by individuals’ relationships with
others, experiences, and accomplishments in life. It also refers to the confidence and worth and how one feels about oneself. Self- esteem influences everything one does, thinks and feels
A healthy self-esteem is necessary for the development of mental well-being and a positive
self-concept.
The signs of high self-esteem in a person
1. Accept yourself
2. Admit mistakes
3. Take responsibility for one’s actions
4. Little self-doubt
5. Feel competent
6. Willing to learn and try new things
7. Viewing mistakes as a learning process
The signs of low self esteem in a person
1. Easily influenced by other people in negative ways.
2. Worry a lot about what others think about him.
3. Seem to be more confident than he/she actually feels.
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4. Engage in activities that endangers one or others’ health.
5. Avoid new challenges.
6. Viewing other people negatively
Increasing self - esteem
The following are the activities that increase self esteem in a person:
1. Support an individual in grieving over the loss.
2. Provide resources for role-modelling or instructions regarding role.
3. Praise and encourage the person when he does tasks successfully.
4. Provide opportunities for discussing new role.
5. Advise an individual to set achievable goals.
6. Avoid criticising a person with low esteem.
7. Individual to express feelings about role changes.
ATTRIBUTION
Definition: The way people understand the causes of things happening and the causes of
people's behaviour, including their own. Attributions may be correct or incorrect, and can
form the basis of misunderstandings.
When finding out for the causes of other people’s behaviour, answers can stem from
individuals internal causes (such as their own characteristics, motives or intentions), external
causes (such as some aspects of physical environment or social world) or from the
combination of the internal and external causes.
Kelley’s Theory of Causal Attribution
Kelley came up with three basic factors which affect people in explaining the causes of others behaviour namely:
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1. Consistency - Whether the behaviour is relatively stable across time (a similar pattern) or unstable (an infrequent occurrence).
2. Distinctiveness – Whether the person’s performance is different on this task than on most of the tasks in the job.
3. Consensus – The degree to which the person’s peers behave in the similar manner.
The combination of the three assessment results gives an explanation for cause of the individual’s behaviour in the given situation.
Kelley suggested that we are most likely to attribute another’s behaviour to internal causes under conditions where consensus and distinctiveness are low, but consistency is high. In contrast we are most likely to attribute another’s behaviour to external causes under conditions where consensus, consistency and distinctiveness are all high. Finally, we attribute to a combination of these factors (internal and external cause) when consensus is low, consistency and distinctiveness are high.
Examples of Attribution biases
1. Fundamental Attribution Error – This happen when we are trying to understand
and explain what happens in social settings, we tend to view behaviour as a
particularly significant factor. We then tend to explain behaviour in terms of internal
disposition, such as personality traits, abilities, motives, etc. as opposed to external
situational factors. This can be due to our focus on the person more than their
situation, about which we may know very little. We also know little about how they
are interpreting the situation.
When observing other people performing a task, we are likely to make this
Fundamental Attribution Error. When we are thinking about ourselves, however, we
will tend to make situational attributions.
Example of a fundamental attribution error - I assume you have not done much today
because you are lazy, rather than perhaps tired or lack the right resources.
Fundamental attribution error can be due to the following factors:
a. Having a self-centered orientation, adopting a self-protective and defensive
posture and seek to guard one’s concerns in conflicts.
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b. The information available to actors and observers may differ; differing data
may entail different subsequent causal attributions.
c. Differences in the focus of attention among the actors and observers.
2. Negative Impression Bias is another common attribution bias. Attributors have a
strong and reliable tendency to overemphasize negative information about the
individuals being judged. Negative information is perceived to carry greater weight
than positive information. This negativism is most evident when parties are in serious
and deep conflict situation. Parties are almost completely biased against the other
party. They see very little well in the respondents. This results in a complete lack of
trust and respect in the relationship. Furthermore, these negative perceptions are then
used to judge the other person’s subsequent behaviours.
Some of the approaches to overcome the negative impression bias are:
a. Focusing on positive attributes.
b. Ignoring unhelpful negative comments.
c. Being understanding and maintaining posture of impartiality.
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LESSON 2
ATTITUDES AND PREJUDICE
Objective of the lesson
To ensure that the students know the following:
a. Definition of attitudes and their components
b. Importance of attitudes.
c. How attitudes are formed.
d. Definition of prejudices and overcoming them.
Attitudes
Attitudes are positive or negative evaluations of particular things.
Components of attitudes
The three basic components of attitudes are: emotional, informational, and behavioural.
1. The emotional component involves the person’s feelings about an object and they can be positive, neutral, or negative.
2. The informational component consists of the beliefs and information the individual has about the object.
3. The behavioural component consists of a person’s tendencies to behave in a particular way toward an object.
The importance of attitudes
1. Attitudes serve as one way to organize our relationship with our world. They make our interactions more predictable affording us a degree of control. For example, the attitude “I like working for this company” is very useful in guiding one’s behaviour towards the company’s work.
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2. Attitudes also enable people to reduce the vast amount of information that they possess into manageable units. People’s attitude represents the combination of many bits of information.
3. People can use others attitudes to make judgments about them.
4. Help in developing relationship with other people.
5. Attitudes can be useful in predicting behaviour, for instance people’s attitudes will determine how they will vote in an election.
Attitude formation
Attitudes come from the following sources:
1. Classical conditioning: Through Classical Conditioning, people come to like or dislike new objects or events merely because they are associated with objects or events they like or dislike. For instance, when we associate people with something good (like the receipt of good news) we like them more even if they did not cause good news. Conversely, when we associate people with something negative, we like them less.
2. Operant Conditioning: Through the process of Operant Conditioning, people learn by being rewarded or punished. People can learn to hold an attitude in that way.
3. Observational learning: We often learn by observing others. When we see others being punished, we avoid their behaviours and the attitudes they represent. When we see others rewarded, we engage in those behaviours and adopt the attitudes they represent.
4. Heredity: The studies on attitudes have shown that there is unlearned, genetic component to many attitudes such as those involving political and religious issues. For instance, attitudes towards the death penalty or censorship are more likely to be influenced by heredity than are attitudes towards teenage driving.
Prejudice
Definition
Prejudice is defined as attitudes, generally negative, towards members of specific social group that are based solely on their belonging to these groups, OR judgement of people based on the group they belong rather than based on their individual characteristics.
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Overcoming prejudice
Prejudice can be overcomed by using Emotional Intelligence (EI) by following three steps. EI refers to the ability to perceive, control and evaluate emotions and manage relationship with other people. Emotional intelligence demands self-awareness and then using that self-awareness to change how we think, feel, and act.
1. Recognize: Accept that prejudice has seeped into our thinking and Pay particular attention to your thoughts and your feelings about individuals. When you discover that you have bad thoughts and ill feelings about an individual you are in a better position to confront them.
2. Redirect: Having the courage to admit prejudice is a great first step. Now, redirect both your thinking and ill feelings about the individuals. To confront those ill-conceived “truths,” ask yourself to find contrary evidence to reframe your thinking and form new and more accurate truths. Keep challenging your thinking and introducing new information. One of the ways to redirect your thinking is to get to know people who are the target of your prejudice by spending time and openly exchanging ideas with them, and that will help in getting rid of negative emotional reactions about them.
Redirecting also can involve deciding how you intend to treat people differently from what you currently doing. Once that intention to treat people differently is in your consciousness, you should consider it every time you encounter someone who is the target of your prejudice.
3. Reflect: Reflection is a powerful tool for overcoming prejudice. Each day, we have an opportunity to reflect on our interactions with others as well as our intended outcomes. If we use our reflection time to consider the result that our words or behaviours caused, we're in a much better position to redirect our behaviours in our next encounter.
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LESSON 03
Helping behaviour
Objectives of the lesson
To ensure that the students know the following:
a. Definition of helping behaviour and altruism.
b. Factors affecting helping behaviour
Helping behaviour
Helping behaviour refers to voluntary actions that benefit others, without providing
immediate or obvious benefits for the helper. Helping behaviour is also called prosocial
behaviour.
Altruism is helping someone without benefit to the helper.
Factors affecting helping behaviour
1. The Bystander effect: This is a reduced tendency of witnesses to an emergency to
help when they believe that there are other potential helpers present. As the number of
bystanders increased, the percentage of helpers in an emergency will reduce.
2. Mood:
(a) Effects of Positive Moods - When the individual is in good mood, he will be
more willing to offer to a help than when he is in a bad mood.
(b) Negative-State Relief (Feel Bad, Do Good) - When people feel guilty, they
are more likely to help. For example, Harris et al. (1975) found that church goers were
more likely to donate money before, rather than after, confession.
3. Culture differences: Cultural differences are expressed differently between
individualistic and collectivistic societies. Studies have shown that someone living in
the U.S. is least likely to help someone in need than someone living in Australia, India
or Kenya.
4. Residential Mobility: People who have lived in one place for a long time are more
likely to engage in prosocial behaviours.
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5. Environment (Rural versus Urban): Studies have shown that People in rural areas
are more helpful than those in urban areas. One explanation is that people from rural
settings are brought up to be friendly and are more likely to trust strangers as
compared to those brought up in urban settings.
6. Motivation: the four motives for helping others:
(a) Egoism - where help is offered to benefit oneself, including, to secure
material and social rewards and avoid punishment.
(b) Altruism - where help benefits another individual.
(c) Collectivism - where prosocial behaviour aids the welfare of a social group.
(d) Principalism - where help is offered in order to sustain moral principles.
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Lesson 04
Objectives of the lesson
To ensure that the students know the following:
a. Definition of social behaviour, types of social influence
b. Reasons for conformity, obedience and minority social influences.
c. Definition of group and group dynamics.
d. Types of groups and stages in group formation.
e. Factors influencing group formation.
Social influence
Definition
Social influence is when people are influenced by others such that they try to display the
attitude or behaviour of the social group either by obeying or conforming to the majority or
the minority.
Social influence occurs because of normative and informational social influence.
Types of social influence
a. Conformity - This is where people either change their behaviour so that they adopt
that of the majority.
b. Obedience - This is where the people behave as they are told to, usually by a figure
they perceive to have some authority over them.
c. Minority social influence - This happens when the minority influences the attitudes
and behaviour of the majority.
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Reasons for Conformity
1. Informational social influence - people will yield to the majority because they want
to be accepted.
2. Normative social influence - people have the desire to be liked by the social group
and therefore conform to the behaviour and attitudes displayed by the majority.
3. Group size: Studies have shown that conformity is most likely to occur in big groups.
4. Task difficulty: when an individual is unsure (and a task difficult), then they are more
likely to conform to the majority.
5. Individual differences: people with low self-esteem, and females, are more likely
than males to conform.
Reasons for Obedience
1. Environment - obedience appears to occur in an unfamiliar environment.
2. Legitimate authority - obedience occurs when people are in the presence of an
authority figure whom they believe has some authority over them.
3. Socialisation - children are socialised from a young age to obey and disobedience is a
punishable offence.
4. Passivity - some people prefer to avoid confrontation and therefore obey.
Reasons for Minority Social Influences
1. Consistent but flexible arguments.
2. When they are committed to their cause, against the majority’s belief.
3. When there is relevance of their argument to current social thinking.
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Group dynamics
A group can be defined as “Two or more people who share a common goal and behave in
accordance with such a goal. Through interaction, people influence the attitudes and
behaviours of each other.
Group dynamics refers to the forces and interaction between members of group in a social
situation.
Types of groups
1. A formal group is created within an organization to complete a specific role or task. It
last for several days to several weeks, require more planning as to the size and composition of
the group, have greater structure and have the same group members throughout its existence.
2. Informal groups are established by individuals within the organization who need to
interact with one another. Have a short lifetime ranging from a few minutes to the class
period are generally created quickly (e.g., the students may divide themselves into groups and
discuss a certain concept in social psychology).
Five Stages involved in group formation
1. Forming: members start to get to know each other.
2. Storming: members start to work through areas of disagreement.
3. Norming: a common sense of identity and purpose starts to emerge.
4. Performing: the group starts to perform and has shared norms and goals.
5. Adjourning: the group disperses as it has achieved it’s aimed to or there is a loss of
interest and motivation.
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Factors influencing group formation
1. Physical proximity: The physical distance between group members is a basis for
relationship formation. In general, when the group members run into any problems at work
they consult each other or those located in the same geographical location with them.
2. Age and experience: In the social setting groups may be formed based on the
experience and age.
3. Social background: People tend to tend to form groups based on their social status
i.e. social economic or education status.
4. Ethnicity: People in the society may form groups on certain traditions they observe
i.e. Zambians, Indians and Chinese groups.
5. Group Cohesiveness: Group cohesiveness is the factor that binds the group together,
giving individuals a sense of membership and group identity. Social interaction provided by
trying to achieve goals, leads an individual to feel a sense of cohesion towards a group. This
feeling of cohesiveness then encourages continuity of membership towards that group.
6. Group size: The group members are dedicated to their work, when the group size is
small. But when the group is big, there is a tendency of group members of reducing their
performance (social loafing).
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LESSON 05
Objectives of the lesson
By the end of the lesson students should know:
1. The definition of environment and social behaviour.
2. How the environment affect the social behaviour.
The Environment and Social Behaviour
Definitions:
Environment -The sum total of all surroundings of a living organism, including natural forces and other living things, which provide conditions for development and growth as well as of danger and damage. The environmental factors that can affect social behaviour include the physical, cultural, demographic, economic, political regulations and technology.
Social behaviour - Social behaviour is a term used to describe the general conduct exhibited by individuals within a society. It is essentially in response to what is deemed acceptable by a person’s peer group or involves avoiding behaviour that is characterized as unacceptable.
How the environment affect the social behaviour
The environment affects social behaviour in the following ways:
1. Crowding - The world population is estimated to be seven billion and crowding is being experienced in many places of the world. Therefore the subjective feeling of being crowded exerts negative effects on the people. Feeling crowded threatens ones sense of personal control, the sense of influencing what is happening around. It may also lead to experience information over load, the feeling that the environment is providing more information than what can be assimilated.
Studies conducted in prisons and schools in United States found that overcrowding has negative effects such as aggression and absenteeism.
Crowded situations appear to result in poorer performance.
Crowding may have a detrimental effect on health. Studies indicate that crowding is associated with increases in Non Communicable Diseases (diabetes, blood pressure), Stress and Communicable Diseases (diarrhoea diseases).
2. Noise - Evidence suggests that exposure to noise especially, high and unacceptable levels often encountered in most large cities can harm people’s health. Studies found that
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most people live near large factories or airports show higher incidences of blood pressure and stokes.Furthermore, it was observed prolonged exposure to loud noise seems to interfere with the performance of at least some tasks such as the performance of students in schools near airports or factories.
3. Temperature - Studies have shown that heat or high temperatures are associated with violence.4. Light – Studies have shown that indoor light can induce shifts in people’s moods and these shifts in affective states can exert important effects on people’s behaviour. It appears that relatively dim light and light that is ‘warm’ in appearance produces more positive mood than bright light and light than is relatively ‘cool’. Light induces shifts in mood, in turn, influence performance on a wide range of tasks.
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Lesson 6: Introduction to Medical Anthropology.
Objectives of the lesson
By the end of the lesson students should know:
1. The definitions of Medical anthropology, health and culture.
2. The theoretical approaches to Medical Anthropology.
Definitions
Medical Anthropology is the study of health, healing, illness and healing across the range of
human societies and over the course of human experience. It includes the ways that human
communities understand and respond to the challenges of health and illness, it also studies the
meaning of signs of illness and suffering as part of general study of culture. It tries to
interpret them in light of wider understanding of resources, technology, ritual and religion.
Medical anthropology is the study of how cultural, ecological, social, and historical forces
impact the medicine used in a particular society, individual health, the health of the
community and the environmental stability in a region.
Medical anthropologists are interested in studying patterns of human health, sickness and
death by considering both biological and cultural factors, i.e. what can be termed a
“biocultural synthesis”. For example, high rates of infant death caused by diarrhea.
In particular medical anthropologists are interesting in studying and seeking ways to deal
with the following issues:
• why some human groups are more affected than others by certain illnesses
• why the effectiveness of treatment varies from group to group
• cultural variation in conceptions of health and illness
• cultural universals in health and illness
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• political and social forces that affect illness and health
Medical anthropologists are concerned with how the inequities of wealth and power affect
illness and health. For example, cash crops replacing subsistence agriculture. Migration,
wealth and power in inequalities have brought about some particular health concerns.
In order to reach accurate conclusions about the role of these forces in medicine and general
health, medical anthropology draws upon a variety of academic disciplines, including cultural
anthropology, healthcare and biology.
An application of medical anthropology has helped to change how hospitals and primary
healthcare services are introduced into communities whilst incorporating the influences
cultural and environmental factors present in communities.
Health
World Health Organisation (WHO) has defined health as the complete physical, mental and
social well-being and capability to function in the face of changing circumstances. The WHO
definition also emphasised, the highest possible level of health that allows people to
participate in social life and work productivity.
Medical Anthropology has adopted the perspective of health that emphasizes the importance
of access to resources (materials and non-materials) necessary for sustaining life at a highest
level. Health is analysed from the perspective of the societal factors that affect the
distribution of health resources and threats to health (i.e. environmental contamination).
Health resources are affected by the political decisions. The recognition of social, economic,
and environmental factors on health has attracted attention on the interactions of biological
and social conditions.
Culture
Culture is the characteristics of a particular group of people, defined by everything from
language, religion, social habits, music and arts. Culture is influenced by people through
socialization.
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All human groups develop some set of beliefs, patterns of thought, perceptions consistent
with their cultural systems for defining and conceptualizing disease.
All societies have medical practices and beliefs based on theories of diseases and disease
causation with an internal logic of their own, and they should not be dismissed as illogical or
irrational.
Theoretical approaches of Medical anthropology
1. Medical ecology
Anthropologists using an ecological perspective to understand disease patterns view
human populations as biological as well as cultural entities. Taking a systemic
approach in research, culture, genetic and physiological processes are seen as
resources for responding to environmental problems. The evolution, demography,
and epidemiology of humans are subject to ecological forces.
A key concept in medical ecology is "adaptation," the changes, modifications, and
variations that increase the chances of survival, reproductive success, and general
wellbeing in an environment. Humans adapt through genetic change, physiological
responses (short-term or developmental), cultural knowledge and practices, and
individual coping mechanisms.
A basic premise of medical ecology is that health is a measure of environmental
adaptation, and disease indicates disequilibrium. A second premise is that the
evolution of disease parallels human biological and Cultural Revolution.
Medical ecology assumes that biomedical disease categories are universal. Disease
rates can be measured, compared through time and across geographic space, and
correlated with changes in settlement patterns and subsistence.
The impact of diseases of contact, such as malaria, smallpox, and tuberculosis, on the
native populations of the New World can be studied historically.
2. Ethnomedicine
The ethnomedical perspective focuses on health beliefs and practices, cultural values,
and social roles. Health ethnographies encompass beliefs, knowledge, and values of
specialists and lay people; the roles of healers, patients or clients, and family
members.
A key concept in ethno medicine is "Explanatory Model," introduced by Arthur
Kleinman (1980). Explanatory models (EMs) are notions about the causes of illness,
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diagnostic criteria, and treatment options. In a clinical encounter, the EMs held by
practitioners, patients, and family often differ.
A growing body of qualitative and quantitative research suggests that individual
patients and physicians often have differing perspectives, or 'explanatory models,'
regarding the patient's health condition or illness. Discordance between explanatory
models may lead to difficulties in communication, management of the disease and
poor disease outcomes. Disparity among EMs is a result of cultural, ethnic, or class
differences, communication remains problematic.
EMs are powerful and useful in applied medical anthropology (for non-professionals),
hence, Professionals need to go beyond this model and account for social relations.
The disease-illness distinction is an important concept ethnomedicine. Disease,
defined clinically as deviation from medical norms, is considered to be a Western
biomedical category and not universal. Biomedical terms such as "hypertension' or
"diabetes" may not correspond to diagnostic categories of a given ethnomedical
system. Physician’s explanatory models of illness are largely biomedical in that they
emphasize the biological and physical aspects of disease etiology. In contrast,
culturally, illness is defined as the experience of impairment or distress.
Culturally, the atiology of the illness can be located in social and spiritual realms, so
that aetiology may include sorcery, soul loss, and spirit intrusion.
3. Applied medical anthropology.
Many areas of medical anthropology reflect a growing trend of applying cultural
knowledge to resolve health problems.
Cultural knowledge and intercultural perspective help facilitate relationship among
health provider, patient and institutional cultures.
Cultural perspective inform health providers regarding how the patient, families and
significant others conceptualize the health problems and will respond to the proposed
cure.
A cultural perspective enhances effectiveness in the clinical practices and community
behaviour where possible.
Cultural sensitivity in the provision of the health care services will ensure effective
communication, appropriate resource utilization and success of the treatment. Cultural
approaches empower health care consumers by providing the perspective that enables
them to respond to interpersonal and institutional aspects of health care.
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Medical anthropology addresses the interaction between culture and health in the
following ways:
Training of the health care providers to be cultural sensitive.
Mediating among different community segments, health care providers and
clients.
Researching on health threats and responses in the communities.
Developing health policies and programs that are cultural responsive.
Participating in advocacy and community empowerment to ensure the
development of responsive programs.
4. Political economy
When applied to studying health and health care, the political economy of health may
include ways in which health services are differently allocated based on wealth, and
ways in which policy impacts health and delivery of health services. Political
economy of health seeks to uncover hidden causes of poor health as they relate to
economy of the country while examining health structures on a macro and micro
levels.
Concerned with the macro societal determinants impacting health, the political
economy of health approach places its attention on the economic and political
structures lying at the base of the social production of morbidity or the rate of disease
incidence in a population group.
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Lesson 7: Ecology, Adaptation and Evolution
Objectives:
By the end of the lesson, students should know:
1. The definition of ecology.
2. Components of the ecosystem, energy and nutrients transfer in the ecosystem.
3. Meaning of Adaptation
4. The importance of adaptation to climate change.
5. Definition of Evolution.
6. The theory of Natural Selection.
EcologyDefinitionEcology is the study of organisms in their natural home interacting with their surroundings or environment. The environment consists of living things (i.e., plants, animals and micro - organisms in the soil) and non-living things (i.e., water, light, soil and heat).
Ecology can also be defined as the study of ecosystems. An ecosystem is an integrated unit or system consisting of interacting organisms whose survival depends upon each other.
Components of the ecosystemsAn ecosystem varies in sizes, structures and compositions. They are two basic components of the ecosystems (the biotic and abiotic) as described below:
1. Biotic components - Different living organisms constitute the biotic component of an ecosystem and belong to the following categories:
a. Producers - These are mainly producing food themselves e.g., Green plants produce food by photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight from raw materials like water and carbon dioxide. They are known as photo - autotrophs (auto = self, photo = light, troph = food). There are some chemo - autotrophs, which are a group of bacteria, producing their food from oxidation of certain chemicals, e.g. sulphur bacteria.b. Consumers - These organisms get their food by feeding on other organisms. They are of the following types:
(1) Herbivores - Which feed on plants, e.g. rabbit, insect.(2) Carnivores - Which feed on herbivores, e.g. snake and fish.
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(3) Omnivores - Which feed on both plants and animals, e.g. humans and rats.(4) Detritivores - Which feed on dead organisms, e.g. earth worm, crab and ants.(5) Decomposers - These are micro - organisms which break down organic matter into inorganic compounds and in this process they derive their nutrition. They play a very important role in converting the essential nutrients from unavailable organic form to free inorganic form that is available for use by plants e.g. bacteria, fungi.
2. Abiotic components - Various physico-chemical components of the ecosystem constitute the abiotic structure:
a. Physical components include sunlight, solar intensity, rainfall, temperature, wind speed and direction, water availability, soil texture etc.b. Chemical components include major essential nutrients like C, N, P, K, H2, O2, S and micronutrients like Fe, Mo, Zn, Cu, salts and toxic substances like pesticides.
Energy and nutrients transfer in the ecosystem.
Heat lost Heat lost
Heat lost Heat lost
Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external sources. Primary producers (plants, algae, and some bacteria) use solar energy to produce organic plant material through photosynthesis. Herbivores feed solely plants. Predators eat the herbivores. Decomposers (i.e. bacteria, worms, and insects) break down wastes and dead organisms and return nutrients to the soil. The plants use nutrients to grow.
Ecosystem has different food chains and food webs. Food chain is the sequence of eating and being eaten, e.g. Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk. Food chains are interlinked and this is known as Food Web.
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Sunnnn
The producers Consumer
Inorganic nutrients poolDecomposers
At every successive step in the food - chain, there is huge loss of about 90% of the energy in different processes (respiration, excretion, locomotion) and only 10% moves to next level. Nutrients (Materials) in an ecosystem move in a cyclic manner. The cycling of nutrients takes place between the biotic and abiotic components and this process is called biogeochemical cycles (bio = living, geo = earth, chemical = nutrients).
AdaptationDefinitionAdaptation is a characteristic of an organism that enables it to function more effectively or survive in its surroundings. An adaptation is a characteristic that enhances the survival or reproduction of organisms. Natural selection is the only mechanism known to cause the evolution of adaptations, so many biologists would simply define an adaptation as a characteristic that has evolved by natural selection. The word “adaptation” also refers to the process whereby the members of a population become better suited to their environment through change in a characteristic that affects their survival or reproduction.
Importance of adaptation to climate changes
The importance of climatic changes are as follows:
1. To reduce vulnerability to the climate change and address the health risks projected to occur over the coming decades. Changes in climate may enhance the spread of some diseases. Higher air temperatures can increase cases of bacterial related diseases because bacterias grow more rapidly in warm environments. Flooding and heavy rainfall can cause overflows from sewage treatment plants into fresh water sources.
2. To re-orient and expand the national and international programmes aimed at reducing the health impact of climate change. Changes in temperature and precipitation, as well as droughts and floods, will likely affect agricultural yields and production. In some regions, especially developing countries, these impacts may compromise food security and threaten human health through malnutrition.
3. Individuals, communities, and government agencies can take steps to moderate the impacts of climate change on human health. Heat waves can lead to heat stroke and dehydration, and are the most common cause of weather-related deaths. Excessive heat is more likely to affect populations in northern latitudes where people are less prepared to cope with excessive temperatures.
4. To improve international surveillance systems of diseases so as facilitate national and regional preparedness to reduce future vulnerability to epidemic. It is expected that, this will improve the implementation of the international Health Regulations.
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EvolutionDefinitionThe term evolution refers to changes in the frequency of adaptive characteristics in the population as a whole. Living things that are well adapted to their environment survive and reproduce. Those that are not well adapted do not survive and reproduce. An adaptation is any characteristic that increases fitness, the ability to survive and reproduce.
The parents pass on heritable characteristics to off spring, which are influenced by the genes. Heritable adaptive characteristics become more common in a population over many generations and this process is called evolution by natural selection.
The Theory of Natural Selection
Charles Darwin proposed the theory of Natural Selection and it has four components namely:
The ability of a population to expand is infinite, while the resources available to sustain the said population are finite. This dynamic causes a struggle for existence among individuals as they compete for resources.
Organisms vary in their physical qualities These variations allow some members to reproduce more successfully than others. These variations are inherited by offspring from their parents.
Natural selection means that only the fittest survive. The fittest are usually defined as those with the characteristics, or adaptations, that allow them to survive longer in a certain environment. In this way, they are selected by nature to reproduce and pass those adaptations on to their offspring, while animals who are not able to adapt or lack the necessary qualities to survive will die without reproducing, thus eliminating their genes from the gene pool. The idea is that eventually, you will end up with a population where only certain adaptations that are perfect for surviving in the given environment are present.
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Lesson 8: Cultural, Health transition
Objectives of the lesson
By the end of the lesson students should know:
1. The definition of Culture.
2. Cultural factors that influence health care delivery
3. Health Transition and its components.
Culture
Definition
Culture is defined as learned behaviour which has been socially acquired. It is the shared and organized body of customs, skills, ideas and values, transmitted socially from one generation to other. Culture plays an important role in human societies. It lays down norms of behaviour and provides mechanisms which secure for an individual, his personal and social survival. Culture includes everything which one generation can tell, convey or hand down to the next.
Acculturation refers to culture contact. There are various ways by which the acculturation can occur, like in the way of trade and commerce, industrialization, propagation of religion, education and conquest to name some.
Cultural factors that influence health care delivery
1. Role of family: The lack of parental attention and peer pressure may lead the child to involve him or herself in health risk behaviours such as smoking, alcoholism and drug addiction and dating at an early age (a common practice in most developed countries).
2. Beliefs in the family: The rural folk in a developing country like Zambia have many misconceptions related to the family size and many of them believe that children are poor man’s wealth, and the family is not complete without the birth of a male child. These misconceptions may lead to large families which has a significant impact on the economic status and health of individual. The close birth intervals here may result in maternal malnutrition, nutritional anemia, low birth weight and increased maternal and infant mortality rates.
3. Sex and marriage: Sexual customs vary among different religious and ethnic groups. The practices of polygamy (marrying of one man to several women) and polyandry (marrying
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of one woman to several men) are seen in many tribal communities as associated with the high rate of venereal diseases and HIV/AIDS incidences.
4. Maternal and child health: Mother and child health (MCH) is surrounded by a wide range of customs and beliefs which can be classified as bad and good. For example, prolonged breast feeding, oil bath, massage and exposure to sun are among the good customs. The avoidance of foods such as papaya, milk, fish, meat, egg and leafy vegetables among pregnant women in some communities may have an adverse influence on the foetus development.
Adverse practices in child rearing have an effect on health of the child such as:
The deliveries conducted by untrained birth attendants may increase the incidences of maternal and infant mortality.
The child is not put into breast feeding in the first three days after birth in some rural parts of the country (Gwalior region of Madhya Pradesh) due to the misconception that colostrum is harmful, instead the child is given water. This may prevent the transfer of maternal antibodies and thereby increase the risk for many opportunistic infections in the infant.
There are some beliefs that diarrhoea among children is common during teething and does not need to be taken care of, that result in dehydration.
5. Personal hygiene: Majority of the people in the rural areas use open fields for defecation. The villagers are averse to the idea of latrines due to the misconception that the latrines are meant for city dwellers where they lack open fields. They are often ignorant about the ill effects of improper disposal of human excreta which may result in water, food and soil contamination.
6. Age: Studies have demonstrated older people in rural areas are less inclined to patronize modern health facilities than the young people.
7. Communication: Problems in communication due to cultural differences between patients and physicians has negative impact on the delivery of the health care services.
8. Western culture: Western culture takes a biomedical approach to health care. However, many cultures take a more holistic approach that includes the body, mind, and spirit. Providers, who work with the patient’s belief system, rather than against it, will have greater success in delivery and outcomes.
Health transition
1. Health Transitions are demographic and epidemiologic changes that have occurred in many developing countries, which are characterized by major growth in the population and in the frequency of the diseases.
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2. The health transition is the result of improvements in maternal and child health through primary health programs. Health care programs are responsible for increase in the birth rates and reduced maternal and infant mortality.
3. Health transition has got two (02) components:
a. Demographic transition – refers to the change from high fertility and mortality rates in less developed societies to low fertility and low mortality rates in 'modern’ societies.
b. Epidemiological transition - which was introduced to describe the changes in mortality and morbidity patterns as the societies' demographic, economic and social structures changes.
The Demographic Transition Theory
This is the transition from a combination of high birth rate and high death rate to a combination of low birth rate and low death rate.
The demographic transition theory has got four stage as shown on the diagram below.
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The Demographic Transition Theory
Stage I
Both birth and death rates are high with the two rates being approximately equal Population growth is slow, although the potential for more rapid growth exists The death rate fluctuates in response to war and disease This stage involves a low-income agricultural economy
Stage II
Dramatic reduction in death rate as a result of industrialization and related medical and health advances
This reduction in death rate is not accompanied by a parallel reduction in birth rate Population growth is rapid
Stage III
Declining birth rate, the result of voluntary decisions to reduce family size facilitated by advances in contraceptive techniques
This is related to increased standards of living Population growth is once again slow
Stage IV
Birth and death rates are again, as in the first stage approximately equal The transition involves a change in high birth rate and death rates to a much more
socially acceptable state of affairs
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Developed vs. Developing Nations
All industrialized nations have gone through these stages of demographic transition The developing nations have completed Stage I and are currently in stage II - a phase
of explosive rates of natural increase While these countries will eventually complete their demographic transitions, what is
uncertain is how long this process will take Countries in western Europe took roughly 200 years to complete their transitions
The Epidemiologic Transition theory
It comprises three stages characterized by categories in which fertility levels and causes of death are grouped
a. The age of pestilence and famine.
b. The age of receding pandemics.
c. The age of chronic diseases.
1. The age of pestilence and famine
• This first stage of the health transition stage (the age of pestilence and famine) is characterized by the kind of mortality that has prevailed throughout most of human history.
• Epidemic, famines and wars cause huge numbers of deaths.
• The provision of basic ecological resources, i.e. food and fresh water, is inadequate.
• The lack of sufficient infrastructure for most services
• High levels of mortality and fertility.
• Infectious diseases are dominant, causing high mortality rates, especially among children.
• In this stage, women of childbearing age also face considerable risks due to the complications associated with pregnancy and childbirth
• Life expectancy is between 20-40years
• Population growth, improvements in health, and advances in socio-economic development are all limited by the local carrying capacity of the environment.
• Some developing countries are still in this stage.
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2. The age of receding pandemics
• It involved a reduction in the prevalence of infectious diseases, and a fall in mortality rates.
• As a consequence, life expectancy at birth climbed rapidly from about 35 to 50.
• Increased economic growth leads to a sharp fall in deaths from infectious diseases, and from malnutrition
• Finally, the introduction of modem healthcare and health technologies, e.g. immunization programs and the introduction of antibiotics enable the control and elimination of group of infectious diseases such as acute bronchitis, influenza and syphilis.
• As fertility rates are high, a population grows rapidly at this stage of the health transition. Without moving to the next stage, the carrying capacity of the local ecosystem may be exceeded.
• As population and ecological pressures increase, food and water become scarce, and the lack of ecological and social resources may cause economic development to stagnate.
• If there is a surplus of available resources, the transition may be accelerated, but if they are lacking, the transition may slow, or even stagnate in this phase.
3. The age of chronic diseases.
• In the third stage the elimination of infectious diseases makes way for chronic diseases among the elderly i.e. hypertension and diabetic.
• There is little population growth, due to low levels of mortality and fertility.
• When the health transition is at an advanced stage, life expectancy may exceed 80 years.
• There is increased demand for healthcare related to the diseases of older people.
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LESSON 9: Nutrition, Growth and Child HealthObjectives of the lesson1. Definition of term:
a. Nutritionb. Healthc. Child health
2. Classes of nutrients, their sources and functions3. Factors affecting human growth.4. Factors affecting child health and development.
NUTRITION Nutrition is the science of food, the nutrients in foods and how the body uses those nutrients. It includes the process of ingestion, digestion, absorption, metabolism, transport, storage and excretion of those nutrients.
Six (06) classes of nutrients
1. Water:
a. Water is at the centre of life and nobody can live for more than 3 to 5 days without any water intake.
b. It constitutes 75 per cent of the total bodyweight. Almost all body fluids are present as water solutions. For example, blood contains 98 per cent water.
c. The main functions of water inside the human body are as follows:
(1) Water acts as medium in which various metabolic and a biochemical reactions take place.
(2) Water helps in absorption of various nutrients present in the food in the digestive system. By serving as medium, it facilitates the digestion of food at various stages in the digestive tract.
(3) Water serves as medium for transport of chemicals to and from cells.
(4) Water helps in maintaining body temperature through perspiration.
(5) Water helps in removal of waste materials from the body through urine.
2. Carbohydrates:
a. There are three main types of carbohydrates, which are sugars, starches and fibre.
b. Sugars are found in fruits, honey and milks.
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c. Starch and fibre are complex carbohydrates. Starch is found in potatoes and Starch is found in whole grain bread, beans and peas.
d. The main functions of carbohydrates inside the human body are as follows:
(1) Provide Energy - Carbohydrates are the fuel (energy) source of your body. When you eat foods that contain carbohydrate, your body breaks them down into glucose. Glucose provides fuel for each cell body to function.
(2) Convention of carbohydrates into fats - When the body doesn't need to use the carbohydrates for energy, it stores them into the liver and muscles and is called glycogen. When the liver and muscles cells cannot store anymore glycogen, it is turned into fat.
(3) Maintain Digestive Health - Fibres are necessary for digestive health. Some fibres are digestible and some are not. Fibres carry out the following tasks:
(a) They help food move through the intestinal tract.(b) They prevent constipation and diarrhoea. (c) They make individual feel full longer (satisfied of food) and avoid overeating. (d) They are essential for the elimination of waste materials and toxins from the body and keep the intestines disease-free and clean.
(4) Stimulate growth of good bacteria - Carbohydrates ferment in the intestines and that stimulate the growth of bacteria. The bacteria help in the breakdown of food so that it can be used by the body.
3. Protein:a. 45 percent of the human body is composed of protein.b. The sources of protein include; eggs, milk, cheese and meat c. Protein has the following functions:
(1) Required for building and repair of body tissues (including muscle)(2) For the formation of Enzymes, hormones, and anti-bodies. (3) Essential body processes such as water balancing, nutrient transport, and muscle contractions require. (4) A source of energy.(5) Helps keep skin, hair, and nails healthy.
4. Fats (lipids):a. Lipids are an essential nutrient of the human body. Without them, we would not be able to properly function in daily life.b. The functions of the fats are as follows:
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(1) They provide energy to the body, fats save proteins from being used for energy and allow them to perform their more important role of building and repairing tissues. Fats on oxidation provide more energy than that given by carbohydrates.
(2) Fats also help in forming structural material of cells and tissues such as the cell membrane.
(3) They carry the fats soluble vitamins A, D, E and K into the body and help in the absorption of these vitamins in the intestines.
(4) Fats are also used for insulation in the human body and they insulate your body organs to prevent them from going into shock. They maintain the body temperature.(5) They ensure that that there will be healthy cell function.(6) They help the body to maintain healthy hair and skin.
5. Vitamins a. Vitamins are derived from food and are essential to keep the body healthy and the mind alert. Although they do not provide energy or make up body cells or organs, without them the body cannot carry out many of the chemical processes it needs b. The table below shows the example of the vitamins and their functions.
Examples of vitamins
S/# Vitamin Type
Source Function Symptoms of deficiency
01 A meat, eggs, oily fish, liver, milk, cheese, kidney, carrots, sweet potatoes
Important for healthy bones, teeth, mucous membranes and skin, Aids vision
Poor night vision, eye problems, weakened immune system and more prone to infection
02 B1 lean meats particularly pork, fortified bread and cereals, whole grains, dried beans, potatoes, spinach, nuts, peas, yeast.
Protects the heart and the nervous system from the build-up of toxic substances and is needed to convert carbohydrates and fats into energy
Tiredness and fatigue, muscle weakness, nerve damage, enlarged heart.
B2 poultry, lean meat, eggs, milk, fish, yoghurt, yeast, soy beans, legumes, almonds, leafy green vegetables and fortified breads and cereals
Vital for growth, the production of red blood cells and releasing energy from food.
Skin disorders, dry and cracked lips, bloodshot eyes and sore throat, although B2 deficiency is not common in the developed world.
B3 Poultry, lean meat, Maintains a Skin disorders,
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peanuts, potatoes, milk, eggs, liver, heart, kidney, fortified breakfast cereals, broccoli, carrots, avocados, tomatoes, dates, sweet potatoes, whole grains, mushrooms
healthy skin and keeps the digestive system working well.
fatigue, depression and diarrhoea.
B12 Eggs, shellfish, poultry, meat, dairy produce, liver, fortified cereals.
Required for the metabolism process and to maintain the nervous system
Tiredness and fatigue, numbness in the hands and feet, loss of memory and anaemia.
03 C Citrus fruits, melon, strawberries, green peppers, tomatoes, broccoli, potatoes, dark green leafy vegetables, red peppers, squash, mango, papaya, and pineapple.
It is required for the formation of skin, teeth, gums, tendons and ligaments. Helps in the healing of wounds, strengthen the immune system and fight cancerous cells.
Prone to infections, slower healing of wounds, dental and gum problems, fatigue, loss of appetite, dry skin, painful joints,
04 D Milk, oily fish, fish oils, eggs and fortified cereals
Needed to absorb calcium and strengthen bones and teeth and can prevent the onset of osteoporosis.
Softening and weakening of the bones, insomnia, nervousness and muscle weakness.
6. Mineralsa. The body needs many minerals; these are called essential minerals. b. Essential minerals are sometimes divided up into major minerals (macro-minerals) and trace minerals (micro-minerals) which are equally important as shown in the tables below.
Major mineral required by human body
S/# Mineral Source Function01 Sodium Table salt, soya sauce; large amounts in
processed foods; small amounts in milk, breads, vegetables, and unprocessed meats
Needed for proper fluid balance, neural transmission, and muscle contraction
02 Chloride Table salt, soy sauce; large amounts in processed foods; small amounts in milk,
Needed for proper fluid balance, stomach
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meats, breads, and vegetables acid03 Potassium Meats, milk, fresh fruits and vegetables,
whole grains, legumesNeeded for proper fluid balance, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction
04 Calcium Milk and milk products; canned fish with bones (salmon, sardines); fortified tofu and fortified soy milk; greens (broccoli, mustard greens); legumes
Important for healthy bones and teeth; helps muscles relax and contract; important in nerve functioning, blood clotting, blood pressure regulation, immune system health
05 Phosphorus Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, processed foods (including soda pop)
Important for healthy bones and teeth; found in every cell; part of the system that maintains acid-base balance
06 Magnesium Nuts and seeds; legumes; leafy, green vegetables; seafood; chocolate; artichokes; "hard" drinking water
Found in bones; needed for making protein, muscle contraction, neural transmission and immune system health
07 Sulfur Occurs in foods as part of protein: meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, legumes and nuts
Found in protein molecules
Trace minerals (micro-minerals)The body needs trace minerals in very small amounts. Note that iron is considered to be a trace mineral, although the amount needed is somewhat more than for other micro-minerals.
Trace minerals
S/# Mineral Source Function01 Iron Red meats; fish; poultry;
shellfish egg yolks; legumes; dried fruits; dark, leafy greens and fortified cereals
Part of a molecule (haemoglobin) found in red blood cells that carries oxygen in the body; needed for energy metabolism
02 Zinc Meats, fish, poultry, vegetables
Part of many enzymes; needed for making protein and genetic material; has a function in taste perception, wound healing, foetal development, production of sperm, normal growth and sexual maturation, immune system health
03 Iodine Seafood, foods grown in iodine-rich soil, iodized salt,
Found in thyroid hormone, which helps regulate growth,
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bread, dairy products development, and metabolism04 Selenium Meats, seafood, grains Antioxidant05 Copper Legumes, nuts and seeds,
whole grains, organ meats, drinking water
Part of many enzymes; needed for iron metabolism
06 Manganese Widespread in foods, especially plant foods
Part of many enzymes
07 Fluoride Drinking water (either fluoridated or naturally containing fluoride), fish, and most teas
Involved in formation of bones and teeth; helps prevent tooth decay
08 Chromium Unrefined foods, especially liver, brewer's yeast, whole grains, nuts, cheeses
Works closely with insulin to regulate blood sugar (glucose) levels
09 Molybdenum Legumes; breads and grains; leafy greens; leafy, green vegetables; milk; liver
Part of some enzymes
Factors affecting human growth1. Nutrition - Good nutritional habits are strongly linked to appropriate physical growth and development. Children must have the necessary vitamins and minerals to promote growth. A balanced diet rich in proteins, complex carbohydrates and calcium promote physical growth. A child's cognitive and physical development can be hampered by poor nutrition. Undernourished may have cognitive deficit and later be diagnosed with learning disabilities or other intellectual impairments.
2. Genetics - Genetic factors play a significant role in human growth and development. Genetic material passed to the developing infant not only dictates physical traits such as eye color, hair texture and body type, but can also be responsible for some birth defects or developmental disorders.
3. Environment - Environmental factors refer to external substances or conditions that influence human growth and development. Pesticides, air pollution and solvents, as well as lead and mercury, have all been linked to causing developmental problems to growing foetuses. For example, the exposure to lead was found to be related to smaller birth sizes, transportation noise and stress has also been linked to reduced prenatal growth.
Following birth, parents are encouraged to continue to limit exposure of the child to harmful substances. It is also in the child's best interest to live in a healthy, clean environment. A clean environment free of germs will reduce the child's risk of illness and disease.
4. Illness - Children who develop a severe illness in infancy or early childhood are more likely to demonstrate inhibited growth patterns. Researchers have shown that individuals living in areas riddled with infections and diseases were short in heights than those not exposed to infections and diseases.
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5. Socio - economic Status - Studies have found that children from lower class and children with a larger number of siblings grow more slowly than children from middle class, upper class, and children with few or no siblings. The assumption is that there is a scarcity of healthy nutrition for children from lower class and those with more siblings as compared to children from middle and upper classes and those children with few or no siblings.
6. Illness - Children who develop a severe illness in infancy or early childhood are more likely to demonstrate inhibited growth patterns. Individuals living in areas with infections and diseases are more likely to grow shorter height than those who are not exposed to such areas. Once technology improves to such an extent that those infections and diseases can treated, the human heights patterns significantly improve.
7. Glands - Glands of internal secretion play an important role in human growth and development. For example, if the pituitary glands are over-active, the different parts of the body exhibit giant-size growth. If these glands are under-active, dwarfness is the result.
Again, an over-active thymus gland will retard normal development and keep the child physically and mentally disadvantaged. The thymus gland is an organ in the body that controls the immune system. Other glands such as parathyroid and thyroid glands also affect growth and development in an important manner. The deficiency of sex glands delays puberty.
Child health
Health is a complete physical, mental and social well-being state and not only absence of disease or ailment.
Child health refers to the physical, mental, emotional, and social well-being of a child from infancy through adolescence. Child health can also refer to the care and treatment of the child.
Factors affecting child health and development
Child health and development can be affected by the following factors:
1. Diet - For a child to develop properly and remain healthy, he needs to eat a healthy and balanced diet. Children who lack balanced nutrition in their diet when they are babies may suffer cognitive effects for years to come. Proper nutrition is related to functional outcomes for children as they get older. In other words, Unhealthy eating can lead to weight gain and other negative effects if the child does not learn how to eat healthy early in life.
2. Medical Care - Health Care Providers have to advise parent on how to look after or monitor the growth their children. Children have to receive many vaccinations during early years of growth in order to prevent diseases that can have a lasting impact.
3. Toxic Substances - Children who are exposed to toxic substances, may suffer from developmental or health deficiencies. For example, exposure to substances ranging from
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alcohol to lead-based paint can have a negative impact on the development of children‘s neurological and cognitive processes.
4. Social Interaction - Social isolation or lack of socialization can lead to early childhood development issues, such as speech problems or an inability to socialize with others in a civilized way.
5. Sleep - Adequate amount of sleep for the children will lead to their proper development and keep them healthy and happy. Children need more sleep than the adults. School-age children, for example, require 10 to 11 hours of sleep a night.
6. Heredity - Heredity plays a large part in your child's development. Mental development, in particular, is deeply grounded in heredity. Studies have reported that neurological efficiency or the speed with which a child's brain operates is largely genetically controlled. When a child is born, he has a unique set of genetic instructions that influence his physical growth. Genetics have a strong effect on rate of growth, the size of body parts and the onset of growth events.
7. Environment - Indoor and outdoor environments play a major role in healthy physical development. Children need open spaces in which to move and explore, as well as safe structures for climbing and practicing balance. Babies need time on the floor to practice rolling over, stretching, crawling and sitting. Older children need open spaces to run outdoors, as well as access to slides, swings and climbing structures. Activities that engage the larger muscles in the arms, legs, back and shoulders are important for physical development.
8. The education level of the mother is very important. Children from mothers with little or no formal education are more likely to have malnutrition or illness than children mothers with adequate formal education.
9. Television (TV) - In well resourced countries obesity is closely associated with watching too much TV and too little physical exercise. Violence on TV may result in emotional and behaviour problems.
Lesson 10 : Reproductive health
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Objectives: To students the following:-
1. Definition of term:
a. Reproductive health
b. Family planning
2. Some of the methods used in family planning.
3. Reasons for people to behave violently.
4. Forms of violence.
5. Some of the types of violence against women.
6. Ways of addressing violence against women.
7. Infections and inequalities
Reproductive Health
Reproductive Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity, in all matters related to the reproductive system
and to its functions and processes.
The implications of Reproductive health are as follows:
• People are able to have a satisfying and safe sex life.
• People have the capacity to reproduce and the freedom to decide when and how often
to reproduce.
• Men and women have the right to access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable
methods of family planning.
• Rights to information about and access to a range of SRH services
• The right to privacy and confidentiality
Family planning
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Family planning is the voluntary planning and action taken by individuals to prevent, delay
or achieve a pregnancy.
Some of the methods used in family planning
1. Hormonal methods
a. Birth control Pill
Pills can be taken to prevent pregnancy
Pills are safe and effective when taken properly
Pills are over 99% effective
Women must have a pap smear to get a prescription for birth control
pills
b. Injections (Depo-Provera)
Birth control shot given once every three months to prevent pregnancy.
It is 99.7% effective preventing pregnancy.
c. Implants
Implants are placed in the body filled with hormone that prevents
pregnancy.
Plastic capsules - the size of paper matchsticks are inserted under the
skin in the arm.
It is 99.95% effectiveness rate.
2. Barrier methods - Prevent pregnancy by blocking the egg and sperm from meeting.
Barrier methods have higher failure rates than hormonal methods due to design and human
error.
The examples of barrier methods are as follows:
a. Spermicides;
These are chemicals kill sperm in the vagina.
Different forms of spermicides include; Jelly, Film, Foam and
Suppository.
Spermicides can be used in combination with other methods such as
condoms.
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b. Condoms
There are male and female condoms.
Condoms are the most common and effective barrier methods for
family planning when used properly.
c. Diaphragm
A latex barrier is placed inside vagina during intercourse and it is done
by the physician.
It is inserted up to 18 hours before intercourse and can be left in for a
total of 24 hours.
3. Methods based on information
Methods based on information are as follows:
a. Withdrawal - This method involves removal of penis from the vagina before
ejaculation occurs
b. Natural Family Planning – It requires a woman to monitor her menstrual
cycle.
c. Abstinence – This happens when partners do not engage in sexual intercourse.
Communication between partners is important for those practicing abstinence to be
successful.
Everyday violence
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Violence is the use of physical force to injure people or property. Violence may cause
physical pain to those who experience it directly, as well as emotional distress to those who
either experience or witness it.
Reasons for people to behave violently
1. Genetics - genetic messages are passed on from parents to off springs, and some
studies have suggested that aggressiveness may be inherited.
2. Brain injury - Injury to the front parts of the brain may remove some personal
control over anger and aggression.
3. Antisocial personality disorder - People with antisocial personality disorder often
behave violently to other people. People with this disorder do not seem to understand that
violence harms other people, and they do not seem to have a conscience of differentiating
what is right from what is wrong.
4. Alcohol and substance abuse - Alcohol drinking and drug abuse often play a role in
violence.
5. Desensitization - Constantly viewing violence at home, in communities, or on
television can lead people to believe that violence is a normal part of life.
6. Learned helplessness - People who believe that that violence is an inevitable part of
their lives may give up ways of avoiding or escaping from violence. They may become
passive and unable to create safety for themselves or their families.
7. Social modeling - Children learn by observation and by imitation. Children who
observe their models behaving in violent ways, may come to believe behaving violently is
acceptable. Such children may never learn peaceful behaviors or cooperative ways to solve
problems.
Forms of violence
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There are three forms of violence:
1. Direct violence - This type of violence is visible such as hurting people physically by
war, beating, abuse and mobbing. It can either be experienced by an individual or seen on the
street and it can also be transmitted by movies and games.
2. Structural violence - This is the type of violence that is embedded into systems i.e.,
restricting access to resources or possibilities based on gender, skin color, religion and tribe.
The inequalities within societies and between societies create tensions which may lead to
violence if not resolved.
3. Cultural violence - This violence is embedded in cultural norms or beliefs. For
instance, the belief that women are inferior to men and are not treated equal, this is a
violation of human right which states that all the people are equal.
Types of violence against women
Some of the types of violence against women are as follows:
1. Violence by an intimate partner - The most common form of violence experienced
by women globally is physical violence inflicted by an intimate partner such as beating and
coerced into sex or otherwise abused.
2. Sexual violence - It is estimated that, worldwide, one in five women will become a
victim of rape or attempted rape in her lifetime. The practice of early marriage – a form of
sexual violence – is common worldwide, especially in Africa and South Asia. Young girls are
often forced into marriages and into sexual relations exposing them to health risks including
HIV/AIDS.
3. Violence and HIV/AIDS - Women’s inability to negotiate safe sex and refuse
unwanted sex is closely linked to the high prevalence of HIV/AIDS. Unwanted sex results in
a higher risk of bruises and bleeding and easier transmission of the virus.
Women who are beaten by their partners are 48 per cent more likely to be infected with
HIV/AIDS.
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4. Trafficking in persons - It is estimated that between 5 hundred thousand and 2
million people are trafficked annually into situations including prostitution, forced labour and
slavery. Women and girls account for about 80 percent of the detected victims.
5. Violence during pregnancy - Violence before and during pregnancy has serious
health consequences for both mother and child. It leads to high risk pregnancies - related
problems such as miscarriage, pre-term labour and low birth weight. Violence during
pregnancy is common in Africa, and the Middle East.
6. Discrimination and violence - Many women face discrimination and increased risk
of violence. It was reported that in Europe, North America and Australia, over half of women
with disabilities have experienced physical abuse, compared to one-third of non-disabled
women.
7. Dowry murder – This is a brutal practice where a woman is killed by her husband or
in-laws because her family cannot meet their demands for dowry - a payment made to a
woman’s in-laws upon her marriage as a gift to her new family. While dowries or similar
payments are prevalent worldwide, dowry murder occurs predominantly in South Asia.
8. Honour killing - In many societies, rape victims, women suspected of engaging in
premarital sex, and women accused of adultery have been murdered by their relatives because
that is viewed as a disgrace to the family. Honour killing is common in some of the Asian
countries.
9. Female Genital Mutilation/Genital Cutting (FGM/C) - FGM/C refers to several
types of traditional cutting operations performed on women and girls. It is estimated that
more than 130 million girls and women alive today have undergone FGM/C mainly in Africa
and some Middle Eastern countries.
Ways of addressing violence against women
1. Improving the capacity of sexual and reproductive health services delivery programs
to care for women who experience violence.
2. Raising awareness of violence against women as a public health problem and
violation of human rights.
3. Advocating for better laws and application of laws related to gender based violence.
4. Increasing Knowledge about effective health service interventions in the area of
gender based violence.
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5. Encourage communities’ participation in the designing and implementation of
programs on gender based violence.
Infections and inequalities
Factors contributing to inequalities in infections in societies
1. Individual-level factors include
a. The knowledge and attitudes that individuals have about health risks, disease prevention, and treatment.
b. The skills that individuals have to put knowledge into practice
c. The individual behaviors that have an impact on one's own health or the health of other people.
d. The biological or genetic factors that may enhance or reduce individual susceptibility to particular health conditions.
2. Environmental- and community-level factors include:
a. The physical environment (both natural and artificial), social and cultural characteristics of a community and other economic, political and organizational/institutional conditions.
b. These factors may be either protective of, or pose risks to health. For example, natural and physical hazards or biochemical risks, crime and violence, cultural values and norms can influence individual behavior and can protect or hinder the health and well-being of residents within communities.
3. Systems-level factors include the kinds of systems that a community, province or nation might have, approaches used for identifying the problems or needs– health-related, directing resources to address the problems or needs. Whether such systems and approaches effectively address such problems or needs depends upon the system level factors such as: the adequacy, appropriateness and mix of components, resources, co-ordination, and leadership, information- and knowledge-sharing and supportive infrastructure.
Lesson 11: Social inequalities, Stress and Disease
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The objectives of the lesson are:
1. Define the terms:a. Social inequalitiesb. Stressc. Disease
2. Main ways of measuring the social inequalities:3. Causes and management of stress.
Social inequalities, Stress and Disease
Social inequalities
Social inequality is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society. It contains structured and recurrent patterns of unequal distributions of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards, and punishments.
The main ways of measuring social inequalities
1. Inequality of conditions - refers to the unequal distribution of income, wealth and material goods. Housing, for example, is an inequality of conditions with the homeless and those living in housing projects sitting at the bottom of the hierarchy while those living in multi-million dollar mansions sitting at the top.
2. Inequality of opportunities - refers to the unequal distribution of "life chances" across individuals. This is reflected in measures such as level of education, health status, and treatment by the criminal justice system. For example, the upper-class white males have more opportunities for wealth and success compared to lower-class black males.
Stress
Stress is the general term applied to pressure people feel in life. The presence of stress at
work is almost inevitable in many jobs. Stress is a normal physical response to events that
make you feel threatened or upset your balance in some way.
Symptoms of stress overload
The symptoms of stress overload are as follows:
1. Cognitive symptoms:
a. Memory problems
b. Inability to concentrate
c. Poor judgment
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d. Seeing only the negative
e. Anxious or racing thoughts
f. Constant worrying
2. Emotional Symptoms:
a. Moodiness
b. Irritability or short temper
c. Agitation, inability to relax
d. Feeling overwhelmed
e. Sense of loneliness and isolation
f. Depression or general unhappiness
3. Physical symptoms:
a. Aches and pains
b. Diarrhoea or constipation
c. Nausea, dizziness
d. Chest pain, rapid heartbeat
e. Loss of sex drive
f. Frequent colds
4. Behavioural symptoms
a. Eating more or less
b. Sleeping too much or too little
c. Isolating yourself from others
d. Procrastinating or neglecting responsibilities
e. Using alcohol, cigarettes, or drugs to relax
f. Nervous habits e.g. nail biting
Causes of stress- The situations and pressures that cause stress are known as stressors.- The causes of stress can be grouped as follows:
1. External causes:a. Major life changesb. Workc. Relationship difficulties
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d. Financial problemse. Being too busyf. Children and familyg. Role Conflict and ambiguity
2. Internal causes:a. Inability to accept uncertaintyb. Unrealistic expectationsc. Perfectionismd. Lack of assertivenesse. Pessimismf. Negative self-talk
How to manage stress1. Support network – A strong network of supportive friends and family members can help an individual to manage stress. On contrary, the lonely and isolated person is vulnerability to stress.2. Sense of control – If an individual have confidence in him/herself and have the ability to influence events and persevere through challenges, it is easier for him to mange stress. 3. Attitude and outlook – Stress-hardy people have an optimistic attitude. They tend to embrace challenges, have a strong sense of humour, accept that change is a part of life, and believe in a higher power or purpose.4. Ability to deal with emotions – One’s extremely vulnerable to stress if he/she does not know how to deal with his emotions. 5. Knowledge and preparation – The more one knows about a stressful situation, including how long it will last and what to expect, the easier it is to cope.6. Learn to manage time well.7. Set realistic goals.8. Eat Balanced Diet.
Disease Does not allow the body to function normally.
Can affect individual organs or an entire body system.
Diseases are divided into two groups –infectious and non-infectious.
a. An infectious disease can be passed from one organism to another and is caused by
tiny organisms called PATHOGENS. Examples of pathogens are: Bacteria, Viruses
and fungi. Pathogens can come from contaminated objects, environment or animal
bites. Examples of infectious diseases are HIV/AIDS, Cholera and Syphilis.
b. Non infectious diseases are not caused by pathogens in the body. They are caused by
malfunctions in the body. Some of the causes of non infectious diseases are as
follows:
Heredity – inherited from the parents
The environment – examples are sun, radiation, chemicals
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Lifestyle choices – smoking, drugs, alcohol
Types of Non infectious Diseases are:
Diabetes
Asthma
Skin Cancer
Lesson 12 Embodiment and Public Health
ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology is the study of people throughout the world, their evolutionary history, how
they behave, adapt to different environments, communicate and socialise with one another.
The study of anthropology is concerned both with the biological features that make us human
(such as physiology, genetic makeup, nutritional history and evolution) and with social
aspects (such as language, culture, politics, family and religion). In doing so, anthropologists
aim to increase people’s understanding of themselves and of each other.
Anthropologists are concerned with many aspects of people’s lives such as everyday
practices, ceremonies and processes which define us as human beings.
Some of the issues that anthropologists may be concerned with are:
a. The differences and similarities among societies.
b. Human differences and similarities.
c. How evolution has shaped people’s thoughts.
PUBLIC HEALTH
Public Health is the science of protecting and improving the health of communities through
education, promotion of healthy lifestyles, and research for disease and injury prevention.
Public health professionals analyze the effect on health of genetics, personal choice and the
environment in order to develop programs that protect the health of your family and
community.
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Overall, public health is concerned with protecting the health of entire populations.
Public health professionals try to prevent problems from happening or re-occurring through
implementing educational programs, developing policies, administering services,
regulating health systems and some health professions, and conducting research, in
contrast to clinical professionals, such as doctors and nurses, who focus primarily on treating
individuals after they become sick or injured. It is also a field that is concerned with limiting
health disparities and a large part of public health is the fight for health care equity, quality,
and accessibility.
Some of the branches of Public health include:
a. Behavioural Science/Health Education
b. Biostatistics Environmental Health
c. Epidemiology
d. Health Services Administration/Management
e. Maternal and Child Health
f. Nutrition
Domain areas of public health practice
The three key domains of public health practice are:
1. Health Improvement which includes the following:
a. Inequalities
b. Education
c. Housing
d. Employment
e. Family/community
f. Lifestyles
g. Surveillance and monitoring of specific diseases and risk factors
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2. Improving services namely:
a. Clinical effectiveness
b. Efficiency
c. Service planning
d. Audit and evaluation
e. Clinical governance
f. Equity
3. Health Protection which includes the following:
a. Infectious diseases
b. Chemicals and poisons
c. Radiation
d. Emergency response
e. Environmental health hazards
Contribution of anthropology to public health policy development
1. Integrated Perspective of Culture - When striving to understand disease etiology among a given population, public health specialists and human ecologists often take many factors into consideration such as culture, genetics and environment.
2 Holism - Anthropology is involved in seeing the entire situation in a given community. This involves participant observation in order to capture the smallest details in the events of individuals' lives. This also involves study of the macro-level forces and structures that are acting on people that cause them to behave the way they do.
3. Qualitative Analysis – anthropology has contributed to the development of public health policy in the collection of qualitative data and analysing qualitatively.
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