three distinct regions: a) industrial & wealthy north b) administrative & roman center,...
TRANSCRIPT
ITALY & THE FASCISTS
HOW UNITED WAS ITALY BEFORE WW I
Three distinct regions: a) Industrial & Wealthy Northb) Administrative & Roman Center,
c)Agricultural & Poor South Majority of population was rural High emigration in late 1800s The Pope opposed the new liberal, united
nation Large debt, high taxes on poor, periodic
bouts of unrest Limited suffrage (most males by 1912) Politicians seen as corrupt
THE STATE OF LIBERAL DEMOCRACY, 1869-1946
4 kings 29 prime ministers, 1869-1922 Limited suffrage meant government officials
not responsive to people—deal makers inside government structures & corruption
Development & growth of Socialist Party (>20% of vote by 1913)—party divided along three lines
1911 Italian Nationalist Union (Nationalists) established—Italy’s foreign & domestic policies weak; wanted authoritarian govt; “Our country is nothing without conquest.”
ECONOMIC & SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT, 1869-1914 Rapid industrialization of north after
1900 increased traditional economic divide between north & south
Huge debts led to major tax increases hitting poorest the hardest
Labor & wage strikes opposed by the govt
THE ITALIAN STATE IN 1914
“Nation states are… very rare beasts indeed, and certainly pre-1914 Italy was not one. There was… no Liberal hegemony, no agreement on basic ideological or social aims. Most people still spoke only dialect; nearly 40% of adults were illiterate. A popular press barely existed… The social and economic gap between North and South was all too evident; so too was the chasm between town and country… Italy was still run by a small elite, with little title to rule except its belligerent patriotism and its historical myths.”
--M. Clark, Modern Italy, 1871-1982
ITALY AND WW I“Companions, here is the dawn. Our vigil
is over. Our gaiety begins… After so much wavering the incredible has happened. We shall now fight our war, and blood will flow from the veins of Italy. We are the last to enter the struggle but will be among the first to find glory. Here is the dawn. Let us kiss one another and take leave…”
--Gabriele D’Annunzio, nationalist poet
ITALY AND WW I MILITARY:
5 million conscripted 11 offensives in 2 ½ years Maximum advance = 12 miles (20 km) 600,000 killed 1,000,000 wounded c. 290,000 deserters
ITALY AND WW I POLITICAL:
govt power Parliament became a rubber stamp (no
democracy) links between govt & industry Promise of social reforms Socialist Party advocated ‘neither
support nor sabotage’ Pope & Catholic Church criticized the
deaths
ITALY AND WW I ECONOMIC:
Massive govt spending National debt more than 400% Inflation quadruples (1914 price index =
100; 1918 price index = 413)
ITALY AND WW I SOCIAL:
Strict discipline in industry Long work hours: up to 75 hours/week employment of women Real wages c. 25% Rents frozen Some peasants paid of debts Bread riots in Summer 1917 killed 50
ITALY AND WW I“The Italians had been divided before, but by
November 1919 they were more divided than ever: ‘combatants’ against ‘shirkers’, peasants against workers, patriots against defeatists. No conceivable form of government could suit them all.
The war left other major legacies. They included a thirst for justice (‘land for the peasants’) and a transformed industrial economy. The war also produced tens of thousands of new officers, drunk with patriotism and greedy to command. They had won the war, and did not intend to let anyone forget it.”
--Clark
ITALY AND WW I“[T]he Great War did not bring national
integration and unity. There was no… temporary national and political truce… Italy’s wartime experience was extremely divisive; it increased popular alienation from the Liberal parliamentary state while heightening expectations of transforming it. Italy’s national war was ‘waged in an atmosphere of civil war.’”
--P. Morgan, Italian Fascism, 1919-1945
ITALY: A ‘MUTILATED VICTORY’?
Italy’s Claims Treaty of London Promised (1915)
Treaty of St. Germain (1919) Granted
South Tryol yes yes
Trentino yes yes
Istria yes yes
Fiume no no
Dalmatia yes no
Colonies yes no
ITALY: GABRIELE D’ANNUNZIO & FIUME
Gabriele d’Annunzio:
Nationalist poet Glorifier of Italy’s past Italy’s political system: “a heap of filth
which cannot even serve to manure the nation’s cabbage”
WW I hero: air raids, lost an eye, over 50 yrs old
Famous: Commander of Fiume Considered marching on Rome to overthrow
the decadent govt.s
ITALY: GABRIELE D’ANNUNZIO & FIUME
Sept. 1919: d’Annunzio seizes control of the Adriatic port of Fiume
Italy had claimed Fiume Denied by British & Paris Peace Nationalist d’Annunzio sees Fiume as
example of ‘mutilated victory’ “In this made, vile world, Fiume is the
symbol of liberty.” Italian government did nothing in response
to this action What impressions of Italian government
developed?
ITALY: GABRIELE D’ANNUNZIO & FIUME
Would d’Annunzio use his popularity to seize power in Rome?
Dec. 1920: PM Giolitti sent troops to Fiume and the Italian Army took control
Italy & Yugoslavia had agreed that Fiume should be a free international city—until 1923 when Mussolini seized it for Italy
What impressions did d’Annunzio’s actions in Fiume have upon the Italian populace?
What impressions did it have on groups or individuals seeking a role in Italian politics?
D’ANNUNZIO & FIUME IMPRESSIONS
Force could be used to achieve political goals
Govt. inadequacy: took over a year to act
d’Annunzio acted in Italy’s ‘interests’; Orlando failed to attain Italy’s goals at Paris Peace Conference
ITALY: ECONOMIC & POLITICAL CRISIS
Why was there economic & political crisis in post-WW I Italy?
ANGER ABOUT:
‘mutilated victory’ pacifist Socialists weak govt.
ITALY: ECONOMIC & POLITICAL CRISIS
Why was there economic & political crisis in post-WW I Italy?
FEARS OF SOCIALIST REVOLUTION:
govt. officials big business strikes & occupation of factories success of Socialist Party in elections Bolshevik Revolution in Russia
ITALY: ECONOMIC & POLITICAL CRISIS
Why was there economic & political crisis in post-WW I Italy?
EXPECTATIONS OF:
new, dynamic Italy workers’ power land reform territorial aspirations (new lands &
colonies)
ITALY: ECONOMIC & POLITICAL CRISIS
Why was there economic & political crisis in post-WW I Italy?
PROBLEMS:
unemployment demobilized soldiers (many w/out jobs) social & economic unrest (incl. fight
Socialists v. Fascists) govt. debt inflation discredited parliamentary system
ITALY: ECONOMIC & POLITICAL CRISIS
ITALY: THE FASCISTSFascio di combattimento (Fascists)
est. March 1919
“There is a crisis which leaps to the eyes of all. Throughout the war we heard of the incompetence of the people who govern, and knew that if the war was won, it was solely by the virtue of the Italian people, not at all by the intelligence and the capacity of the governors. We must run… Therefore we create Fasci: organs of creation and agitation, capable of descending into the streets and crying: ‘We, we alone, have the right to the succession, because we , we were the men who forced the country into war and into victory…’”
--Benito Mussolini, Il Popolo d’Italia, 24 March 1919
ITALY: THE FASCISTSEarly ideas:
Nationalism Weak, ineffective govt. Evils of Socialism ‘Mutilated Victory’ Land to peasants Fair wages & prices Hostility to Church Still advocated republicanism
Supporters had desire to act & restore glory to Italy = more important than any unified ideas
ITALY: THE FASCISTSWho supported the Fascist (early stages)?
ex-soldiers small portion of elite (industrial, agricultural, &
economic elite petty bourgeoisie—shopkeepers, artisans,
small merchants, small business owners, low level civil servants, teachers, small landowners: cannot move up & threatened from below by Socialists
students & youths seeking adventure & opportunity
anti-Socialists
ITALY: THE FASCISTSWhy did they support Mussilini?
exploited fears of middle- & upper-classes (respectable bourgeoisie & civil servants)
sense of economic & social insecurity (petty bourgeoisie, ex-soldiers
rural Socialist threats (rural lower-middle class farmers and agrari, large landowners)
Socialism & govt concessions to labor (industrialists )
ITALY: THE FASCISTSMussolini Offered:
1920: less radical restore Italian power & prestige develop economy through productivity eliminate harmful state controls on
economy strong leadership law & order: targeting left-wing
subversives Action: not politics & programs
ITALY: THE FASCISTSWho supported the Fascist (1921)?
industrialists (3%) professionals, esp. teachers & students
(21%) small landowners, agricultural workers
(36%) petty bourgeoisie (24%) industrial & transport workers (16%)
ITALY: THE FASCISTS
ITALY: THE FASCISTSLEFT-WING OR RIGHT-WINGFASCIST PROGRAM 1919 FASCIST PROGRAM 1921
republic w/universal male suffrage
political structure to ensure Italy’s destiny—no specifics
8-hour work day; minimum wage
8-hour work day, w/exceptions for requirements
workers’ participation in mgt.corporations of nat’l solidarity & production
common education for allschools for governing elite; military train
freedom of opinionfreedoms limited to nat’l interests
abolition of mandatory military
military conscription
heavy & progressive tax on income
Taxes proportional to income
nationalization of arms factories; 85% confiscation of war profit
privatize nat’l firms; nat’l wealth via individual actions
confiscation of all religious property
no reference to Church property
foreign policy: peaceful competition among civilized world
complete unification for Italy; major role in the Mediterranean
ITALY: THE FASCISTSA MOVEMENT OF VIOLENCE violence from feelings of WW I & humiliations violence became part of the political process 1920-1922: c. 2,000 Socialists killed in
political violence (c. 200 Fascists) targeted the organizational structure of
Socialist Party party & union buildings attacked & set afire union members attacked End of 1921: Socialists practically ceased
exercising power in northern & central provinces
ITALY: THE FASCISTSLAW & ORDER OR VIOLENCE?How could a movement that emphasized a
return of law & order initiate so much violence and still gain popularity?
elite & govt. authorities supported the Fascists claims of restoring law & order
Fascist hooligans perfect tool to rid Italy of socialism (fear & hatred of Left more than support of Fascist Party for many)
elite & govt. authorities disgusted w/weakness of the liberal govt.—cooperation w/Fascists
1921: Fascists minor role in govt.—many local officials even more reluctant to act against them
ITALY: THE FASCISTSA MOVEMENT OF VIOLENCE Mussolini (April 1922)
“We Fascists have a clear program: we must move on led by a pillar of fire, because we are slandered and not understood. And, however much violence may be deplored, it is evident that we, in order to make our ideas understood, must beat refractory [obstinate] skulls… But we do not make a school, a system, or, worse still, an aesthetic of violence. We are violent because ti is necessary to be so.”
ITALY: THE FASCISTSA MOVEMENT OF VIOLENCE Mussolini (April 1922)
“Our punitive expeditions… must always have the character of… legitimate reprisal: because we are the first to recognize that it is sad, after having fought the external enemy, to have to fight the enemy within… The Socialist had formed a state within a state… this state is more tyrannical, illiberal and overbearing than the old one; and for this reason what we are causing today is a revolution to break up the Bolshevist state, while waiting to settle our accounts with the Liberal state which remains.”
ITALY: THE FASCISTS1922
c. 500,000 party members c. 250,000 Blackshirts smashed much of Socialist’s power controlled several regions offered firm leadership, end to class conflict,
national greatness v. disillusionment brought by liberal govt.
presence (7%) in Parliament & role in govt. ras (local leader of Fascist squads) wanted
to seize power Mussolini sensed chance to gain legally—
due to support from elite
ITALY: THE FASCISTS1922
Weakness of the Enemies
ability of govt. to function in Rome & in provinces
govt. could not stand up to Fascist violence—attempt to bring ‘moderates’ into govt. control
Liberal, Social & Catholic opponents of Fascists could not cooperate
Liberal Govt. split by personal hatreds perception of Socialist threat– most
historians view 1920 as their peak
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
Italy, early October 1922
Fascists had gained control of local govts. Fascists squads in some areas had seized power
after expelling Socialists councils Mussolini, MP & Fascists had 35 seats in parliament Giolitti formed alliance w/Fascists (hopes to
transform them to be moderate) ras increasing pressure for Fascists to seize power Mussolini sees opportunity to take power legally rumors of Fascist march on Rome to take power govt. politicians seeking to include Mussolini &
Fascists into new govt. w/Fascists having cabinet seats
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
16 Oct. 1922: Mussolini & leading Fascists meet in Milan—time right to take power
24 Oct. 1922: Fascist Congress in Naples—40,000 blackshirts shouting “To Rome”—leaders announce intention to organize a March on Rome
27 Oct. 1922: Mussolini declares “Either the government will be given to us or we shall take it, descending upon Rome.”
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
March on Rome set 27 Oct. 1922
PLAN:
Fascist would seize control of key public buildings in North & Central
50,000 to assemble outside Rome & march on the govt., but to avoid trouble with army
Mussolini doubts, but had to -- appease aggressive elements in party & might intimidate king to appoint him PM
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
27 October 1922
during night mixed success taking control of key buildings—did frighten many prefects
reports sent to Rome of a Fascist advance on capitol
10,000 not 50,000 assemble c. 35 km from Rome
Rain
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
27 October 1922
PM Facta had decision to make: organize a resistance or surrender
Facta, like many senior politicians, had failed to take decisive actions against Fascists previously
Govt. resigned
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
27 October 1922
Facta asked to stay as PM during the crisis
Facta asked King Victor Emmanuel III to declare martial law
Victor Emmanuel: “The only man who could do anything was convinced of his impotence.”—A. Lyttleton, The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919-1929
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
28-29 October 1929
Victor Emmanuel: 1. overestimated strengths of Fascists (as had
many others); 2. mother & cousin, Duke of Aosta sympathized
w/Fascists; 3. king feared Fascists would replace him
w/Aosta; 4. his generals sent conflicting reports on the
attitude of army toward Fascists (some generals deeply involved w/Fascists);
5. army & country might split = civil war
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
28-29 October 1922
King hesitated
02:00 on 28 Oct. 1922: King declares martial law
by 10:00 on 28 Oct. 1922: c.12,000 troops deployed at key locations in Rome
about 10:00 on 28 Oct. 1922: King changes his mind about martial law & seeks compromise w/Mussolini
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
28-29 October 1922
28 Oct. 1922: Facta resigns as PM
ex-PM Salandra agrees to form govt. that included Mussolini
Salandra’s efforts fail to gain support
Mussolini refused to join Salandra
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
28-29 October 1922
Mussolini insists would be PM or nothing = potential vacuum & crisis
many business leaders had supported Mussolini as PM for some time—result of anti-Socialism
King faced w/limited options
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
29 October 1922
King Victor Emmanuel III sends a telegram asking Mussolini to meet him to discuss new govt.
instead of Switzerland, planned destination if he failed, Mussolini boarded a train to Rome
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
30 October 1922
10:42 Mussolini arrives in Rome
immediately goes to see king still wearing his blackshirt—“I have come straight from battle, which, fortunately, was won without bloodshed.”
Victor Emmanuel asks Mussolini to form a govt. and be its Prime Minister
ITALY: THE FASCISTS & MUSSOLINI’S SEIZES POWER
31 October 1922
Mussolini, wearing formal wear, was sworn in as PM, as well as Foreign & Interior Minister
Blackshirts descended on Rome, 50,000 strong to parade in front of Mussolini & the King
Joined by significant number of regular army
Celebrate their Victory—myth of a heroic revolution—their March on Rome, after Mussolini was PM