people’s behaviors are largely the result of their experiences with environmental stimuli. › the...

People’s behaviors are largely the result of their experiences with environmental stimuli.› The “writing” of our behavior is called

conditioning. Learning is the relationships among stimuli and

responses. Learning involves a behavior change.

› Note that this does not include mental events. Learning is most likely to occur when the

stimuli and response occur contiguously. Most species learn in a similar manner.

Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

All rights reserved.

A form of learning in which a new involuntary response is acquired due to two stimuli being presented simultaneously

Changes in our behavior resulting from an association made between thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors and an event or emotional state




Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive (innate and unlearned) response.

The reflexive stimulus is called the UCS (unconditioned stimulus) and elicits an unconditioned response (UCR).› Air puff (UCS) produces an eye blink (UCR).

In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the UCS.

Eventually, the NS elicits a response similar to the UCR.› The NS is a conditioned stimulus (CS).› Reponse is now a conditioned response (CR).




People sometimes respond emotionally to fairly “neutral” stimuli.

When a stimulus is associated with something that makes us fearful, we may begin feeling fearful of the stimulus itself.




How is classical conditioning applicable to classroom conditions?

When students encounter unpleasant stimuli in school, they may dislike school in general.› A mean teacher may create a dislike for the

subject.› Frequently failing tests may cause a student to

hate the subject.Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition



Generalization› A stimulus similar to the conditioned

stimulus elicits a response. Discrimination

› Only the conditioned stimulus elicits a response.

Extinction› The conditioned response gradually

disappears. However, we can experience spontaneous

recovery.Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition



This theory proposes that we learn something (or do something) because the consequences are so desirable that we are inclined to do the behavior again.› Reinforcement

OR behaviors can be unlearned (or stopped) because the consequences are such that we are inclined to NOT do the behavior again.› Punishment




The purpose of reinforcement is to increase the likelihood that a behavior will occur again (or occur to begin with).

The purpose of punishment is to decrease the likelihood that a behavior will occur again.

Both can be given in a positive or negative form.




Positive means a stimulus is added.› Positive reinforcement: Something pleasurable is

added to increase the occurrence of the behavior. Money for grades, treat for a puppy who went potty

outside

Negative means a stimulus is removed.› Negative reinforcement: Something unpleasant is

removed to increase the occurrence of the behavior. Chris doesn’t have to clean the garage if he mows the

lawn today; the students don’t have to take the final if they have perfect attendance




Specify the desired behavior at the beginning

Identify consequences that are truly reinforcing

Consider using group contingency when reinforcing behavior in a large group

Make response-consequences contingencies explicit

Make sure students have an opportunity to earn public reinforcement

Be consistent

Continuously monitor student progress




Studies show that reinforcement has longer lasting effects on behavioral changes than does punishment.

Punishment leads to immediate compliance, but often leads to:› Ability to avoid being caught› Negative associations with punisher› Only temporary behavior changes

Reinforcement teaches what is expected; punishment only teaches what is not.› Of punishment, removal works best




Reinforcement can be continuous or intermittent.

Continuous is best to start a new behavior, then move on to intermittent reinforcement.

Schedules are either based on time (interval) or on behaviors (ratio).› Can be fixed or variable




Fixed interval: Set amount of time will pass before next reinforcement.

Variable interval: Average amount of time will pass before next reinforcement.

Fixed ratio: Set amount of behaviors will occur before next reinforcement.

Variable ratio: Average amount of behaviors will occur before next reinforcement.




Shaping: Process of reinforcing every behavior that is closer to the desired behavior› We use shaping to teach music.› Even “Bs” and “Cs” are a form of shaping.› Shaping helps to get a new behavior

started.




Apply extinction› Do not reinforce undesirable behaviors

Cue students when they are engaged in inappropriate behaviors› Use body language, eye contact, stand by them,

brief verbal cue

Reinforce an incompatible behavior

Use punishment wisely, appropriately, and humanely




Presentation punishment› Something unpleasant is added to decrease

the occurrence of the behavior. Spanking for smarting off; a failing grade for not

studying

Removal punishment› Something pleasant is removed to decrease

the occurrence of the behavior. Grounded from the phone for being late; removal

of recess privileges for being too loud in class




Promote intrinsic reinforcement› Don’t just reinforce test or homework

scores—reinforce effort and interest

Use intermittent reinforcement› More resistant to extinction




Three common approaches:› Applied behavioral analysis (behavior

modification) Systematic application of principles of

behaviorism› Functional Analysis

Focuses on changing response-reinforcement contingencies

› Positive behavioral support Identifying purposes of undesirable behaviors

and providing alternative behaviors




Attempts at changing only behaviors may ignore cognitive factors interfering with learning.

Reinforcement for academic tasks may encourage students to do things quickly rather than well.

Extrinsic reinforcement of an activity that students already find intrinsically reinforcing may undermine student interest in the task itself.




Reinforcement is critically important in determining learning and behavior.

Punishment is not very effective for permanently eliminating undesirable behavior.

Interest and positive feelings are conducive to learning.

Repetition without reinforcement does not enhance learning.




people’s behaviors are largely the result of their experiences with environmental stimuli. › the...

Documents