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NORTH AFRICAN CASE STUDY

The Sahara: resources and conflicts

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THE SAHARA – BETWEEN

RESOURCES AND CONFLICTS

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INTRODUCTION The Sahara Desert is the largest desert

in the world

It has often been portrayed as a dormant territory

In the last 50 years, it has become a dynamic and attractive space

The Sahara is coveted for its underground resources. Its division into ten states add to the conflicts.

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KEY QUESTIONS Why is this vast desert the focus of so

much interest?

What effects have the national border divisions had in the region?

How have relations between the different players in the Saharan region been evolving?

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BASIC FACTS 8.5 M km² = land surface of the Sahara

12 million inhabitants

21 cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants

57.8°C the hottest temperature recorded in el Azizia, Libya

-4,500 years: beginning of the last arid phase

1956: 1st oil well in Hassi Messaoud, Algeria

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A. A DESERT RICH IN COVETED RESOURCES

Annual precipitation is limited to around 100 mm/year by a powerful anticyclone

Limits of the desert are variable

north = 100 mm/yr

south = 100-200 mm/yr

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HISTORY OF THE REGION Very dynamic trade region during Middle

Ages

Caravan routes along oasis

Marginalized after 16th Century

Rise of Maritime traffic left much of Africa isolated

Colonization after 19th Century further marginalized the continent

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RENEWAL PERIOD SINCE LATE 1950’S

Strong Demographic growth

Natural & migratory

Concentrated in the North

Rapid urbanization

90% inhabitants live in cities

Renewal linked to exploitation of strategic resources by many TNC’s

Hydrocarbons

Minerals (iron, uranium, phosphates, etc)

Fossil water reserves

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Main Oil TNCs in the Sahara

Conoco Phillips (USA)

Repsol (Spain)

Exxon Mobil (USA) Eni (Italy)

Total (France) Qatar Petroleum (Qatar)

GDF Suez (France) CNPC (China)

BP (UK) CNOOC (China)

E.On (Germany) Petronas (Malaysia)

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THE SAHARA: A DESERT RICH IN RESOURCES

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THE SAHARA: A LAND TO CONQUER Underground extraction

Pioneer agricultural front

Exploitation of solar energy

Rise of tourism

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THE SAHARA DESERT FASCINATES TRAVELERS BUT THE GEOPOLITICAL CONTEXT REMAINS DISSUASIVE EVEN FOR TOURISTS LOOKING FOR ADVENTURE

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REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are the climatic characteristics of the Saharan Desert ?

2. What are the different sorts of resources located in the Sahara ?

3. To what extent is this wealth fragile ?

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B. DESPITE ITS MANY BORDERS, THE SAHARA IS A SPACE OF CIRCULATION

Nigerian migrants arriving in Agadez

• Trucks returning from Libya loaded with men and goods.

• To reach Agadez in Northern Niger, they must cross 3,000 km of desert.

• Agadez is located on the edge of the Sahel and is one of the main departure points for trans-saharan mobility

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1.BORDER LIMITS IN THE SAHEL-SAHARA REGION

10 independent states

5 in North (Maghreb) 5 in South (Sahel)

Newly independent states interested in their Saharan territories

Political and symbolic region (outside of colonial control)

Strategic (controlling national territory)

Economic (growth of production)

Demographic (rebalancing population distribution)

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SAHARAN POPULATIONS ON THE MARGIN OF DEVELOPMENT

2011 Populatio

n (millions)

HDI 2011

HDI ranking out of 187 states

2011

Population living with less than $1.25/dy2010 (%)

Unemployment rates in 2010 (%)

Morocco 32.3 0.58 130 2.5 9.8

Algeria 36 0.68 96 NC 10

Tunisia 10.6 0.69 94 2.6 14

Libya 6.4 0.76 64 NC 30

Egypt 82.5 0.64 113 2.0 10

Mauritania

3.5 0.45 159 21.2 30

Mali 15.8 0.35 175 51.4 30

Niger 16.1 0.29 186 43.1 NC

Chad 11.15 0.32 182 61.9 NC

Sudan 44.6 0.40 169 NC 18.7

Source: World Bank and PNUD, 2011

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2. INTEGRATING THE SAHARA WITHIN NATIONAL TERRITORIES States have improved administrative

structures

Promoted city centers

Multiplied infrastructure

Paved roads, railroads, airports

Roads play major role in developing networks

From local to international level

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3. TRANS-SAHARAN EXCHANGES HAVE BEEN REACTIVATED SINCE THE 90’S

Benefit from wealth and regulation differences between North African and Sahel states

Everyday consumer products and fuel from the North exchanged with cattle, agricultural products and contraband from the South

Actors are numerous and from all backgrounds

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4. MIGRANT POPULATIONSContrary to perceptions, majority of Sub-

Saharan migrants stay in North Africa

Despite borders, major population movement,

inter-African + cross-border migrations migrants permanently settle in the Arab north, not Europe

Transit of subsaharan migrants towards Europe are hindered more and more by the EU

Source : « Migrations sahariennes : un bilan loin des idées reçues », IRD, janvier 2013

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Review Questions :

1. What sort of exchanges and mobility characterize the modern-day Sahara ?2. Why is it difficult to control flows at border regions ?3. Why is Saharan mobility becoming more and more restricted nowadays ?

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C. A SPACE WITH MULTIPLE TENSIONS AND CONFLICTS

1. Last Decade = period of great agitation

islamist terrorist groups

Illegal trafficking (cigarettes, drugs, weapons, etc.)

Illegal immigration

Growing tensions between Northern countries and emerging countries to control mineral and petroleum wealth

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A Space of Crises and Insecurity

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2. POWERLESS SAHALIAN STATES

Military strength lacking

Vast zones to control making surveillance difficult

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MALI : FROM GENERAL INSECURITY TO WAR

2012January – April : Turaeg rebellion (MNLA - Natl Movement for the

Liberation of Azawad)March 22nd : coup d'Etat instigated by the Malian army (mutins),

overturning President Amadou Touré (ATT), considered incapable of dealing with the crisis in the North

April 6th : NMLA proclaim independence of Northern Mali which is controlled by the islamist group Ansar Dine

April 7th : ECOWAS forced by the military junta's sanctions to transfer power to civilians. Dioncounda Traoré becomes President of Mali

June-July : conflict between islamists and Tuaregs over the control of northern Mali.

July – December : Islamist advances towards the south

2013January 11th : French military intervention and reconquering of

northern Mali

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AREVA – A CONTESTED PRESENCE IN NIGER

Uranium exploitation by French interests for last 40 yrs denounced For economic & political reasons

Benefits for the development of local population considered very weak

Environmental consequences of mineral exploitation negative

French Corporation Areva is viewed as an accomplice to the Niger state which is fighting against Tuareg rebellions

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A THREATENED URANIUM PRODUCTION

Uranium production from the mine in Imouraren, in the North of Niger will not begin before mid-2015, announced Areva. Production from the open mine was supposed to begin in 2012 but the date has been postponed several times because of security concerns in the Sahel. Seven Areva employees were abducted in the North of Niger by AQME three years ago.

In January, Niger announced that Areva had committed to paying 35 million euros in compensation after the repeated delays, but Areva indicated that this sum is meant to reinforce security at the site.

Considered as the largest open uranium mine in West Africa, the mine in Imouraren will have an estimated production of 5,000 tons per year. It exploitation will allow Niger to double its annual uranium production and to rise to second place in the world ranking of producing countries, behind Kazakhstan.

Source : Les Echos, March 7, 2013

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TOURISM IN DANGER BECAUSE OF INSECURITY

Troubles in the Sahel have made tourism non-existant while entire Territories have grown to depend exclusively on this unique ressource.

Agadez, Niger survived largely on direct and indirect revenues from The hotel and restaurant industry, and artisan products from 70's to 90'sToday is completely deprived of tourist influx which had become vital to Its local economyTimbuktu, the « pearl of the Malian desert » in similar state of desperationAnd economic slump

Tourism not only sector in jeopardyNGOs, cooperation agents and researchers can no longer access The region which contributes even more to the difficulties andfeeling of abandonment by the inhabitants in the region

Source : F. Loncle and H. Plagnol, « La situation sécuritaire dans les pays de la zone sahélienne », rapport d'information déposé par la commission

des Affaires étrangères à l'Assemblée nationale, le 6 mars 2012

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REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Which parts of the Sahara are the most affected by the tensions and conflicts ?

2. Who are the actors involved in the conflicts ?

3. What is at stake in these conflicts ?

4. What consequences do these tensions have on the development of Saharan spaces ?

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CONCLUSION

1. The Sahara is a desert rich in coveted resources

2. Despite its many borders, the Sahara is a space of circulation

3. The Sahara is a space of multiple tensions and conflicts

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