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Gondwana Research 14

Zircons and clay from morainal Permian siltstone at Mt Rymill (73°S, 66°E),Prince Charles Mountains, Antarctica, reflect the ancestral Gamburtsev

Subglacial Mountains–Vostok Subglacial Highlands complex

J.J. Veevers a,⁎, A. Saeed a, N. Pearson a, E. Belousova a, P.D. Kinny b

a GEMOC ARC National Key Centre, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney NSW 2109, Australiab Department of Applied Geology, Curtin University of Technology, GPO Box U1987 Perth, WA 6845, Australia

Received 26 June 2007; received in revised form 23 November 2007; accepted 7 December 2007Available online 28 December 2007

Abstract

Clasts of red siltstone with Glossopteris from moraine around Mt Rymill in the southern Prince Charles Mountains, East Antarctica, can betraced upslope in the Lambert Graben system to the nearby Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains (GSM). The clasts contain zircons with SHRIMPU–Pb ages of 620–460 Ma and 1300–970 Ma from host rocks of intermediate to mafic rocks, and a clay fraction with a TDM Nd model ageof 2.72 Ga and εNd of −18.3, derived from upper continental crust. East of the GSM, at Lake Vostok, clasts of siltstone in accreted ice can betraced to the Vostok Subglacial Highlands (VSH). The clasts contain zircons and monazites with SHRIMP U–Pb ages [Leitchenkov, G.L.,Belyatsky, B.V., Rodionov, N.V., Sergeev, S.A., 2007. Insight into the geology of the East Antarctic hinterland: a study of mineral inclusions fromice cores of the Lake Vostok borehole. In: Cooper, A.K., Raymond, C.R. (Eds.), Online Proceedings of the 10th ISAES, USGS Open-file Report2007-1047, Short research Paper 014, 4 pages.] broadly similar to those from Mt Rymill, and a TDM Nd model age of 1.88 Ga and εNd of −15[Delmonte, B., Petit, J.R., Basile-Doelsch, I., Lipenkov, V., Maggi, V., 2004. First characterization and dating of East Antarctic bedrock inclusionsfrom subglacial Lake Vostok accreted ice. Environmental Chemistry 1, 90–94.]. Other Mesozoic and Paleozoic sediments deposited in a radialpattern about central Antarctica contain detrital zircons dominated by populations aged 700–500 Ma and 1300–1000 Ma, which we interpret asreflecting a GSM-VSH provenance dominated by rocks generated during the Pan-Gondwanaland and Grenville events of supercontinental assembly.© 2007 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Zircon provenances; Permian Glossopteris siltstone; SHRIMP U–Pb; Nd model age; Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains

1. Introduction

Since their discovery in the 1950s by a Soviet seismic expe-dition, the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains (GSM) have in-trigued investigators about their age and composition (Fig. 1).Dalziel (1992) wrote that “they are totally unknown geologically.The drainage basins of this [East Antarctic] ice sheet date back tothe Permian, possibly to the Proterozoic.” Developing the idea ofPermian drainage, Tewari and Veevers (1993), Veevers (1994),and Veevers (2000, p. 126) found that the present drainage of East

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 2 9850 8355; fax: +61 2 9850 8943.E-mail address: john.veevers@mq.edu.au (J.J. Veevers).

1342-937X/$ - see front matter © 2007 International Association for Gondwana Rdoi:10.1016/j.gr.2007.12.006

Antarctica, with ice radiating from a central Dome Argus (DA)draped over the high ground of the GSM, mirrors the EarlyPermian situation. This idea was tested initially by an analysis ofdetrital zircons fromEarly Permian sandstones inDronningMaudLand (DML) and conjugate southeastern Africa (Veevers andSaeed, 2007). Developing the idea of Neoproterozoic drainage,Phillips et al. (2005, 2006) found that an ancestral GSM wasupslope from the southern Prince Charles Mountains (S PCM).Furthermore, provenance studies can test current models of theinterior of Antarctica that project pathways for the PinjarraOrogen of SWAustralia and link Archean outcrops in a Mawsoncraton (Fitzsimons, 2003).

During 1960/1961, Ruker (1963) collected clasts of red silt-stone (Geoscience Australia no. R-8848) with Glossopteris

esearch. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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(White, 1962) from moraine around Mt Rymill (~73°S) in theS PCM (Figs. 1 and 2).We secured a piece (withoutGlossopteris)weighting 0.85 kg for provenance analysis. Zircons in thesiltstone are appropriately small: the biggest zircon grain is150 μm long, the smallest 30 μm, and most are no bigger than80 μm (Fig. 3).

With no more of this rare material available, we set out tomake the most of it by analysing the detrital zircons for U–Pbage by sensitive high-resolution ion micro-probe (SHRIMP)(Fig. 4d) over areas 20 μm wide and for selected trace-elementsby electron micro-probe (EMP) (Figs. 5 and 6), and the clay(b5 μm) fraction for model ages (Nd and Hf) and εNd and εHf.

Similar material has been found around Mt Maguire (~74°S)(Mikhalsky et al., 2001). The clasts themselves have beentransported in northeast-and north-flowing ice from bedrocksouth of 74°S, presumably in a southern extension of the PermianLambert Graben. The provenance of the Permian bedrock itself laysouthward (as shown by the northward paleoslope of the PermianAmery Group at 71°S), a few hundred kilometres in the directionof the ancestral GSM, at the focus of glacial and fluvial drainageduring the Permian (Tewari and Veevers, 1993; Veevers, 1994).

At the present day, the East Antarctic ice sheet is surmountedby the 4093-m-high Dome Argus (DA), which, in turn, overliesthe 2980-m-high GSM (Lythe et al., 2001). Together with theVostok Subglacial Highlands (VSH), the GSM comprise abedrock massif above 500 m (Fig. 1).

Various studies summarised in Veevers and Saeed (2007)(boxes in Fig. 1) indicate that a similar glacial and subglacialconfiguration pertained in the Permian–Triassic, with post-glacialfluvial flow radiating from an ancestral GSM. In the Cambrian–Ordovician, flow in SE Australia and the central TransantarcticMountains was also radial to central East Antarctica. As shown bydated detrital zircons, the central Antarctic provenance drained bythese flows is dominated by 700–500 Ma (cluster d+ of Veeverset al., 2006) and 1300–1000Ma (cluster c of Veevers et al., 2006)sediment. Most Permian–Triassic sandstones of the centralTransantarctic Mountains were derived not from the craton butfrom the peripheral magmatic arc (Elliot and Fanning, in press).Samples on the flanks of the GSM-VSM massif in the LakeVostok ice core 5G-1 (Delmonte et al., 2004; Leitchenkov et al.,2007) and in the S PCM, described below, now provide a tighterconstraint on the location of the provenance.

Fig. 1. Early Permian Gondwanaland platform showing only those ice and water flowGSM, delineated by the 2 km elevation contour (Jamieson et al., 2005; Stewart Jamidelineated by the 1 km elevation contour, are set in a wider upland limited by the 0.5has ice flow (arrow) from the northwest (Leitchenkov et al., 2007). The other Quaternthe Lambert Graben (Fig. 2). Detrital zircons aged 700–500 Ma and 1200–1000 Ma (et al., 2007) and Mt Rymill/Mt Maguire (boxed data). Also shown are paleoflow in(Myrow et al., 2002; Goodge et al., 2004), where Middle–Late Cambrian (≤520 M525 Ma (Goodge et al., 2002). Similar aged populations are found in the CambriaMountains (Flowerdew et al., 2007) and Kanmantoo Group (Veevers, 2000, p. 200), ODronning Maud Land (DML) — SE Africa (Veevers and Saeed, 2007), Permian–T(Veevers et al., 2005), and the Triassic Hawkesbury Sandstone (Veevers et al., 2006;DML-SE Africa, and the EWMB indicate the age and composition of the upslope provCollie Basin (Veevers et al., 2005) comes from a proximal provenance, and not fromzircons with U–Pbb2500 Ma, we have calculated a “crustal” model age (TDM

C ), whiderived came from an average continental crust (176Lu/177Hf=0.015) originally deri

2. Background and sample selection

2.1. Lake Vostok drill-hole 5G-1

Even rarer clasts were recovered from the ice at Lake Vostok.Delmonte et al. (2004) studied a piece of dark sandy sediment,only a few mm long, included in accreted ice. They determinedthe TDM Nd of the sediment as 1.88±0.13 Ga, and εNd (0) as−15 (Fig. 4e).

Leitchenkov et al. (2007) studied inclusions, also a few mmlong, in the same layer of accreted (“muddy”) ice. The biggestpieces are quartz siltstone, thought to have been originallydeposited in depressions in the VSH, consolidated, and entrainedin ice that flowed from northwest to southeast. Leitchenkov et al.(2007) dated twenty-two 20-μm-sized grains of zircon (U–Pb)and monazite (Th–Pb) by SIMS SHRIMP-II (Fig. 4e): 12 of thezircons are aged 1200–800 Ma, 4 are 1800–1600 Ma, and 1 is600 Ma; the 5 low-uranium monazites are aged 1500 Ma,1000Ma, and 800Ma, and probably indicate metamorphic events“because monazite crystallization is regarded as indicatingmetamorphic events” (Leitchenkov et al., 2007). As with therare Mt Rymill grains dated below, we have no choice other thanto take (tentatively) the ages at face value. We infer that the hostsediment was deposited some time after the youngest (600 Ma)grain, and that the provenance included zircons and monaziteswithmain ages 1200–800Ma andminor ages 1800–1600Ma and600 Ma.

2.2. Prince Charles Mountains

Mikhalsky et al. (2001) found that the distribution of morainesin the PCM indicates two stages of deglaciation of the LambertGlacier system since the last glacial maximum 18,000 years ago.

The first comprises a veneer of sediment on top of the ridges inthe S PCM and includes very large erratics on the tops ofMt Maguire and Mt Ruker. The coarse-grained fraction of themoraine comprises locally derived lithologies, which suggeststhat amphibolite-facies rocks underlie the ice south ofMt Borlandand Komsomolskiy Peak (Fig. 2).

The second stage of deglaciation comprises lateral moraineson the gentler slopes of the nunataks and includes the clasts ofGlossopteris-bearing siltstone aboutMt Rymill andMtMaguire.

vectors radiating from central Antarctica (Veevers and Saeed, 2007). The moderneson, pers. comm., 2006), are surmounted by Dome Argus (DA), and the VSH,km elevation contour. Lake Vostok (LV), with the location of the 5G-1 drill-hole,ary ice flow is northward from an ice divide at Dome Argus across the GSM intocircles) (Veevers and Saeed, in press) include those at Lake Vostok (Leitchenkovthe Cambrian (double-shafted arrow) in the central Transantarctic Mountains

a) sandstones (circles) contain detrital zircons with peak ages at ~1050 Ma andn sediment of the Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains block (EWMB) and Welchrdovician turbidite of SE Australia (Veevers, 2000, p. 204), Permian samples ofriassic of the Lambert–Mahanadi, Godavari (Veevers, 2007), and Perth BasinsVeevers and Saeed, 2007). The boxed data from detrital zircons in SE Australia,enance. The paleoflow in the Ellisras Basin (Veevers and Saeed, 2007) and in thethe focus of paleoflows in central Antarctica. In Veevers and Saeed (2007), forch assumes that the protolith from which the host magma of a given zircon wasved from the depleted mantle.

Fig. 2. Distribution of Late Permian sedimentary rocks of the Amery Group at Beaver Lake (with paleoslope) and at Mt Meredith, and clasts (circle) of red siltstonewith Glossopteris in moraine around Mt Rymill and Mt Maguire. Other morainal clasts are coal on the northwestern flank of Mt Meredith and sandstone and siltstoneon the southeast. Flow lines of the glaciers (visibleearth.nasa.gov/view_rec.php?id=1618) about selected nunataks in the S PCM indicate that the red siltstone inmoraine about Mt Maguire came from the GSM, 200 km distant, and that about Mt Rymill from the west or southwest, as indicated by the northeastward morainal tailhere and at nearby Mt Stinear. Other types of clasts upstream (south) of Mt Maguire and Mt Borland, and (south–south-west) of Komsomolskiy Peak, GSM 150 kmdistant, are shown in the boxes. The age probability plot of the Mt Rymill siltstone with shaded groups is aligned with those of samples BL3 and BL6 (Veevers andSaeed, in press).

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Fig. 3. Cathodoluminescent images of 20 of the 22 concordant (80–125%) grains from Mt Rymill, in order of age.

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Holocene glacial sediment in the S PCM is confined toabundant lateral moraines, and includes a clast of ironstoneabout Mt Maguire.

Flow lines of the glaciers about selected nunataks in theS PCM indicate that the red siltstone inmoraine aboutMtMaguirecame from the south, as part of the flow of ice from Dome Argusabove the GSM, and that about Mt Rymill from the southwest, asindicated by the northeastward morainal tail here and at nearbyMt Stinear (Fig. 2). TheMt Rymill drainage came from the dividewest of Dome Argus across the western flank of the GSM. Theprovenance of the siltstone in the Permian is expected to havebeen the high-standing ancestral GSM.

The nearest occurrence of Glossopteris is in the LatePermian fluvial Bainmedart Coal Measures of the ~3000-m-thick Amery Group (Fielding and Webb, 1996), 200 km distantat 71°S in the northern PCM (Fig. 2). The Bainmedart CoalMeasures were deposited in the axis of an alluvial valleydominated by north- to northeasterly-flowing low-sinuosityriver-channel belts alternating spatially and temporally withextensive, low-energy, floodplain and forest-mire environments(Holdgate et al., 2005). The overlying Triassic sediments,

deposited in the same physical environment but in a drierclimate and without peat, contain red beds. The Amery Group isdownfaulted into Proterozoic rocks, probably in a splay off theLambert Graben. The age probability diagrams of detritalzircons in samples from the Amery Group (Fig. 2) and theGondwana Supergroup of the co-axial Mahanadi Basin containmain populations at 700–500 Ma and 1200–1000 Ma (Veevers2007; Veevers and Saeed, 2008).

A tiny outcrop of sandstone and siltstone of the AmeryGroup was recently found at the foot of the southeasternescarpment of Mt Meredith (Laiba et al., 2006), 30 km south ofBeaver Lake. Similar rocks, as well as coal fragments, are foundas clasts in moraines on the southeastern and northwesternescarpments.

These occurrences together with those of red siltstone withGlossopteris in moraines at Mt Rymill and Mt Maguire in theS PCM suggest wide distribution of Permian sediment withinthe Lambert Graben. Still wider distribution is indicated bycoaly organic matter in ODP 1167A in Prydz Bay (Passchieret al., 2003; O'Brien et al., 2007) and reworked palynomorphsoffshore Antarctica (Kemp, 1972; Truswell, 1980, 1982).

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Fig. 5. Analysis of 22 zircons from Mt Rymill, classified by CART (Belousova, 2000; Belousova et al., 2002). Yttrium vs. uranium. Granitoids have three fields:1) aplite, leucogranite; 2) granite; 3) granodiorite, tonalite.

349J.J. Veevers et al. / Gondwana Research 14 (2008) 343–354

The provenance of the red siltstone is now examined from itscontained zircons and clay fraction.

3. U–Pb SHRIMP analysis of zircons in R-8848

The samples were processed by standard methods forseparating zircons. Zircon grains were picked under thebinocular microscope (with UV light attachment), mounted inepoxy blocks, and polished for U–Pb SHRIMP analysis andcathodoluminescence (CL) imaging (Fig. 3). Details are givenin the Supplementary data (“SHRIMP notes”).

The largest grain (v.48, 378±5 Ma) is 150 μm long, thesmallest (v.10, 1304±44Ma) 30 μm long, and most are between30 and 80 μm. In the main population aged 618–462 Ma(n=11), 6 are broken and rounded euhedral crystals and 5 arestructureless. In the 1304–973 Ma population (n=4), one is abroken euhedral crystal, the second an abraded euhedral crystal,the third a highly rounded structureless grain, and the fourth aminute (30 μm) structureless grain. In the 2230–2089 Mapopulation (n=4), three grains are rounded euhedral crystals,and the fourth a broken rounded euhedral grain.

Fig. 4. Probability distribution diagrams (and selected histograms) (Ludwig, 2001) ofheavy rare earth elements with carbonatite affinity) and εHf values of detrital zirconsHawkesbury Sandstone (Veevers and Saeed, 2007); (b) BL6, Triassic Amery Grou(Veevers and Saeed, in press); (d) U–Pb SHRIMP ages of 22 detrital zircons in the G“SHRIMP data”). The grouped ages –378 Ma, 460–620 Ma, 970–1300 Ma, 1580 MaNd model ages and εNd values of the b5 μm fraction are given in the boxed area; (equartzose siltstone (Leitchenkov et al., 2007) and whole-rock Nd model age and εNdiagrams of U–Pb and Hf model ages, and εHf values of detrital zircons of Camoriginally from Flowerdew et al. (2007); (g) probability distribution diagrams of U–Prare earth elements with carbonatite affinity) and εHf values of detrital zircons from Kand Saeed, 2007).

We use the more precise 206Pb/238U ages for grains with207Pb/206Pb agesb1000 Ma and 207Pb/206Pb ages for oldergrains (Gehrels et al., 2006). The results, together with othergeochemical data (see below), are shown in Table 1 and in theonline Supplementary data “SHRIMP data”. Of the 39 zirconsavailable for analysis, 17 were eliminated— 3 have uncertainty(1 sigma) N75 Ma, and 14 have concordance outside 80–125%.Of the residue of 22, 20 have uncertainty (1 sigma)b20 Ma, and13b10 Ma (Table 2); 13 have concordance within 90–110% (ordiscordance ±10%), another 8 within 80–120% (or discordance±20%), and another one between 120–125% concordance (ordiscordance +20–25%).

Elsewhere, with abundant zircons (e.g., Veevers and Saeed,2007), we follow Gehrels (2006) in “the view that only clustersof ages record robust sources ages. This is because a single agedetermination may be compromised by Pb loss or inheritance(even if concordant), whereas it is unlikely that two or moregrains that have experienced Pb loss or inheritance would yieldthe same age.” With so few ages, this approach is not feasible,and groupings of the 22 ages are tentative only. Only on thequestion of discordance – Gehrels (2006) filters the data with a

U–Pb and Hf model ages, host rock types (low-HREE-c = low concentration offrom samples at a greater or lesser distance from the GSM. (a) K2258, Triassicp, PCM (Veevers and Saeed, in press); (c) BL3, Permian Amery Group, PCMlossopteris siltstone from Mt Rymill (Supplementary data “SHRIMP notes” and, 2090–2230 Ma, 3240 Ma – are shaded where they occur in the other diagrams.) U–Pb SHRIMP ages of 17 detrital zircons and 5 ?metamorphic monazites in ad value (Delmonte et al., 2004) from Lake Vostok; (f) probability distributionbrian sediments, Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains (Veevers and Saeed, 2007),b and Hf model ages, host rock types (low-HREE-c = low concentration of heavyF30+43, Permian Amelang Plateau Formation, Dronning Maud Land (Veevers

Fig. 6. Analysis of 22 zircons from Mt Rymill, classified by CART (Belousova,2000; Belousova et al., 2002). Hafnium vs. yttrium.

Table 2Uncertainties (1 s) of the 22 age analyses, from Table 1 and Appendix (SHRIMPdata)

n ±1 s Ma

5 0–58 6–107 11–202 30–45Total 22

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typically 30% cutoff – are we more conservative, with a cutoffof 20 to 25%.

We present the data in an age probability plot (Ludwig, 2001)(Fig. 4d), and group the ages (shaded), as follows: 378Ma (n=1),620–460 Ma (n=11), 1300–970 Ma (n=4), 1580 Ma (n=1),2230–2090 Ma (n=4), and 3240 Ma (n=1). Before comparing

Table 1Analysis of the 22 concordant (80–125%) zircons from the Permian siltstoneclast at Mt Rymill

Spot Age Ma 1 s Ma Conc. % U ppm Th ppm Y ppm Hf %

4 516 5 85 908 409 841 1.756 533 16 104 575 78 629 1.689 462 14 83 655 414 1587 1.6310 1304 44 91 253 367 1433 1.5424 1583 9 96 709 219 6114 1.4925 512 16 93 629 434 454 1.5428 485 5 86 745 294 1901 1.7729 973 9 97 522 53 486 2.0230 465 5 81 1488 688 3727 1.6231 571 6 102 585 100 632 1.9532 618 7 111 206 280 506 1.4435 471 5 93 419 381 1302 1.5538 2177 6 100 559 71 764 1.7239 1223 18 100 697 524 10857 1.0840 2109 8 80 663 579 485 1.3441 566 6 114 266 148 938 1.5642 1064 34 98 387 143 766 1.4543 525 16 125 471 330 196 1.2444 2230 16 102 196 163 393 1.6845 2089 8 96 383 166 766 1.7046 3237 11 94 143 68 2909 1.1648 378 5 82 571 448 1734 1.30

SHRIMP: age and 1 s, U, Th, with error ±15%.EMP: Y and Hf, with relative standard deviation of Y=0.38%, Hf=0.21%.Conc. = concordance.

the ages with those elsewhere for provenance matching, we nowadd data from other kinds of analysis.

4. Trace element analysis of zircons

An extensive study of the trace-element patterns of zircons(Belousova, 2000) has shown correlations between thesepatterns and the chemical composition of the magmatic hostrocks. The fields for different rock types tend to overlap in two-dimensional space so that CART (Classification And Regres-sion Trees) analysis was applied to classify each individualzircon grain in terms of its rock type (Belousova et al., 2002).

Non-destructive analysis by electron micro-probe (EMP) ofthe 22 concordant zircons from Mt Rymill (Table 1; onlineSupplementary data “EMPdata”) for SiO2, Y (yttrium), ZrO2, andHf (hafnium), and from the SHRIMP analysis for uranium (U)provided the data for the plots of yttrium vs. uranium (Fig. 5) andhafnium vs. yttrium (Fig. 6). In Fig. 5, all but two zircons fall inthe field of #3: intermediate rocks (granodiorites and tonalites),and in Fig. 6 most fall in the field of #II: mafic and intermediaterocks.

From this analysis we find that the analysed zircons aresimilar to those from intermediate to mafic rocks.

5. Nd- and Hf-isotope model ages of b5 μm clay fraction

The clay fraction of the red siltstone was deposited in thePermian from (1) the contemporary chemical breakdown ofoutcropping fresh igneous/metamorphic rock or (2) recycledphysically from outcropping clay in the Permian drainage basinor (3) both. If option (1) applies, the model ages of this clayfraction can be interpreted as arising from the time of extractionof the source magma from the depleted mantle, and epsilonvalues indicate the relative contribution of a more primitive orjuvenile source and recycled crust. If options (2) and (3) apply,the clay can be interpreted as a mixture of material derived fromthe mantle at different times, and the age would be an average(Arndt and Goldstein, 1987).

Two grain-size fractions, R8448-C b63 μm (silt and clay)and R8448-D b5 μm (clay), were analysed for TDM Nd andεNd, and TDM Hf and εHf. The higher 176Hf/177Hf in the b5 μmfraction may represent the isotopic fractionation associated withthe separation of mud and sand, whereby the concentration ofzircon in the sand (N63 μm) fraction will produce a higher Lu/Hf in the silt-clay fraction but little change in Sm/Nd. We acceptthe b5 μm values as more representative of the clay fraction.

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Details are given in the online Supplementary data (“R8448-clay”). The results and interpretations for R8448-D (b5 μm)follow.

(1) TDM Nd=2.72±0.05 Ga, the age of the source materialderived from the mantle, and directly comparable to TDMNd ages in bedrock.

(2) Initial εNd values are −21.4±0.1. At an age of sedimenta-tion of ~300 Ma (end-Carboniferous/Permian), this valueshifts to −18.3±0.1. The negative value suggests deriva-tion mainly by reworking of pre-existing crust.

(3) TDM Hf=2.30±0.07 Ga is younger than TDMNd, probablyas a consequence of the isotopic fractionation associatedwith the separation of mud and sand. The TDM Nd age ispreferred.

(4) The patterns of the negative Eu anomalies (onlineSupplementary data “R8448-clay”) are closer to those foraverage upper crust than average continental crust. This isconsistent with the “intermediate to mafic rocks” foundfrom the trace-element analysis.

In summary, analysis of the clay fraction, presumably depos-ited in the Permian from the contemporary chemical breakdownof outcropping rock, indicates derivation of the source materialduring a ~2.7 Ga (εNd-18.3) episode of crustal formation. Sub-sequently, magma was produced during the 1160–880 Ma and620–480Ma intervals by reworking upper crustal material. Theseresults are shown in the age plots of Fig. 4d, which can now becompared with other sets of detrital zircons.

6. Interpretation and discussion

We now compare the Mt Rymill zircons and clay (Fig. 4d)with other populations of zircons around the ancestral GSM-VSH (Fig. 1), as shown in Fig. 4: (a) sample K2258 of theTriassic Hawkesbury Sandstone, (b) BL6 Triassic AmeryGroup; (c) BL3 Permian Amery Group; (e) Lake Vostoksiltstone; (f) Cambrian sediments in the Ellsworth–WhitmoreMountains, and (g) KF30+43 Permian Amelang PlateauFormation, Dronning Maud Land.

6.1. U–Pb age

(1) Population 620–460 Ma, which corresponds to the 700–500Ma “Pacific-Gondwana igneous component” of Irelandet al. (1994) and Sircombe (1999), and cluster d+ ofVeevers et al. (2006), generated during the assembly ofGondwanaland (Veevers, 2003, 2004; Collins and Pisar-evsky, 2005; Veevers, 2007), is found in all samples exceptLake Vostok, barely represented by a sole ~600 Ma age.The low-HREE-c (low-heavy rare earth element-carbona-tite) host rock of this age in (a) and (g) is characteristic ofPan-Gondwanaland zircons (Veevers, 2007).

(2) Population 1300–970 Ma, which corresponds to clusterc=1300–1000 (−900, Antarctica) of Veevers et al.(2006), generated during the assembly of a supercontinentcalled Rodinia (Grenville event — Rogers and Santosh,

2004), is represented in all samples. Lake Vostok is re-presented by overlapping ages of 1200–800 Ma. Thesecorrespondences are regarded as significant. These dataallow us to locate the GSM-VSH complex more preciselyin the model for eastern East Antarctica (Veevers et al.,2006, Fig. 37) of cratons of age 1300–1000 Ma em-bedded in a matrix of Pan-Gondwanaland fold belts ofage 700–500 Ma.

(3) A peak at 820–800 Ma, labelled c– (“c minus”) in Fig. 4,in the Lake Vostok sample (Fig. 4e), but not represented atMt Rymill, corresponds to a peak at 814Ma in sample BL6of the Amery Group (Fig. 4b), 810 Ma in the Cambriansediments of the Ellsworth–WhitmoreMountains (Fig. 4f),and 770 Ma in the Amelang Plateau Formation (Fig. 4g),all regarded as from the GSM-VSH provenance (Veeversand Saeed, 2008). Primary zircons in the PCM are found inthe 810 Ma Mount Willing metagabbro (Mikhalsky et al.,2001) and metamorphic zircons in the 950–820 Ma high-temperature metamorphic Prydz Complex (Kelsey et al.,2007, in press). The Lake Vostok sample's provenance ispotentially the upslope Vostok Subglacial Mountains, andnot the downslope occurrences in the PCM and Prydz Bayarea. Accordingly, the 820–800 Ma peak is taken to be aminor but significant component of the GSM-VSHprovenance.

No other ~800 Ma primary ages are known in Antarctica(Veevers, 2007, Fig. 20) and the nearest ages are 1000–900 Main the Rayner Province of East Antarctica and the conjugateEastern Ghats of India (Manton et al., 1992; Mezger and Cosca,1999; Boger et al., 2000; Carson et al., 2000).

In the rest of East Gondwanaland, ~800 Ma events areovershadowed by the Grenville and Pan-Gondwanaland events:

(a) an age cluster 1000–800 Ma is found in detrital zircons inOrdovician and Permian sandstones of the Perth Basin butprimary zircons of this age are unknown in the rest ofAustralia (Veevers et al., 2005) except the 802±10 MaRook Tuff (Fanning et al., 1986) and (very rarely) in the827±6 Ma Gairdner Dyke Swarm (Wingate et al., 1998)of South Australia;

(b) the Wanni Complex of Sri Lanka was intruded by 790–750 Ma granitoids (Kröner et al., 2003);

(c) the Chilka Lake complex of the Eastern Ghats contains a792 Ma anorthosite and a ~750 Ma leucogranite(Dobmeier and Simmat, 2002);

(d) zircon detritus of this age in theMoloGroup ofMadagascar(Cox et al., 2004) and S India (Collins et al., 2007), and alarge suite of gabbro and granitoid intrusions throughoutMadagascar range from 820–740 Ma (Handke et al., 1999;Kröner et al., 2000).

(4) Another grouping in R-8848, 2230-2090 Ma, is foundonly at the margin of clusters in (a), (b), and (c). Thesingle age of 378 Ma is found also in the others except (b),1580Ma in 2 others, including Lake Vostok, and 3240Main the others except Lake Vostok and Dronning MaudLand. None of these is significant.

352 J.J. Veevers et al. / Gondwana Research 14 (2008) 343–354

6.2. TDM Nd

TDM Nd=2.72±0.05 Ga, the age of the source materialderived from the mantle, is directly comparable to TDM Nd agesin bedrock. The age of 2.72 Ga corresponds to that of bedrock inthe Vestfold Hills, downslope in the Permian from Mt Rymill,but not to that in the southern PCM (Veevers and Saeed, 2008).This suggests that a TDM Nd of 2.7 Ga may be characteristic ofthe provenance in the GSM. The age of 2.72 Ga broadlycorrelates with peaks in TDM

C Hf in Fig. 4a, b, and c, presumablyfrom a common provenance in central Antarctica. The initialεNd value corrected for the 300 Ma age of sedimentation is−18.3±0.1; the negative εNd signifies derivation mainly byreworking of pre-existing crust.

6.3. Rock type

The pattern of the negative Eu anomalies of the clay fractionsuggest average upper continental crust or granodiorite, whichaccords with the EMP analysis of zircons that indicates hosts ofintermediate to mafic rocks.

6.4. Summary

1. (a) R-8848 620-460 Ma zircons (n=11) reflect host rocks ofintermediate to mafic composition;(b) the b5 μm fraction of R-8848 reflects a source in theupper continental crust or granodiorite derived from reworkedcrust.

These sources agree with those of 700–500 Ma detritalzircons in Permian–Triassic and Cambrian sediments depositedfrom the ancestral GSM in central Antarctica.

Within wide limits, these properties are consistent with thoseof zircons of the same age from (a), (b), (c), (f), and (g): mainlymafic granitoids (with low-HREE-c rocks in [a] and [g]),generated by derivation from fertile crust (positive εHf) andintense crustal reworking (negative εHf) during the Pan-Gondwanaland events of supercontinental assembly.

2. R-8848 1300–970 Ma zircons (n=4) and the b5 m fractionreflect the same types of host rocks and sources as thoseabove, but their properties differ crucially from those ofdetrital zircons in (a), (f), and (g), which have positive εHf,reflecting derivation from juvenile mantle sources. Thissuggests three provenances in the ancestral GSM-VSH of thesame U–Pb age of 1300–970Ma: a central one with negativeεNd sourcing the sediment at Lake Vostok and Mt Rymill,and flanking ones with positive εHf sourcing sediment in theDronning Maud Land–Ellsworth – Whitmore Mountainsand Australia (Veevers and Saeed, 2007) (Fig. 1).

3. Found in the Lake Vostok zircons and most other samples(but not Mt Rymill) is a population c− (820–800 Ma)between the prominent c (1300–1000 Ma) and d+ (700–500 Ma). Less abundant in bedrock, 820–800 Ma is nowregarded as a significant (but minor) age in the GSM-VSHprovenance.

7. Discussion

Two sets of sediment clasts have been displaced in ice fromthe GSM-VSH complex during the present interglacial (Fig. 1):

1) clasts of red Glossopteris-bearing (Permian) siltstone in mo-raines aroundMtRymill andMtMaguire can be traced (from icestreaming from Dome Argus across the GSM) to a pointsomewhere to the south within the Lambert Graben system;

2) clasts of sediments, probably of b600 Ma age, in accreted iceat Lake Vostok can be traced from ice flow to a point some-where in the VSH.

Sediment derived from the GSM in previous eras includes:

1) Glossopteris-bearing sediments deposited in the northernpart of the Lambert Graben system in the Amery Group froma provenance upslope in the direction of the GSM;

2) elsewhere in Gondwanaland, other Permian and Triassicfluvial sediments (and also Cambrian and Ordoviciansediments) deposited in a radial pattern about the GSM.

Besides being deposited radially about the GSM, thesesediments contain detrital zircons dominated by populations of700–500 Ma (cluster d+) and 1300–1000 Ma (cluster c), with aminor 820–800 Ma population (cluster c−).

The positive εHf of 1300–1000 Ma zircons in DronningMaud Land and the Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains on oneside, and SE Australia on the other (Fig. 1) possibly reflectsdistinctive sectors of the GSM-VSH complex on either side of acentral sector of negative εNd.

The earliest record is provided by the NeoproterozoicSodruzhestvo Group of the S PCM, which was depositeddownslope from an ancestral GSM (Phillips et al., 2005, 2006).

8. Summary and conclusion

(1) The GSM-VSH complex acted as a focus of radialdrainage in the Permian–Triassic, following the 320 Ma(mid-Carboniferous) merging of Gondwanaland andLaurussia in Pangea, and in the Cambrian–Ordovician,following the 700–500 Ma assembly of Gondwanaland.

(2) The Permian–Triassic and Cambrian–Ordovician sedi-ment draining the GSM-VSH complex is dominated bypopulations of 700–500 Ma and 1300–1000 Ma, with aminor population of 820–800 Ma. The sides of the GSM-VSH complex draining towards Dronning Maud Landand Australia are characterized by 1300–1000 Ma rockswith positive εHf.

(3) The GSM-VSH complex is dominated by rocks generatedduring the Pan-Gondwanaland and Grenville events ofsupercontinental assembly.

Acknowledgements

We thank Barrie McKelvey for informing us of the Mt Rymilloccurrence, Phil O'Brien for a specimen of red siltstone from

353J.J. Veevers et al. / Gondwana Research 14 (2008) 343–354

Mt Rymill collected by Richard Ruker in 1960/1961, StewartJamieson for details of the elevation of the GSM, GermanLeitchenkov for a pre-print of Leitchenkov et al. (2007),AlexanderGolynsky for advice and help with references, and Alan Collinsand two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.

This is contribution 487 from the ARC National Key Centrefor Geochemical Evolution and Metallogeny of Continents(www.es.mq.edu.au/GEMOC). Part of this study used instru-mentation funded by ARC LIEF and DEST SystemicInfrastructure Grants, Macquarie University, and Industry.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data associated with this article (EMP data,U–Pb SHRIMP analysis, analysis of clay, SHRIMP data summary)can be found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.gr.2007.12.006[Blichert-Toft et al., 1997; Griffin et al., 2000; Rudnick and Gao,2004; Scherer et al., 2001; Vervoort et al., 1999].

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