© Sam Ferreira

Global Patterns

Unsustainable exploitation of biodiversity

Rands et al. 2010. Science 329: 1298-1303

End of the line – imagine a world without fish

www.endofthelinemovie.com

Large mammal declines in parks

Craigie et al. 2010. Biological Conservation 123: 45-54

© Sam Ferreira

South Africa may do better sometimes

Golden Gate

Mokala

Kalahari Wet

Kalahari Dry

Kruger

Marakele

Addo Main

Addo-Kuzuko

KarooM

ountain Zebra

Camdeboo

Mapungubwe

Augrabies

Addo-Darlington

Addo-Nyathi

Addo-Zuurberg

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

UnknownDecreaseStableIncrease

La

rge

Ma

mm

al P

op

ula

tion

s

54% increasing or stable 4% decreasing

Ferreira et al. 2009. SANParks, South Africa

The Business of Ecosystem Services

• Carbon sequestration• Community-based ecotourism• Resource use

– Harvesting– Hunting– Water quality

Increased monetary-based values

© Rudi van Aarde

A conflict of interest for conservationists?

• Biodiversity degrades with monetary-based approaches

• Conundrum for protected areas• Protect biodiversity• But also generate revenue

© Sam Ferreira

Mills & Waite 2009. Ecological Economics 68: 2087-2095

© Rudi van Aarde

Why is biodiversity important?

• It has livelihood links– Monetary– Non-monetary

• Threats to biodiversity threatens livelihoods

© Adrian Shrader

Threats are drivers of Global Environmental Change

Gaston et al. 2008. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 39: 93-113

Reduction or Loss of Species in Protected Areas

22%Habitat Change

Fire, prescribed burning, elephant damage,

habitat loss and quality,starvation, declining resources

3%Climate Change

Drought

6%Invasive species

Fish stocking, bush encroachment

25%Over-Exploitation

Hunting, removals for translocation

3%Pollution

Affects resource availability

13%Disease

10%Predation

13%Unknown

54 % of cases involved more than one driver

Ocean acidification• Since 1970 pH dropped by 0.1

Sea-level rise• Cost 5-10% GDP

Africa• 75-250 million people water stress by 2020• Rural agricultural yield drop by 50% by 2020• 5-8% more arid land by 2080

Climate Change as a Driver

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC): 4th Report 2007

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100

Ups lope s hift (m )

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Num

ber o

f specie

s

Upper altitudinal boundaryc ontrac ted dow ns lope

Upper altitudinal boundaryexpanded ups lope

Plants on the move

Moving upslopeMoving downslope

Num

ber o

f spe

cies

Altitudinal shift (m)

43%Ave. = 69m

Le Roux & McGeoch 2008. Global Change Biology 14: 2950-2962

Biodiversity consequences of Climate Change

Invasive Species as a Driver

Invasive alien plants in KrugerFoxcroft & Richardson 2003. In Plant invasives. Blackhyus Publishers.

Aerial extent of Opuntia stricta Foxcroft et al. 2004. Diversity and Distribution 10: 427-437

© Sam Ferreira

Invaded Not invaded

Richness 21.39 ± 2.31 35.56 ± 2.32*

Abundance 67.49 ± 18.87 19.49 ± 18.88*

Homogenization 0.008 ± 0.002 0.77 ± 0.002**

Biodiversity consequences of Invasive Species

Impact of the Argentine ant on native Fynbos ants

© Melodie McGeogh

McGeoch, Unpublished data

Over-exploitation as a Driver

What does it mean?

Populations harvested unsustainably- Reproduction cannot compensate for mortalities

Wilcove et al. 1998. BioScience 48: 607-615- Resource quality change

Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations 2007

Conceptual driver

Tragedy of the commons- Increase of individual resources

- e.g. herd of cows- Detriment of common resources

- e.g. communal fodderHardin 1968. Science 162: 1243-1248

Frank et al. 2005. Science 308: 1621–1623

Dissolved inorganic nitrogen

Time

NO

3- + N

O2

18/25 cases, 7**

Time

PO43

Phosphorous

23/25 cases, 14**

Fertilizer use

Effluent

deVilliers & Thiart 2007. South African Journal of Science 103: 343-349

State of South Africa’s River Systems

Pollution as a Driver

© Melodie McGeogh

Ma

yJu

nJu

lyA

ug

Se

pO

ctN

ov

De

cJa

nF

eb

Ma

rA

pr

Ma

yJu

nJu

lA

ug

Se

pO

ctN

ov

De

cJa

nF

eb

Ma

rA

pr

Ma

y0

1000

2000

3000Helicopter Spotlight

2008/2009 2009/2010

Num

ber

of

croco

dile

s

Dead170

Dead28

Biodiversity consequences of Pollution

Ferreira & Pienaar 2010. Aquatic Conservation Submitted

© Andrew Deacon

Increase in EIDs

WildlifePlants & animals

HomogenizationMixingLoss of diversity

Increased risk of disease and disease transfer

translocationimpact

Emerging infectious disease

Transfer between domestic animals and wildlifeDaszak et al. 2000. Science 287: 443-449

Human translocation of hosts and parasitesSpear & Chown 2008. Journal of Biogeography

No human or domestic animal involvementMatthee et al. 2004. Journal of Parasitology 90: 1263-1273

Consequences

Direct threat to wildlifeIndirect threat via human antagonism

Disease as a Driver

Belden & Harris 2007. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5: 533-539© Danny Govender

Tree Grass Dynamics

herbivoryfire

soil

rainfall[CO2]

Bond 2008. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 39: 641-659

Management actions

Climate change

Habitat clearing

Fragmentation

Roads

Habitat Change as a Driver

Vehicle numbers

Tourism facilities

Tourist numbers

© Sam Ferreira

Dealing with threats

Climate change – land expansionInvasive species – regulatory and restorationOver-exploitation – regulatory and restorationPollution – regulatory and restorationDisease – regulatory and scenariosHabitat change – protection and restoration

Essentially a social problemgrowth of human populations

per capita consumptionRands et al. 2010. Science 329: 1298-1303

• Integrate conservation friendly land-uses• Socio-economic-ecological complexity

• Conservationists are negotiators

Diversify approaches

MISSION

To manage Golden Gate Highlands National Park in a collaborative learning environment

as part of an ecologically functional and sustainable patchwork of different land uses in the region that ensures the persistence of

the natural and cultural heritage for the benefit and enjoyment of all.

SANParks 2009. Pretoria.

Scenario Planning

Consequences often unknown

Nearly all drivers fall in this category

Disease accentuated

Medical examples to embrace

http://www.physorg.com/news160327953.html

© Markus Hofmeyr

Make links and manage causal mechanisms

Objectives and

outcomes

Drivers and indicators

- impacts on biodiversity- tall trees- aesthetics- conflict

Mechanisms and modulators

- how they use space- water directly modulates - density may override this

Management responses

Induce predationInduce dispersalMimic predationMimic dispersalManipulate birthsManipulate deaths

Restore spaceManipulate resourceExclude resourceRotate resourceExclude impact

Objectives

EcosystemAbiotic – soil nutrientsDecomposers – millipedesProducers – vegetationConsumers – birds

Species of ConcernRare speciesEndemic species

StakeholdersPerceptionsComplaints

TouristsSatisfactionRevisits

Drivers and indicators

ElephantsPatch densityFragstatsLarge treesSize distribution

StakeholdersWildlife conflictDamage to crops

MammalsSightingsDiversityTourist effort

Mechanisms and modulators

ElephantsHome range overlapSeason distribution

Direct modulatorWater availabilityFence distribution

Indirect modulatorAbundanceDensity

HumansLandscape use

Monitoring needs

Gaylard & Ferreira 2010. Koedoe. Submitted

Our legacy?

• Biodiversity begets livelihoods• Livelihoods threaten biodiversity

• The Year of Biodiversity - A way of living

– matrix of different land-usesFerreira et al. 2010. Journal of Environmental Management Submitted

– biodiversity is global public good– integrate biodiversity

• resource production• consumption

– wider institutional and societal changes– enable effective implementation

Rands et al. 2010. Science 329: 1298-1303

© Sam Ferreira

Biodiversity should be an accidental outcome of sustainable livelihoods

© Rudi van Aarde