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Running Head: COACH SELF EFFICACY 1
Dissertation Study: The Impact of Brain Function Knowledge
On Developmental Coach Self Efficacy
Eric N. Reeves
George Mason University
COACH SELF EFFICACY 2
Introduction
The connection between neuroscience and coaching is a relatively recent association. Yet
there is much between the two that makes this connection, and a better understanding of it, of
great value to field of developmental coaching. Whereas coaching has drawn heavily from the
disciplines of education, psychology, and psychotherapy, advances in brain imaging adds another
field from which coaching can draw valuable lessons and techniques for improving practice. The
brain is a dynamic system of nerves and connections that extends through the body and is
involved in our conscious experience and sense of self (Bowman, Ayers, King, & Page, 2013).
Coaches who neglect to tap into this expanding body of research about brain-body-mind
relationships are doing a disservice to themselves and their clients. This research has the
potential to validate widely used coaching practices, and help modify those theoretical
approaches that are being put into question by brain research. Because coaches are concerned
with engaging clients to produce results, it is incumbent on the coaching community to examine
how neuroscience might impact current and future strategies with the coaching profession.
The Real-World Problem or Concern
Coaching is growing rapidly as a way to help individuals improve their professional
and/or personal success. As coaching has evolved, is has drawn its theoretical underpinnings
from numerous professions, and practitioners are often faced with having to clearly distinguish
the role and expectations of coaching from those intended outcomes of training, mentoring,
supervising, and therapy (Bloom, Castanga, Moir, & Warren, 2005). Kempster& Iszatt –White
(2013) identified six major sources of theoretical basis that most inform coaching interventions:
psychodynamic; behaviorist; person-centered; cognitive; systems-oriented; and solution-focused
coaching. More experienced coaches tend to drawn from those disciplines that have a longer and
COACH SELF EFFICACY 3
more extensive tradition of research such as psychotherapy and management development
(deHaan, Culpin, & Curd, 2011).
Technological advances have contributed to the development of numerous brain imaging
techniques, including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), computed tomography
(CT), positron emission tomography (PET), electroencephalography (EEG),
magnetoencephalography (MEG), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and near infrared
spectroscopy (NIRS). Just as coaching has drawn for other related disciplines to inform practice,
so has it begun tapping into the new advances in neuroscience. This developing interest and
discovery of new applications has resulted in the publication of a plethora of coaching-related
neuroscience books (Rock & Schwartz,: 2006; Rock & Page, 2009; Brown & Brown, 2012;
Azmatullah, 2013; Brann, 2014; Carson & Tiers, 2014; Benz & Kimsey-House, 2015; Bossons,
Riddell, & Sartain, 2015). In spite of this new interest and developing body of work, there exist
no studies that described whether or not knowledge of the neuroscience of coaching actually has
any positive impact on the coach, the client, or the coaching outcomes.
Baron & Morin (2009) identified four significant correlates to the coach–coachee
relationship: the coach’s self-efficacy with regard to facilitating learning and results, the
coachee’s motivation to transfer, his or her perception of support, and the number of coaching
sessions received. Self-efficacy is defined as “belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute
the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p.3). Research into
self-efficacy strongly supports a connection between measures of self-efficacy and performance.
This concept is relevant to both the coach and the coachee. If the coach can support the coachee
in increasing their perceived self-efficacy, then the performance of both the coach and coachee
COACH SELF EFFICACY 4
will improve. This study will look into how a developmental coach’s knowledge of the
neuroscience of coaching impacts his or her coaching self-efficacy.
Potential Research Questions
There are several research questions that will be used as the foundation for addressing the
problems identified for this study and informing the methods described in subsequent sections.
The first two questions specifically address the coach’s response to the intervention. Questions 3-
5 are specific to the coachee’s response to an increase in coach self-efficacy and would best be
answered by a survey of the coachee; however, the semi-structured interview questions will elicit
the coach’s perspective in relation to these questions.
(1) How does a coach’s understanding of coaching-related brain functions impact the
self-efficacy of the coach?
(2) How does a coach’s understanding of coaching-related brain functions impact the
approach of the coach in the coaching relationship?
(3) How does a coach’s understanding of coaching-related brain functions impact the
confidence of the coaching client in the coach?
(4) How does a coaching client’s understanding of coaching-related brain functions
impact the confidence of the client in the coaching process?
(5) How does a coaching client’s understanding of coaching-related brain functions
impact the generation of the client’s insight into goals and objectives?
Dissertation Study
Theories & Concepts
This study touches upon numerous theories and concepts that will influence the design of
this research.
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Social Cognitive Theory. Social cognitive theory (SCT), posits that portions of an
individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context
of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. Bandura (1986) advanced the
concept of individuals as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting, and self-regulating.
Social Cognitive Learning Theory. Although developed in the context of a child’s
cognitive development, Vygotsky’s (1978) concepts of Zone of Proximal Development and
Scaffolding contribute to the framework in which training in coaching-related brain functions is
provided to the coach participants of this study.
Adult Transformational Learning. Transformative learning theory declares that the
process of ‘perspective transformation’ has three dimensions: psychological (changes in
understanding of the self), convictional (revision of belief systems), and behavioral (changes in
lifestyle). This transformation usually results from a ‘disorienting dilemma’ which is triggered by
a life crisis or major life transition - although it may also result from an accumulation of
transformations in meaning schemes over a period of time (Mezirow, 1997).
Developmental Coaching. Grant (2013) defines developmental coaching as "a
collaborative, cognitive-behavioral, and solution focused systematic process, provided to a
nonclinical population, in which the coach facilitates self-learning, personal growth and goal
achievement of the client" (p.73). The aim of the coaching process is to sustain cognitive,
emotional and behavioral changes that facilitate goal achievements' either in one's career or in
one's personal life. Cox (2006) recognized developmental coaching to be a natural progression
from skills and performance coaching to a focus on the growth of a person to be all that he or she
can be. The complexity of the topic lends itself to the leveraging of multiple types of adult
COACH SELF EFFICACY 6
development theories that inform coaching including, physical development, intellectual or
cognitive development, and lifespan development theories (Palmer & Panchal, 2011).
Self-Efficacy. Self-efficacy beliefs influence the way people feel, think, behave, and are
motivated. Such beliefs are produced from four major sources: past success that create the
mastery sense, modeling and exposure to behaviors and possibilities of others, persuasion by
significant figures, and psycho-physiological regulation. They include cognitive, motivational,
affective, and regulation processes (Bandura, 1977).
Cognitive Neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience emphasizes the biological factors
underlying cognition, with a specific focus on the neural factors that relate to cognition. It
addresses the questions of how psychological/cognitive functions are produced by neural circuits
in the brain (Bear, Connors & Paradiso, 2007). Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of both
psychology and neuroscience, overlapping with disciplines such as physiological psychology,
cognitive psychology and neuropsychology. Cognitive neuroscience relies upon theories in
cognitive science coupled with evidence from neuropsychology and computational modeling
(Churchland & Sejnowski, 1992).
Affective Neuroscience. Affective neuroscience is a hybrid discipline that involves the
“study of the brain mechanisms that underlie our emotions and the search for ways to enhance
people’s sense of well-being and promote positive qualities of mind” (Davidson & Begley, 2013,
p. xi.). This interdisciplinary field combines neuroscience with the psychological study of
personality, emotion and mood (Panskeep, 1992).
Research Literature
The role of the coach in a coaching relationship is to assist the client in seeing the
fundamental relationship between their life choices and resultant consequences, the alignment of
COACH SELF EFFICACY 7
these choices and outcomes with their personal values and ethics, and the changes that could
occur with greater clarity about how different choices would bring about outcomes more in line
with the client’s self-defined life purpose (Kets de Vries, 1989). Coaching participants identified
the coaches’ top contributions to be those factors that are available in every coaching
relationship: quality of the relationship, personal characteristics, their expectations for their
clients, and their ability to motivate (deHaan, 2008a;deHaan, 2008b; deHaan, Culpin, & Curd,
2011). Campone & Awal (2012) found that coaching clients also identified formal education in
skills and theory as having an impact on their coaching experience. This formal preparation
formed a basis for coaches to deepen their professional reasoning and make informed decisions.
There are no universal standards for the identification of competent coaches, and there is
great disagreement as to the necessary professional qualifications for coaches (Bono, Purvanova,
Towler, & Peterson, 2009). With no real barriers to entering the profession, the number of
coaches has risen rapidly and coaches come from all levels of education and occupational
backgrounds. One of the most frequently cited reason that individuals enter into the field of
professional coaching is life experiences, such as accidents, illnesses and divorce. It is not the
experience itself that leads a person into coaching, it is the reflection, processing of the
information, and integrating it into life going forward the makes him or her more aware of
strengths and limitations and helps stimulate the desire to help others along the path (Campone &
Awal, 2012). Coaching is a profession where the majority of its practitioners are passionate and
committed to the process of facilitating change in their clients’ lives (Newnham-Kanas, 2012).
Drake (2011) emphasized the need for technical coach training and preparation focused
on aspects of the field such as skills, processes, coach behaviors; ethical standards and business
practices, in order to cultivate skills grounded in science-based and experience-based evidence.
COACH SELF EFFICACY 8
However, other researchers in the field support the idea that the value of coaching can be
attributed less to the technique or approach used by the coach and more by the common factors
that apply to all coaching experiences: the relationship, empathic understanding, and positive
expectations (deHaan, 2008a;deHaan, 2008b; deHaan, Culpin, & Curd, 2011; Campone & Awal,
2012). Coaches tend to be eclectic in their application of coaching techniques; however, Barner
& Higgins (2007) recognized that coaches tended to center on one of four principle coaching
models: the clinical model, the behavioral model, the systems model, and (as a more recent
development) the social constructionist model. To this should be added a brain-based model that
addresses the goals of recognizing the role brain synaptic pathways affect emotions, and change
being defined as consciously using the mind to ‘rewire’ the brain (Davidson & Begley, 2013;
Schwartz & Begley, 2002).
By maintaining focus on the prioritized issues, the coach assists the client in reshaping
the patterns of his or her brain. Zull (2002) proposed an approach that links the experiential
learning theory of Kolb (1983) with findings in neuroscience research. Each step of Kolb’s
experiential learning cycle - gathering information, reflection, creating, active testing – is
associated with different regions of the brain aligned with sensory, associative, and motor
functions (Hendel-Giller, Hollenbach, David, Oughton, Pickthorn, Schilling, & Versiglia, 2011).
By working through each stage of the cycle, a ‘multiplier effect’ occurs in the brain, with the
increased transition of positive behavior from working memory to the habit-storing area of the
basil ganglia (Rock, 2006).
Habermacher, Ghandiri, & Peters (2014) suggest that neuroscience and brain research
present five human basic needs – Self-esteem, Control, Orientation, Attachment, and Pleasure
(SCOAP). Leveraging the work of Klaus Grawe in neuropsychotherapy, Habermacher et al.
COACH SELF EFFICACY 9
(2014) propose the SCOAP Coach Theory as “a model of basic human needs as an integrated
coaching framework” (p. 7). Each of these needs is impacted by approach and avoidance
motivations. While the approach-avoidance distinction has “a long and rich history in intellectual
thought” (Elliot & Covington, 2001, p. 74), findings in neuroscience illustrate that these schemas
can be activated as the same time since they rely on different neuronal circuits. By assisting the
client stay focused on their goals, and holding them accountable for their actions, the coach
further guides the client toward a reconfiguring of the brain to remain focused on positive results
(Habermacher et al., 2014).
Schwartz & Begley (2002) applied a similar process in cognitive-behavioral therapy for
patients who were clinically diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). By
explaining the neurological process to patients, they gained insight into the true nature and
origins of their OCD thoughts and urges. They were subsequently guided to relabel their
obsessions and compulsions as false signals (symptoms of a disease), reattribute those thoughts
and urges to pathological brain circuitry, refocus their attention away from the pathological
thought and urges into a constrictive behavior, and revalue the OCD obsessions and
compulsions, realizing that they have no intrinsic value, and no inherent power (Schwartz &
Begley, 2002).
Davidson and Begley (2013) provide an additional perspective on brain research, positing
that the brain is composed of six basic emotional styles that are comprised of attention,
resilience, outlook, self-awareness, social intuition, and context sensitivity. These six dimensions
reflect properties and patterns in the brain, the essential components of any model of human
behavior and emotion. These 6 brain circuits are the underpinnings of Emotional Style which
govern the context and duration of emotions for different people, and which ultimately give rise
COACH SELF EFFICACY 10
to moods and personality. Similarly, Azmullah (2014) combined neuroscience, psychology and
mindfulness research to provide a framework to help coaches and leadership development
specialists improve their awareness of the mind, enhancing their coaching practice. By focusing
on the mind as the target for coaching interventions, Azmatullah (2014) established a
comprehensive framework for achieving transformational change.
Rock ’ s ( 2008 ) SCARF model, based upon assessing amygdala response to threats of
Status, Certainty, Autonomy, Relatedness, and Fairness, is an example of an attempt to develop a
framework to help coaches promote healthy relationships. Recent studies suggest that using this
framework facilitates organizational cohesion (e.g., Martin-Kniep, 2010 ; Street, 2010 ). Chavez
& Heatherton (2014), found that self-esteem lies in the frontostriatal pathway, which connects
the medial prefrontal cortex, which deals with self-knowledge, to the ventral striatum, which
deals with feelings of motivation and reward. These types of findings need to be adapted to
coaching-centered models to facilitate coach/client dynamics and to client-centered outcomes
(Bowman, 2013).
Self-efficacy has been found to be one of the most important factors contributing to
successful performances in almost every area of life, including leadership (Anderson, Krajewski,
Goffon, & Jackson, 2008) musical performance (Craske & Craig, 1984), and sports (Wurtele,
1986). Results support that leadership self-efficacy is a valuable means to predict, understand,
and develop effective leadership (Anderson, Krajewski, Goffon, & Jackson, 2008). Thus, self-
efficacy has proved to be an important variable predicting performance (Moen & Allgood, 2009).
Bandura (1986) found self-efficacy beliefs to be a greater predictor of success in many areas, that
the relevant skills and knowledge of the topic. Schunk (1991) found that a high sense of self-
efficacy regarding a task enhances the person's chance of selecting that task (regardless of
COACH SELF EFFICACY 11
difficulty), increases the significance of the task as important and enjoyable, and enhances the
person's ability to persevere despite the setbacks.
Methodological Approach
Purpose. The purpose of this project is to determine how a coach’s knowledge of
coaching-related brain functions (e.g. memory, insight, identity, self-esteem) contributes to the
self-efficacy of the coach in the coaching relationship and, by extension, what is the impact on
the coachee and the coaching outcomes.
Research Setting. Questionnaires and surveys will be disseminated to coaches
electronically; interviews of coaches will be conducted telephonically.
Research Population. From 10 - 15 coaches will be selected through purposeful
sampling (concept sampling) from a population of coaches certified as Associate Certified Coach
(ACC) by the International Coach Federation (ICF). Coaches will be identified through
coordination with the ICF and the Institute of Coaching.
Intervention. This project includes three major components, (a) an assessment of
coaching self-efficacy, (b) instruction in coaching-related brain functions, (c) interviews of study
participants.
Primary Research Methods. This study will use a quasi-experimental design consisting
of pre- and post-test self-efficacy assessments, as well as semi-structured interviews with
primary open-ended interview questions and secondary open-ended prompts.
Measures and Key Outcomes. Potential assessments used to evaluate the malleable
factors of the study will include the New General Self-Efficacy assessment (Chen, Gully, &
Eden, 2004) or a self-constructed self-efficacy scale (Bandura, 2006). The self-efficacy
assessment will determine the impact that brain-based coaching training has on coach self-
COACH SELF EFFICACY 12
efficacy. Additional measures may include the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons,
Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) as a measure of well-being, if continued review of the research
literature correlates self-efficacy with well-being.
Data analysis. Self-efficacy assessments will be analyzed using within-subjects Analysis
of Variance (ANOVA). Participant interviews will be analyzed through a multi-phase process
intended to transform the data from multiple pages of collected text to the 5-7 themes that
represent the findings of the research process. The phases of this methodology include: initially
reading through the text data, dividing the text into segments of information, labeling the
segments of information with codes, reducing overlap and redundancy of the codes, and
collapsing the codes into themes (Cresswell, 2012).
Ethics. This research will be coordinated with the GMU Office of Research Integrity &
Assurance as required. All participants will be asked to sign a consent form, and anonymity and
discretion will be guaranteed. The research will adhere to all mandatory human subject policies,
procedures and guidelines.
Areas of Expertise
This research will addressed multiple areas of content knowledge and research methodologies.
Areas of expertise and knowledge that should be represented on my panel include:
Developmental coaching
Affective and cognitive neuroscience
Self-efficacy
Qualitative and quantitative research methodologies
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My current portfolio committee is familiar with my interest in coaching and neuroscience, and
has the knowledge of the areas of expertise required to successfully guide me through the
dissertation process.
COACH SELF EFFICACY 14
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