CHAPTER 8 – AFRICAN CIVILIZATIONS AND THE SPREAD OF ISLAM

After the fall of Rome, the civilizations of Byzantium and the Islamic world linked the Middle East, the Mediterranean, northern Europe, and Africa.

800 – 1500, in Africa frequency and intensity of contact with the outside world increased due to a growing international network.

Social and religious changes took place influencing many different peoples

Important was the arrival of the followers of the prophet Muhammad

The spread of Islam revealed the power of the religion and its commercial and military attributes

Civilizations were changed by Islam but retained their individuality

New religious, economic, and political patterns developed with the Islamic surge, but diversity remained

Islamization cause huge effects on its converts and linked Muslim Africa to the outside world through trade, religion, and politics.

Trade and long-distance commerce linked regions beyond the Muslim world.

Until about 1450, Islam provided the major external contact between sub-Saharan Africa and the world.

State-building: West Africa experienced cultural influence of Islam and its own internal civilization produced great artistic accomplishments Powerful state, such

a Mali and Songhay, depended more on military power and dynastic alliances than on ethnic or cultural unity.

There was the development of city-states, with strong merchant communities in west Africa and the Indian Ocean coast of east Africa that showed similarities to urban developments of Italy and Germany in this period.

However, there were disparities between the technologies and ideologies of European and Africans and differences in the ways their societies developed.

Northern Africa and the east African coast were partly incorporated into the Arab Muslim world

New centers of civilization and political power arose in sub-Saharan Africa, illustrating the geographic diffusion of civilization

Bantu migration and the formation of large states in the western Sudan persisted

AFRICAN SOCIETIES: DIVERSITY AND SIMILARITIES

Differences in geography, language, religion, and politics contributed to Africa’s lack of political unity

Sub-Saharan Africa did not have universal states or universal religions Christianity and Islam

did find adherents in Africa and sometimes contributed to formation of large states empires

STATELESS SOCIETIES

Some African societies had rulers who controlled through a hierarchy of official called states; other societies were stateless, organized around kinship

Stateless peoples Some organized around either lineages or age sets ( groups

of the same age) did not need rulers or bureaucracies Some had forms of government – authority could be held

instead by a council of families with no need to tax the population to support the ruler, bureaucrats, army or nobles.

Some had little concentration authority affecting only a small part of people’s lives

Other alternatives to formal government were secret societies These incorporated their members after an initiation –

knowledge, skills, physical tests They settled village disputes and also acted to maintain

stability, and served as an alternative to the power of state institutions

Stateless societies found it difficult to resist external pressures, mobilize for warfare, organize large building projects, carry on stable long-distance trade with others

All of these concerns contributed to the formation of states in sub-Saharan Africa

COMMON ELEMENTS IN AFRICAN SOCIETIES

Certain similarities in language, thought, and religion provided some unities

Bantu-speaking peoples provided a linguistic base a cross much of Africa so that structure and vocabulary allowed some mutual understanding between neighboring Bantu speakers

Animistic religion: belief in the power of natural forces personified as spirits or gods and the role of ritual and worship (dancing drumming, divination, and sacrifice) was central to religion of many African peoples

African religions had well-developed concepts of good and evil Africans, like, Europeans, believed that some evil, disasters

and illnesses were produced by witchcraft; this led to the existence of a class of diviners or priests who guided religious practice

African religion provided a cosmology – view of how the universe worked

Many believed in a creator whose power and actions were expressed through spirits of lesser gods and through the founding ancestors of the group Ancestors – seen as the first settlers – thus “owners” of the

land and resources and through them the fertility of the land, game, people, and herds could be ensured.

Religion, economics, and history were thus closely intertwined. Family/clan – common

organization of African societies had an important role in dealing with the gods.

Deceased ancestors – direct link between living relatives and the spirit world

Respect of ancestors and gods – part of the same system

Economies of Africa Settled agriculture and skilled ironwork had been

established before or during the postclassical period. Specialization encouraged local and regional trade, the

basis for many lively markets and large cities Market life – women and men alike participated actively Trade – handled by professional merchants International trade increased in many regions in this period,

mainly with Islamic world and through Arab traders African state benefited from ability to tax the trade

International trade furthered the growth of African merchant groups

No rapid technical or manufacturing shifts within Africa, except important innovation in mining

POPULATION – One of the least known aspects of African societies before 20th century By 1500, Africa may have

had 30-60 million inhabitants

THE ARRIVAL OF ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA

Africa north of the Sahara had long been part of the world of classical antiquity, where Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans and Vandals traded, settled, built, battled, and destroyed

Christianity had taken a firm hold in Mediterranean Africa

North Africa was linked across the Sahara to the rest of Africa in many ways. With the rise of Islam, those

ties became closer

640 – 700 CE, followers of Muhammad swept across north Africa from Suez to Morocco’s Atlantic shore

711 Berber and Arab armies had crossed into Spain. Were defeated in Frankish Kingdom by Charles at Poitiers (Battle of Tours) in 732 halting Muslim advance in the West

Islam found fertile ground among the populations of north Africa Rapid conversion within the political unity provided by the Abbasid dynasty This unity eventually broke down, and north Africa divided into separate

states and competing groups

In opposition to the states dominated by the Arabic rulers, the peoples of the desert, the Berbers, formed states of their own 11th century – the Almoravids,

a puritanical reformist movement, grew among the desert Berbers. They launched a jihad, holy war, against the kingdoms of the savanna and west into Spain.

1130 – another reformist group, the Almohadis, followed the same pattern

These north African and Spanish developments were essential to the penetration of Islam into sub-Saharan Africa

Islam offered many attractions – that all Muslims are equal within the community of believers – which made the acceptance of conquerors and new rulers easier

Islamic tradition of uniting the powers of the state and religion under the ruler, caliph, appealed to some African kings to reinforce their authority

Concept – all members of the umma, community of believers, were equal put the converted Berbers and later Africans on an equal footing with the Arabs

Despite these utopian ideas within Islam, practices differed considerable at local levels

Ethnic distinctions also divided the believers

CHRISTIAN KINGDOMS: NUBIA AND ETHIOPIA

Christianity had made converts in Egypt and Ethiopia before the conversion of the Roman Empire in the 4th century CE.

Christian kingdom of Axum, Christian communities thrived in Egypt and Nubia.

Christians of Egypt, the Copts, developed a rich tradition in contact with Byzantium, translating the religious literature, like the Bible, etc., from Greek to Coptic, their own tongue Copts eventually split from the Byzantine

connection on doctrinal and political issues The Copts were able to maintain their

faith, as Muslim rulers recognized them as followers of a revealed religion and thus entitled to a certain tolerance

Coptic influence spread up the Nile into Nubia, the ancient land of Kush.

Muslim attempts to penetrate Nubia were net with stiff resistance in 9th century that the Christian descendants of ancient Kush were left as independent Christian kingdoms until the 13th century

The Ethiopian kingdom that grew from Axum was the most important African Christian outpost. Because it was surrounded by pagan neighbors, the Christian kingdom turned inward

Its people occupied the Ethiopian highlands and lived in fortified towns where they relied on agriculture

Eventually through a process of warfare, etc a new dynasty appeared under King Lalibela who sponsored a building project of 11 great churches sculpted from rock

13th – 14th centuries, an Ethiopian Christian state emerged under a dynasty tracing its origins back to the marriage of Solomon and Sheba. The dynasty kept its brand of Christianity while facing constant pressure from its Muslim neighbors. Their struggle with the Muslim peoples in Somalia shaped

much of the history of the region and continues to do so today. Ethiopia remained isolated, Christian, and fiercely

independent

KINGDOMS OF THE GRASSLANDS

Several power states emerged combining Islamic religion and culture – kingdoms of Mali and Songhay and the Hausa states. These were adaptations of Islam and its fusion with African traditions

An Islamic wave spread across north Africa in the form of merchants and travelers using the caravan routes toward the savanna

Africa had 3 important coasts of contact: Atlantic, the Indian Ocean, and the savanna

GHANA Formed by the 8th century by exchanging gold from the

forests of west Africa for salt from the Sahara in trade and goods from the Mediterranean north Africa

Camels introduced from Asia improved the possibilities of trade

The Sahel, grassland belt edging the Sahara became a point of exchange between the forests and north Africa

Along the coast, several African states developed between the trading cities

Ghana rose to power by taxing the salt and gold By the 10th century its rulers converted to Islam

Ghana’s power declined after invasions by the Almoravid armies

13th century, new states had risen in the savanna to take its place of leadership

SUDANIC STATES

Sudanic states were led by the patriarch or council of elders of a particular family or group that established control over its neighbors

Usually these states had a territorial core area of the same linguistic or ethnic background, but their power extended over subordinate communities.

These were conquest states drawing on the taxes, military support, etc. of the subordinate areas

Ghana, Mali, and Songhay were imperial states Rulers of these states were sacred and surrounded

by rituals that separated them from their subjects.

Islam became something of a royal cult. Much of the population never converted

Several savanna states rose among the various peoples in the Sudan.

Of these Mali and Songhay were examples of the fusion of Islamic and indigenous African cultures

EMPIRE OF MALI AND SUNDIATA, THE “LION PRINCE”

Empire of Mali between Senegal and Niger rivers and was the creation of the Malinke people who had broken away from Ghana (13th c)

Mali became a model of the Islamicized Sundanic kingdoms

Economy – agriculture combined with trade in various products and gold producing areas

Malinke merchants, or juula, formed partnerships to trade throughout much of west Africa

Malinke expansion is attributed to Sundiata, a brilliant leader whose exploits were the foundation of a great oral tradition

Griots, professional oral historians, began their epic historys of Mali with Sundiata, the “Lion Prince”. He became the mansa, or emperor who was said to have divided up the world so he was considered the originator of social arrangements 16 clans – to bear arms 5 clans – devoted to religious duties 4 clans – specialists like blacksmiths and griots Created political institutions of rule allowing for regional and

ethnic differences Stationed garrisons to maintain loyalty and security Travel was secure – what he considered very important in a

commerce state Died 1260; successors expanded the borders of Mali to

control most of the Niger Valley to the Atlantic coast

Mali grew wealthy from the trade Mansa Kankan Musa (1312-1337) – most famous of

Sundiata’s successors Made a pilgrimage to Mecca which brought much attention

to Mali Distributed so much gold along his trip to Mecca, the Sudan,

and Egypt that a devaluation of currency took place Mansa Musa brought back an architect, Ishak al-Sahili, who

directed the building of several important mosques. Mali’s contact with the outer world brought change and

innovation

CITY DWELLERS AND VILLAGERS

Cities of the western Sudan had a distinctive local architectural style

Towns were commercial and included craft specialists and foreign merchants

Military expansion of Ghana, Mali, and later Songhay contributed to their commercial success because the state protected traders

Cities like Jenne and Timbuktu (pop. 50,000) flourished

Timbuktu and its mosque contained a library and university (book trade was the most lucrative business)

Life for most people in the empire of Mali and other Sudanic states was centered on agriculture and the village

Crops of grains, fruits, and vegetables provided the basis of daily life and supplied the caravan trade

Polygamy, practice of having multiple wives, was common

SONGHAY KINGDOM

As the power of Mali waned, Songhay, which dominated areas of the Niger valley, began to form as an independent kingdom, perhaps under a Berber dynasty.

Its capital was Gao and the rulers were Muslims. Songhay began to thrive as new sources of gold from

the west African forests passed through its territory. Gao became a large city with a foreign merchant community and mosques

Sunni Ali (1464-1492) became the leader of Songhay. He was a well trained tactical commander and ruthless leader His cavalry expanded the borders and seized Timbuktu and

Jenne

Sunni Ali was followed by a line of Muslim rulers who

took the military title askia. Askia Muhammad the Great, extended the boundaries

of the empire and by the mid-16th century Songhay dominated the central Sudan

The fusion of Islamic and pagan populations and traditions continued

Muslim clerics imposed a strict interpretation of the law of Islam

Songhay remained the dominant power in the region until the end of the 16th century when a Moroccan Muslim army defeated the forces of Songhay

After Songhay’s demise other states rose among the Hausa peoples of northern Nigeria, based on cities such as Kano

Kano’s leader in the 14th c turned the city into a center of Muslim learning

Hausa cities ruled over the animistic villages and protected their trade with a powerful cavalry

These cities reproduced many of the social, political, and religious forms of the great empires of the grasslands

POLITICAL AND SOCIAL LIFE IN SUDANIC STATES

Village communities, clans, and ethnic groups continued to organize many aspects of life

Development of unified states allowed various groups and communities to coexist

Common religion and law provided solidarity and trust to merchants

Ruling families used emir or caliph to reinforce their authority and used literate Muslim advisors and scribes in government administration

In Africa, as elsewhere in the world, formation of states heightened social differences and made these societies more hierarchical

In all Sudanic states, Islam was fused with existing traditions and beliefs. Rulership was based on the ability to intercede with local spirits

Islam in this stage of the Sudan tended to accommodate pagan practice

Fusion of traditions is clear in the position of women as some Sudanic societies were matrilineal and recognized the role of women within the lines of kinship, contrary to patrilineal customs in Sharia

SLAVERY Slavery became a more widely diffused phenomenon,

and a slave trade in Africans developed on a new scale Conversion of slaves to Islam did not guarantee

freedom Slaves were used as servants and laborers and used

as soldiers and administrators Trade caravans transported slaves as well as gold Slave trade extended over 700 years and affected a

large area It was one more way that Islamic civilization changed

sub-Saharan Africa

THE SWAHILI COAST OF EAST AFRICA Some

Islamcized African ports were tied to trade across the Indian Ocean and dotted the east African coast. African custom and the Bantu Swahili language represented a cultural fusion

Coastal Trading Ports: Bantu migration reached the east African interior. Bantu-

speaking herders mixed with older populations in the region From Indonesia or Malaya, immigrants settled on ;the

island of Madagascar and introduced new foods which were popular and spread rapidly along the coast and into central Africa

Visitors and refugees from Oman and the Persian Gulf established themselves at some of these villages because of their attraction of the possibilities of trade with the land of Zanj.

These villages were transformed into more cosmopolitan and diverse communities.

13th c. – urbanized east African trading ports had developed along the coast sharing Bantu-based and Arabic-influenced Swahili (means “coastal”) language and other cultural traits.

Towns such as Mogadishu, Mombasa, and Kilwa eventually contained mosques, tombs, and palaces of stone and coral The Arab traveler Ibn Batuta was impressed with the beauty and

refinement of these towns. Kilwa was particularly wealthy because it controlled the port

of Sofala which had access to the gold produced in the interior

Kilwa flourished in international trade as did several other cities

These cities were tied to each other by an active coastal commerce to the interior by a caravan trade

MIXTURE OF CULTURES ON THE SWAHILI COAST Islamic influence promoted long-distance commerce 13c – period of great Islamic expansion. Faith spread

eastward to India and Indonesia providing a religious bond of trust and law facilitation trade throughout ports of the Indian Ocean

Ruling families in east African trading ports claimed to be descendants of immigrants from Persia

Rulers and merchants tended to be Muslim but the majority of the population retained their previous beliefs and culture

Swahili language was essentially used and was written in Arabic script

Ruling families conversed in Arabic Islam itself penetrated very little into the interior Islamization was to some extent class based Family lineage was traced both through the maternal line, which

controlled property (tradition African practice), and through the paternal line, as was the Muslim custom

By the time the Portuguese arrived on this coast around 1500, the Swahili culture was widely diffused.

Kilwa had declined; the focus of trade had shifted to Malindi and Mombasa

Commerce across the Indian Ocean continued Portuguese raided port cities; their outpost on Mozambique Island

put much of the gold trade in their hands.

PEOPLES OF THE FOREST AND PLAINS Societies were based on varied agriculture, herding

and most societies used iron tools and weapons Organized in small village communities; however,

states had formed Many sub-Saharan African societies were preliterate

and transmitted their knowledge, skills, and traditions by oral methods and direct instruction

Artists and Kings: Yoruba and Benin Ancient inhabitants of Nok practice agriculture and

used iron tools Their artistic traditions influenced other peoples

Remarkable terra-cotta and bronze portrait heads of past rulers were produce among the Yoruba-speaking peoples of Nigeria at the city if Ile-Ife

Their lifelike quality place them among the greatest achievement of African art. Their artists also worked with wood and ivory

Much of the art is associated with kings and authority of kingship

Ile-Ife, like other Yoruba states, had an agricultural society dominated by a ruling family and an aristocracy

Ile-Ife was seen as the holiest city of the Yoruba, their place of birth

Yoruba spoke a non-Bantu language which had an affinity between themselves and the Hausa

The Yoruba were highly urbanized, strong authority of regional kings – considered divine

Benin – large city-state formed in the 14th c under Ewuare the Great

Benin’s control extended from the Niger River to the coast

Benin was described as a city of great population and broad avenues

Art of ivory and cast bronze are characteristic of Benin

Central African Kingdoms Bantu farmers and fishers had reached beyond the

Zambezi and by the 13c had neared the southern end of the continent

Mostly beyond the influence of Islam, these central African peoples had state formation by about 1000CE evolving from kinship-based societies to using political authority based on kingship

Rule was based on the control of territory and the development of ri9tuals that reinforced the ruler’s power.

Kingdoms of Kongo and Mwene Mutapa

15th c this kingdom, Kongo, flourished on an agricultural base but its people had other skills – weaving, pottery, blacksmithing

Division of labor between men and women: Men – cleared forests, produced palm oil and palm wine,

built houses, hunted and traded Women – in charge of cultivation, household, duties care of

domistic animals, collected seashells that served as currency in the Kongo kingdom

Capital, Mbanze Kongo, population 60,000 to 100,000 by 16th c

Kingship – hereditary Konbgo kingdom – confederation of smaller states

controlled by manikongo, or king and by 15th c was divided into eight provinces

Another Bantu confederation developed between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers Built royal courts of stone Great Zimbabwe (impressive stone house site) was the

center of the kingdom and of religious importance, associated with the bird of God, an eagle that served as a link between the world and the spirits

A centralized state ruled from Great Zimbabwe controlling the interior of SE Africa to the Indian Ocean

King Mwene Mutapa rapidly expanded his state in the late 15th to 16th c

Dominated sources of god giving him advantages in commerce

16th c internal divisions and rebellion had split the kingdom apart