Chapter 4Development

Part I: Introduction

From zygote to birth, development progresses in an ______________, though fragile, sequence.

- At conception, a single ______________ cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the ______ (female) and fuses to form one fertilized cell.

- A _____________ is a _____________________________ with 100 cells that become increasingly diverse. At about 14 days the zygote turns into an embryo.

- At 9 weeks, an ______________ turns into a __________. ___________________ are chemicals or viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the developing fetus.

• Alcohol – can cause developmental problems such as __________________________________ (which results in brain abnormalities/mental retardation)

• Nicotine – can cause low birth weight and other potential problems• Illegal Drugs (Opiates , Cocaine) – babies can be born addicted and use by pregnant mother can affect

health of fetus• Environmental Toxins (mercury, lead, radiation, Toxoplasmosis – from cat feces)• Medicines (Accutane) • Diseases (Rubella, Syphilis) - can cause blindness, deafness, heart defects & mental retardation

Infants are born with ________________ that aid in survival.

- Grasping & Sucking Reflexes (often called _________________________ Reflex)- Rooting Reflex & Startle Reflex

Investigators study infants becoming __________________ (bored – decreased responsiveness to something familiar) to objects over a period of time. Infants pay ____________________________ to new objects than habituated ones, which shows they are learning.

Part II: Infancy & Childhood

Infancy and childhood span from ___________ to the __________________ years. During these years, the individual grows physically, mentally, and socially.

The development of the brain unfolds based on genetic instructions, causing various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence— standing before walking, babbling before talking—this is called _____________________.

Maturation sets the basic course of development, while experience adjusts it! (Nature v. Nurture)

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The earliest age of conscious memory is around 3½ years (____________________________). A 5-year-old has a sense of self, an increased long-term memory, and use of language, thus organization of memory is different from 3-4 years.

Some Major Genetically-Based Disorders That Affect Development

• Tay-Sachs Disease (build up fatty acid in brain neurons)• ______ (missing liver enzyme – tested at birth in GA – can be controlled through diet))• _______________________________ (missing part of the X-sex chromosome)• _______________________________ (Trisomy - extra 21st chromosome)• Fragile X (expansion of the single X chromosome sequence)

Swiss developmental psychologist ________________________ believed that the driving force behind intellectual development is our biological development along with experiences with the environment.

- Our _____________________________________ is shaped by the errors we make. Remember ______________ (mental molds) and the _____________________ (incorporating) & _______________________ (modifying) of these.

- In the ________________________ stage, babies take in the world _______________________ - by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp ________________________________________________ (objects that are out of sight are also out of mind).

- _____________________________ is the fear of strangers that develops at around 8 months during Piaget’s sensorimotor phase. This is the age at which infants form schemas for familiar faces and cannot assimilate a

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new face. __________________________, the fear of being left, occurs around three to five.

- ______________________, a sense of one’s identity and personal worth, emerges gradually around 6 months. Around 15-18 months, children can recognize themselves in the mirror (______________________________ __________________________).

- Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 6-7 years old, children are in the ________________________ they have the use of ______________________but are too young to perform mental operations.

- Piaget concluded that preschool children are ____________________. They cannot perceive things from another’s point of view. In other words, they assume that others share the same point of view, thoughts, experiences, & memories .

● Preschoolers, although still egocentric, develop the ability to understand another’s mental state when they begin forming a _____________________________. They are cognitively aware that other people have thoughts, desires & experiences that are different than their own.

- In _______________________________________ stage, given concrete materials, 6- to 7-year-olds grasp ______________________ problems (principle that mass, volume and number remain the same despite changes in form) and mentally pour liquids back and forth into glasses of different shapes conserving their quantities. Children in this stage are also able to transform mathematical functions.

- Around age 12, our reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to ______________thinking. We can now use symbols and imagined realities (use hypotheticals) to systematically reason. Piaget called this _____________________________ thinking.

____________________________ believe social interactions in which children learn the necessary skills and knowledge of their culture (i.e. language, proper behaviors, etc.) are normal and necessary for cognitive development

Learning through ________________ and ________ Learning through ____________________ Learning through ____________________

- Children have a _______________________________________________ (i.e. the difference between what a child can do by themselves vs. what the child can do with help from adults or more advanced peers)

Some things may be beyond kids’ cognitive abilities at certain points, BUT Adults and peers can provide assistance (“___________________”) to solutions and push kids

towards further cognitive development

In his famous ______________________study ___________________________ observed that monkeys became very attached to their blankets. He hypothesized that monkeys became attached to sources of ___________________, even if they did not provide food

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• Monkeys separated from their mothers in early infancy and raised in their own cages

• Two artificial mothers: one wire/wood & one cloth• Monkeys preferred the ________________________________

even when the wooden one provided food

• Bond of ____________________________between parent and child form due to bodily ________________(not nourishment, like Maslow thought)

• Parent’s provide a secure base from which to explore• The need for security remains with us throughout our lives

Attachment differences and _______________________________ “Strange Situation”

- Placed in a strange situation, most children express ______________________________ (they explore their environment happily in the presence of their mothers). When the mother leaves, they show mild distress, when she returns they are happy and receptive.

- The others show __________________________________ (either ignored their mothers or clung to them and were less likely to explore the environment). When the mother leaves, they show great distress and remain upset upon return or display complete indifference.

_______________ and ________________caregiving becomes the backbone of _____________ attachment.

Like bodily contact, ___________________ is another factor that causes attachment. _______________________ noted that in some animals, ______________ (identification with the first thing they see during a critical period after birth) is the cause of attachment.

If parental or care-giving support is ___________________ for an ___________________ period of time, children are at risk for physical, psychological, and social problems (remember Genie).

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Part III: Adolescence

_______________________ is defined as a life between childhood and adulthood. Adolescence begins with ________________ (sexual maturation). Puberty occurs earlier in females (11 years) than males (13 years). Thus height in females increases before males.

- During puberty ___________________________________________________ (the reproductive organs & external genitalia) develop rapidly.

- Also ________________________________________________________ (the non-reproductive traits such as breasts & hips in girls and facial hair & deepening of voice in boys) develop. Pubic hair & armpit hair grow in both sexes.

- Until puberty, neurons increase their connections. However, at adolescence, ______________________ ______________________ of the neurons begins. Unused neuronal connections are lost to make other pathways more efficient.

- During adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin, which speeds up nerve conduction. The ______________________________ lags behind the ___________________________ development. Hormonal surges and the limbic system may explain occasional teen impulsiveness and the all too frequent answer “I don’t know” when asked why they did something.

- Adolescents’ ability to reason gives them a new level of social awareness. According to Piaget, adolescents can handle abstract problems, i.e., they can perform _________________________________. Adolescents can judge good from evil, truth and justice, and think about god in deeper terms.

___________________________________ sought to describe the development of _______________________________ by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as “Should a person steal medicine to save a loved one’s life?” He found 3 levels of moral reasoning.

1. _________________________________: - Before age 9, children show morality to __________________________________or _____________________.

2. _________________________________:- By early adolescence, __________________________ and __________ are upheld for their own sake.

3. _________________________________: - Affirms people’s agreed-upon ______________& promotes ______________________ (social contract) or follows ____________________perceived ethical principles.

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▪ However, _______________________________ argued that Kohlberg’s stages were ____________ biased. She stated that the morality of women is different because they tend to be more group-oriented and value caring

more than justice.

_______________________________ focused on _______________________ development. He divided life into __________ stages, each with its own ___________, a crisis that needs resolution (issues we wrestle with).

- Although teens become independent of their parents as they grow older, they nevertheless _______________________________________ on a number of things, including religion, politics and career choices. Peer approval and relationships are also very important.

- __________________ adulthood spans ages 18-25. During this time, young adults may live with their parents and attend college or work. On average, emerging adults marry in their mid-twenties.

Part IV: Adulthood

Although adulthood begins sometime after a person’s mid-twenties, defining adulthood into stages is more difficult than defining stages during childhood or adolescence.

- The peak of _________________________________ occurs around 20 years of age. Muscular strength, 6

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reaction time, sensory abilities and cardiac output begin to _______________ after the mid-twenties. Around age 50, women go through ____________________ (pre-peri-post), and men experience _________________ levels of hormones and fertility (degeneration of sperm).

- After age 70, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell ___________________, as do muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina. After 80, neural processes slow down, especially for _______________tasks. At age 70, our motor abilities also decline. A 70-year-old is no match for a 20-year-old individual. Fatal accidents also increase around this age.

- With increasing age, the risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease also ________________.

▪ As we age, we remember some things well. These include recent past events and events that happened a decade or two back. However, recalling names becomes increasingly difficult.

▪ Longitudinal studies suggest that intelligence remains relative as we age. It is believed today that ________________________________ (ability to reason speedily) _______________ with age, but ________________________________ (accumulated knowledge and skills) does not.

▪ Recognition memory does not decline with age, and material that is meaningful is recalled better than meaningless material. ____________________________ is remembering to do something in the future, while _______________________ is remembering you already did something in the past.

- Psychologists ___________ that adults pass through an orderly sequence of age-bound stages. “Mid- life crises” at 40 are less likely to occur than crises triggered by major events (divorce, new marriage). Is there a “Social Clock?”

- Love and work are defining themes in adult life. ______________________ psychologists believe that commitment has survival value. Parents that stay together are likely to leave a viable future generation. Happiness stems from working in a job that fits your interests and provides you with a sense of competence and accomplishment.

- There is no “_____________” reaction or series of __________ stages after the death of a loved one. Grief is more sudden if death occurs unexpectedly. People who reach a sense of integrity in life (in Erikson’s terms) see life as meaningful and worthwhile.

▪ ______________________________________ 5 stages of death and dying (_____________)

- ___________________7

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- ___________________- ___________________- ___________________- ___________________

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