© 2010 cengage/south-western. all rights reserved. chapter 4: principles of motivation leonard:...

© 2010 Cengage/South-Western.All rights reserved.

Chapter 4:Chapter 4:PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLESOF MOTIVATIONOF MOTIVATIONLeonard: Supervision 11eLeonard: Supervision 11e

Chapter 4:Chapter 4:PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLESOF MOTIVATIONOF MOTIVATIONLeonard: Supervision 11eLeonard: Supervision 11e

© 2010 Cengage/South-Western. All rights reserved. 4–2

AFTER STUDYING THIS AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER, YOU WILL BE ABLE CHAPTER, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:TO:

AFTER STUDYING THIS AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER, YOU WILL BE ABLE CHAPTER, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:TO:1.1. Discuss the reasons people behave the ways they do.Discuss the reasons people behave the ways they do.

2.2. Compare various motivational theories and explain their Compare various motivational theories and explain their importance for understanding employee behavior.importance for understanding employee behavior.

3.3. Cope with difficult people.Cope with difficult people.

4.4. Explain the ABCs of shaping behavior.Explain the ABCs of shaping behavior.

5.5. Compare the assumptions and applications of Theory X Compare the assumptions and applications of Theory X and Theory Y in supervision.and Theory Y in supervision.

6.6. Discuss supervisory approaches for stimulating Discuss supervisory approaches for stimulating employee motivation, especially job redesign, employee motivation, especially job redesign, broadened job tasks (multitasking), and participative broadened job tasks (multitasking), and participative management.management.


Determinants of Human BehaviorDeterminants of Human Behavior

• The forces that stimulate human behavior come The forces that stimulate human behavior come from within individuals and from their from within individuals and from their environments.environments. Examples of “baggage”:Examples of “baggage”:

AgingAging Family relationshipsFamily relationships Personal relationshipsPersonal relationships Work environmentWork environment


Determinants of PersonalityDeterminants of Personality

• PersonalityPersonality The knowledge, attitudes, and attributes that make up The knowledge, attitudes, and attributes that make up

the unique human being.the unique human being.

• Every Employee Has a “’tude”Every Employee Has a “’tude” Positive mental attitude (PMA)Positive mental attitude (PMA)

A person with a PMA usually responds favorably to the job, A person with a PMA usually responds favorably to the job, other people, and most situations.other people, and most situations.

• Recognizing Human Differences and SimilaritiesRecognizing Human Differences and Similarities Tailor supervisory approaches to each employee’s Tailor supervisory approaches to each employee’s

personality through the use of managerial techniques personality through the use of managerial techniques that emphasize the similarities, rather than the that emphasize the similarities, rather than the differences, of people.differences, of people.


Determinants of PersonalityDeterminants of Personality

PersonalityPersonalityPersonalityPersonality

PhysiologicalPhysiological(Biological) Factors(Biological) Factors

PhysiologicalPhysiological(Biological) Factors(Biological) Factors

Early ChildhoodEarly ChildhoodInfluencesInfluences

Early ChildhoodEarly ChildhoodInfluencesInfluences

EnvironmentalEnvironmental(Situational) Factors(Situational) Factors

EnvironmentalEnvironmental(Situational) Factors(Situational) Factors

CulturalCultural(Societal) Values(Societal) Values

CulturalCultural(Societal) Values(Societal) Values


Understanding Understanding Motivation and Human Motivation and Human

BehaviorBehavior• MotivationMotivation A willingness to exert effort toward achieving a goal, A willingness to exert effort toward achieving a goal,

stimulated by the effort’s ability to fulfill an individual stimulated by the effort’s ability to fulfill an individual need.need.

• Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow) A theory of motivation which suggests that employee A theory of motivation which suggests that employee

needs are arranged in priority order such that lower-needs are arranged in priority order such that lower-order needs must be satisfied before higher-order order needs must be satisfied before higher-order needs become motivating.needs become motivating.


Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Physiological needsPhysiological needs Basic physical needs (e.g., food, rest, shelter, and recreation).Basic physical needs (e.g., food, rest, shelter, and recreation).

• Security needsSecurity needs Desire for protection against danger and life’s uncertainties.Desire for protection against danger and life’s uncertainties.

• Social needsSocial needs Desire for love and affection and affiliation with something Desire for love and affection and affiliation with something

worthwhile.worthwhile.

• Self-respect needsSelf-respect needs Desire for recognition, achievement, status, and a sense of Desire for recognition, achievement, status, and a sense of

accomplishment.accomplishment.

• Self-respect needsSelf-respect needs Desire for recognition, achievement, status, and a sense of Desire for recognition, achievement, status, and a sense of

accomplishment.accomplishment.


Understanding Motivation and Understanding Motivation and Human Behavior (cont’d)Human Behavior (cont’d)

• Applying the Needs TheoriesApplying the Needs Theories Use the needs hierarchy to visualize the needs Use the needs hierarchy to visualize the needs

people have and to assess those needs’ relative people have and to assess those needs’ relative importance in motivating individuals.importance in motivating individuals.

Structure work situations and reward systems such Structure work situations and reward systems such that employees are motivated to perform well that employees are motivated to perform well because good work performance leads to satisfaction because good work performance leads to satisfaction of their needs.of their needs.

• Employee EntitlementEmployee Entitlement The belief that the organization “owes” them.The belief that the organization “owes” them.



• Motivation-hygiene Theory (Herzberg’s)Motivation-hygiene Theory (Herzberg’s) A theory that factors in the work environment primarily A theory that factors in the work environment primarily

influence the degree of job dissatisfaction while influence the degree of job dissatisfaction while intrinsic job content factors influence the amount of intrinsic job content factors influence the amount of employee motivation.employee motivation.

• Motivation FactorsMotivation Factors Elements intrinsic in the job that promote job Elements intrinsic in the job that promote job

performance.performance.

• Hygiene FactorsHygiene Factors Elements in the work environment that, if positive, Elements in the work environment that, if positive,

reduce dissatisfaction but do not tend to motivate.reduce dissatisfaction but do not tend to motivate.


Motivation-Hygiene Theory: FactorsMotivation-Hygiene Theory: Factors

• Motivation Factors:Motivation Factors: Opportunity for growth Opportunity for growth

and advancementand advancement

Achievement or Achievement or accomplishmentaccomplishment

Recognition for Recognition for accomplishmentsaccomplishments

Challenging or Challenging or interesting workinteresting work

Responsibility for workResponsibility for work

• Hygiene Factors:Hygiene Factors: Working conditionsWorking conditions

Money, status, and Money, status, and securitysecurity

Interpersonal Interpersonal relationshipsrelationships

SupervisionSupervision

Company policies and Company policies and administrationadministration



• Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory Theory of motivation that holds that employees Theory of motivation that holds that employees

perform better when they believe such efforts lead to perform better when they believe such efforts lead to desired rewards.desired rewards. ““People will do what is in their best interest.”People will do what is in their best interest.”

Workers must see the linkages between increased effort and Workers must see the linkages between increased effort and improved performance, and between that performance and a improved performance, and between that performance and a desired and valued reward.desired and valued reward.



• Equity TheoryEquity Theory Explains how people strive for fairness in the Explains how people strive for fairness in the

workplace.workplace.

Demonstrates how employees make ratio Demonstrates how employees make ratio comparisons of their outcomes (rewards) to their comparisons of their outcomes (rewards) to their efforts to their perceptions of the ratio of outcomes to efforts to their perceptions of the ratio of outcomes to efforts of others (referents).efforts of others (referents).

Inequity: Inequity: inputs/outcomes inputs/outcomes ≠ inputs/outcomes≠ inputs/outcomes



• Equity TheoryEquity Theory Types of inequity:Types of inequity:

Negative or underpayment inequityNegative or underpayment inequity (responses) (responses)

– Ask for a raiseAsk for a raise

– Lower outputLower output

– AbsenteeismAbsenteeism

– InattentionInattention

Positive or overpayment inequityPositive or overpayment inequity (responses) (responses)

– Ignore (do not admit to) overpaymentIgnore (do not admit to) overpayment

– Seek to justify the overpaymentSeek to justify the overpayment

– Attempt to maintain the overpaymentAttempt to maintain the overpayment



• Supervisors and Equity TheorySupervisors and Equity Theory Implications for supervisors:Implications for supervisors:

Provides another explanation for how perceptions and beliefs Provides another explanation for how perceptions and beliefs about what is fair influence job performance.about what is fair influence job performance.

Acquaints managers with the disasters that can occur when Acquaints managers with the disasters that can occur when rewards are misaligned with performance.rewards are misaligned with performance.

Effective supervisors must be vigilant for signs of Effective supervisors must be vigilant for signs of unfairness and immediately address employees’ unfairness and immediately address employees’ equity concerns.equity concerns. Assist them in finding proper referents.Assist them in finding proper referents.

Correct situations in which inequity truly exists.Correct situations in which inequity truly exists.


FIGURE FIGURE 4.4.66 Suggestions for coping with people who make your life Suggestions for coping with people who make your life difficult.difficult.

• Do not label people as difficult, no matter how difficult they make your life.

• Think in terms of difficult behaviors, not difficult people.

• The easiest way to cope with some people is to avoid them, but the easiest answer isn’t always the best answer. Change your mind-set and focus on what they do well.

• Accentuate the positive—build on their strengths.

• Take control of the situation. Get their attention by calling them by name.

• Talk with them in private; give them your undivided attention.

• Avoid accusations, ask open-ended questions, and listen to their side of the story.

• Factually provide one specific situation that illustrates the problem behavior.

• Clearly state that you expect the behavior to improve.

• Focus on changing what they do, not who they are.

• Establish deadlines and timetables for the behavior to cease.

• If the behavior does not change, consider asking upper management or someone else to step in.

Remember: There is no recipe for dealing for people that make your life difficult. Search the Internet, review the literature, continually learn about what people want and need, and develop strategies for getting the best out of people.


Using the ABCs to Shape Using the ABCs to Shape Employee BehaviorEmployee Behavior

• ABCs of Shaping BehaviorABCs of Shaping Behavior Behavior (the B) cannot be separated from the Behavior (the B) cannot be separated from the

antecedents (the A) that come before it and the antecedents (the A) that come before it and the consequences (the C) after it. (Aconsequences (the C) after it. (ABBC)C)

• Shaping Behavior:Shaping Behavior: Clearly identify what the employee is to do.Clearly identify what the employee is to do. Tell the employee what the job entails and what is Tell the employee what the job entails and what is

expected in the way of performance.expected in the way of performance. Monitor and provide feedback.Monitor and provide feedback.


Using the ABCs to Shape Using the ABCs to Shape Employee Behavior (cont’d)Employee Behavior (cont’d)

• Law of Effect (Thorndike)Law of Effect (Thorndike) Behavior with favorable consequences is repeated; Behavior with favorable consequences is repeated;

behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear.disappear.


FIGURE FIGURE 4.4.77 Steps in ABC analysis.Steps in ABC analysis.

• Regularly monitor employee performance to uncover areas of low productivity and to identify the behavior leading to undesirable performance.

• Describe the performance you don’t want and who is doing it.

• Record the specific behavior that needs to be changed.

• Determine all possible links between the antecedents, the undesirable behavior, and its consequences.

• Tell the employee what is expected in the way of performance (i.e., set specific goals).

• Set the stage for good performance (i.e., arrange antecedents so that the employee can achieve the desired behavior).

• Eliminate any consequence that is irrelevant to the employee.

• Ensure an appropriate linkage between desired behavior and consequences the employee values.

• Monitor performance.

• Provide support and feedback on performance.

• Reinforce the positive aspects of the employee’s performance with consequences the employee values.

• Ensure that consequences are positive, immediate, and certain.

• Evaluate results and continue to reinforce desired behavior with desirable consequences.

• Experiment to find the most effective forms of reinforcement and rate of reinforcement.

Remember:

1. You cannot change people; you can change only their behaviors.

2. You will get the behaviors you consistently expect and reinforce. Therefore, only expect the best from your employees.

3. Employees need to know exactly what behaviors will be reinforced and precisely what they are doing that is right or wrong.

Sources: Based, in part, on the book by Aubrey C. Daniels, Ph.D., Performance Management (Atlanta, GA: Performance Management Publications, Inc., 1989, 3rd ed revised), with permission.


Shaping Behavior: OutcomesShaping Behavior: Outcomes

• ExtinctionExtinction Good (or bad) behavior occurs less frequently or Good (or bad) behavior occurs less frequently or

disappears because it is not recognized.disappears because it is not recognized.

• Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement Making behavior occur more often because it is linked Making behavior occur more often because it is linked

to a positive consequence.to a positive consequence.

• PunishmentPunishment Making behavior occur less frequently because it is Making behavior occur less frequently because it is

linked to an undesirable consequence.linked to an undesirable consequence.

• Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement Making behavior occur more frequently by removing Making behavior occur more frequently by removing

an undesirable consequence.an undesirable consequence.


Comparing Theory X and Theory YComparing Theory X and Theory Y

• Theory XTheory X Assumption that most employees dislike work, avoid Assumption that most employees dislike work, avoid

responsibility, and must be coerced to do their jobs.responsibility, and must be coerced to do their jobs. Advantages: Order, discipline and efficiencyAdvantages: Order, discipline and efficiency Disadvantages: lack of personal growth, initiative, Disadvantages: lack of personal growth, initiative,

independence, motivation and commitmentindependence, motivation and commitment

• Theory YTheory Y Assumption that most employees enjoy work, seek Assumption that most employees enjoy work, seek

responsibility, and can self-direct.responsibility, and can self-direct. Advantages: individual growth, responsibility, contribution, Advantages: individual growth, responsibility, contribution,

commitment, and need satisfactioncommitment, and need satisfaction Disadvantages: time consuming, lack of firm directionDisadvantages: time consuming, lack of firm direction


Supervisory Approaches for Attaining Supervisory Approaches for Attaining Positive Employee MotivationPositive Employee Motivation

• Job Redesign: Critical Psychological StatesJob Redesign: Critical Psychological States Experienced meaningfulness of the workExperienced meaningfulness of the work

Employees believe they are doing something meaningful Employees believe they are doing something meaningful because their work is important to other people.because their work is important to other people.

Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the workExperienced responsibility for outcomes of the work Employees feel responsible for how the work turns out.Employees feel responsible for how the work turns out.

Knowledge of the actual results of the work activitiesKnowledge of the actual results of the work activities Employees learn how well they performed their jobs.Employees learn how well they performed their jobs.


Supervisory Approaches for Attaining Supervisory Approaches for Attaining Positive Employee Motivation (cont’d)Positive Employee Motivation (cont’d)

• Job Redesign: Core Job DimensionsJob Redesign: Core Job Dimensions Skill varietySkill variety

An opportunity to do various tasks and to use a number of different An opportunity to do various tasks and to use a number of different skills and abilities.skills and abilities.

Task identityTask identity The completion of a whole, identifiable piece of work.The completion of a whole, identifiable piece of work.

Task significanceTask significance The degree to which the job impacts others.The degree to which the job impacts others.

AutonomyAutonomy Discretion in making decisions about the work to be done.Discretion in making decisions about the work to be done.

Feedback:Feedback: Information an employee receives on job performance.Information an employee receives on job performance.


FIGURE FIGURE 4.4.1010 The job characteristics model.The job characteristics model.

Source: J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (adapted from Figure 4-6), © 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc. See our Web site (www.thomsonedu.com/management/leonard) to evaluate your own job in light of these characteristics.



• Broadening the Scope and Importance of JobsBroadening the Scope and Importance of Jobs Job rotationJob rotation

The process of switching job tasks among employees in a The process of switching job tasks among employees in a work group.work group.

Multi-taskingMulti-tasking Increasing the number of tasks an individual performs.Increasing the number of tasks an individual performs.

Job enrichmentJob enrichment Job design that helps fulfill employees’ higher-level needs by Job design that helps fulfill employees’ higher-level needs by

giving those employees more challenging tasks and more giving those employees more challenging tasks and more decision-making responsibility for their jobs.decision-making responsibility for their jobs.



• Participative ManagementParticipative Management High morale of great workplaces consists of:High morale of great workplaces consists of:

Pride in what you do (the job itself)Pride in what you do (the job itself)

Enjoying the people you’re working with (the work group)Enjoying the people you’re working with (the work group)

Trusting the people you work for (management practices and Trusting the people you work for (management practices and economic rewards).economic rewards).

EmpowermentEmpowerment Giving employees the authority and responsibility to Giving employees the authority and responsibility to

accomplish organizational objectives.accomplish organizational objectives.


Participative ManagementParticipative Management

Empowerment refers to giving employees the authority Empowerment refers to giving employees the authority and responsibility to accomplish organizational and responsibility to accomplish organizational objectives. Providing opportunities to make suggestions objectives. Providing opportunities to make suggestions and participate in decisions affecting their jobs is one of and participate in decisions affecting their jobs is one of the most effective ways to build a sense of employee the most effective ways to build a sense of employee pride, teamwork, and motivation.pride, teamwork, and motivation.



• Participative Management (cont’d)Participative Management (cont’d) Advantages: higher quality decisions, more Advantages: higher quality decisions, more

acceptance of decisionsacceptance of decisions

Disadvantages: time consuming, more criticismDisadvantages: time consuming, more criticism

• Participatory Management ProgramsParticipatory Management Programs Employee suggestion programsEmployee suggestion programs

Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX)Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX)

Employee involvement programsEmployee involvement programs Teams, quality circles, self-directed work teamsTeams, quality circles, self-directed work teams


KEY TERMSKEY TERMS

• Employee entitlementEmployee entitlement

• Equity theoryEquity theory

• Expectancy theoryExpectancy theory

• ExtinctionExtinction

• Hierarchy of needsHierarchy of needs

• Hygiene factorsHygiene factors

• Job enrichmentJob enrichment

• Job redesignJob redesign

• Job rotationJob rotation

• Law of effectLaw of effect

• MotivationMotivation

• Motivation factorsMotivation factors

• Motivation-hygiene theoryMotivation-hygiene theory

• Multi-taskingMulti-tasking

• Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

• PersonalityPersonality

• Physiological needsPhysiological needs

• Positive mental attitude (PMA)Positive mental attitude (PMA)

• Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement

• PunishmentPunishment

• Reciprocity reflexReciprocity reflex

• Security needsSecurity needs

• Self-fulfillment needsSelf-fulfillment needs

• Self-respect needsSelf-respect needs

• Social needsSocial needs

• Theory XTheory X

• Theory YTheory Y

© 2010 cengage/south-western. all rights reserved. chapter 4: principles of motivation leonard:...

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