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YogaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Yoga (Sanskrit: योग yoga pronunciation ) is the physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplineswhich originated in ancient India with a view to attain a state of permanent peace.[1][2] Yoga is a Sanskritword which means "union" and is interpreted as "union with the divine".[3] One of the most detailed andthorough expositions on the subject is the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali, which defines yoga as "the stilling ofthe changing states of the mind"[1] (Sanskrit: योग: िच�-व�ि� �नरोध:). Yoga is also interpreted as the yokethat connects beings to the machine of existence.[4]

Various traditions of yoga are found in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.[5][6][7][6] In Hinduism, yoga isone of the six āstika ("orthodox") schools of Hindu philosophy.[8]

Post-classical traditions consider Hiranyagarbha as the originator of yoga.[9][10] Pre–philosophicalspeculations and diverse ascetic practices of first millennium BCE were systematized into a formalphilosophy in early centuries CE by the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.[11] By the turn of the first millennium,hatha yoga emerged from tantra.[12][13] It along with its many modern variations, is the style that manypeople associate with the word yoga today. Vajrayana Buddhism, founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas,[14]

has a parallel series of asanas and pranayamas, such as caṇḍālī[15] and yantra yoga.[16]

Hindu monks, beginning with Swami Vivekananda, brought yoga to the West in the late 19th century. Inthe 1980s, yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world. This form ofyoga is often called Hatha yoga. Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as acomplementary intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma and heart patients.[17][18][19][20] In anational survey, long-term yoga practitioners in the United States reported musculo–skeletal and mentalhealth improvements.[21]

Contents1 Terminology2 Purpose3 History

3.1 Prehistory3.2 Vedic period3.3 Preclassical era

3.3.1 Upanishads3.3.2 Bhagavad Gita3.3.3 Mahabharata

3.4 Classical yoga3.4.1 Early Buddhist texts3.4.2 Samkhya3.4.3 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali3.4.4 Yoga Yajnavalkya3.4.5 Jainism3.4.6 Yogacara school

3.5 Middle Ages

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Statue of Shiva in Bangalore, India,performing yogic meditation in thePadmasana posture.

3.5.1 Bhakti movement3.5.2 Tantra3.5.3 Vajrayana3.5.4 Hatha Yoga3.5.5 Sikhism

3.6 Modern history3.6.1 Reception in the West3.6.2 Medicine

3.6.2.1 Potential benefits for adults3.6.2.2 Physical injuries3.6.2.3 Pediatrics

4 Yoga compared with other systems of meditation4.1 Zen Buddhism4.2 Tibetan Buddhism4.3 Christian meditation4.4 Islam

5 See also6 References

6.1 Notes6.2 Citations6.3 Bibliography

7 External links

TerminologyIn Vedic Sanskrit, the more commonly used, literal meaning of theSanskrit word yoga which is "to add", "to join", "to unite", or "toattach" from the root yuj, already had a much more figurativesense, where the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses takes onbroader meanings such as "employment, use, application,performance" (compare the figurative uses of "to harness" as in"to put something to some use"). All further developments of thesense of this word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moods such as"exertion", "endeavour", "zeal" and "diligence" are also found inEpic Sanskrit.[citation needed]

There are very many compound words containing yog in Sanskrit.Yoga can take on meanings such as "connection", "contact","method", "application", "addition" and "performance". Forexample, guṇá-yoga means "contact with a cord"; chakrá-yogahas a medical sense of "applying a splint or similar instrument bymeans of pulleys (in case of dislocation of the thigh)"; chandrá-

yoga has the astronomical sense of "conjunction of the moon with a constellation"; puṃ-yoga is agrammatical term expressing "connection or relation with a man", etc. Thus, bhakti-yoga means "devotedattachment" in the monotheistic Bhakti movement. The term kriyā-yoga has a grammatical sense, meaning"connection with a verb". But the same compound is also given a technical meaning in the Yoga Sutras(2.1), designating the "practical" aspects of the philosophy, i.e. the "union with the Supreme" due toperformance of duties in everyday life[22]

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In Hindu philosophy, the word yoga is used to refer to one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hinduphilosophy.[note 1] The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are often labelled as Rāja yoga.[24] According to Pāṇini, a6th-century BCE Sanskrit grammarian, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga(to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate).[25] In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the root yujsamādhau (to concentrate) is considered by traditional commentators as the correct etymology.[26] Inaccordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa (c. 4th or 5th century CE), who wrote the first commentary on the YogaSutras,[27] states that yoga means samādhi (concentration).[28] In other texts and contexts, such as theBhagavad Gītā and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the word yoga has been used in conformity with yujir yoge(to yoke).[29]

Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment is called ayogi or yogini.[30]

Purpose

Generally put, yoga is a disciplined method utilized for attaining a goal.[23] The ultimate goal of Yoga ismoksha (liberation) though the exact definition of what form this takes depends on the philosophical ortheological system with which it is conjugated. In Shaiva theology, yoga is used to unite kundalini withShiva.[31] Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as the experience of Brahman or Ātman pervading allthings.[32]

In the specific sense of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, yoga is defined as citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ (the cessation of theperturbations of the mind).[23] This is described by Patanjali as the necessary condition for transcendingdiscursive knowledge and to be one with the divinely understood "spirit" ("purusha"): "Absolute freedomoccurs when the lucidity of material nature and spirit are in pure equilibrium."[33] In the Yoga Sutras,Patanjali indicates that the ultimate goal of yoga is a state of permanent peace or Kaivalya.[2]

Apart from the spiritual goals the physical postures of yoga are used to alleviate health problems, reducestress and make the spine supple in contemporary times. Yoga is also used as a complete exercise programand physical therapy routine.[34]

History

Prehistory

Several seals discovered at Indus Valley Civilization sites, dating to the mid 3rd millennium BCE, depictfigures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose, showing "a form of ritual discipline,suggesting a precursor of yoga," according to archaeologist Gregory Possehl.[35] Ramaprasad Chanda,who supervised Indus Valley Civilization excavations, states that, "Not only the seated deities on some ofthe Indus seals are in yoga posture and bear witness to the prevalence of yoga in the Indus ValleyCivilization in that remote age, the standing deities on the seals also show Kayotsarga (a standing postureof meditation) position. It is a posture not of sitting but of standing."[36] Some type of connection betweenthe Indus Valley seals and later yoga and meditation practices is speculated upon by many scholars, thoughthere is no conclusive evidence.[note 2]

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Male figure in a crossed legs postureon a mold of a seal from the Indusvalley civilization

Many scholars such as Marshall associated Pashupati seal with Shiva because We would discuss thesefeatures under the following heads : (1) three faces (2) the attitude of yoga (3) ithyphallicism (4)connection with animals (5) pair of horns.[44]

The standing yogic position in Hindu scriptures is associated with Shiva and has in earliest occurrencesbeen mentioned as the sthanu asana. Shiva has repeatedly been called Sthanu in several scriptures.[45] ThatShiva's standing pose is a meditative penance is clear from the pose being associated in Kalidas' literatureas "Tapasvinah Sthanu"[46] and tapasvin is the term for a mendicant. Also Shiva as Sthanu in Kalidas'literature has been described as "Sthanu sthira-bhakti-yoga-sulabha" meaning "attainable through devotionyoga."[47] In modern Hindu yoga too the standing yoga asana is applied and called samabhanga asana[48]

and tadasana.

Shiva's association with the 'Pashupati seal' is that the seal reads"Lord of the Cattle" and "Lord of the animals" and Shiva has beendescribed as both the lord of cattle and animals. The Pashupati sealalso depicts the mendicant in the yogasana which is anotherattributed associated with Shiva from scriptures.

In reference to the bulls that appear on the Indus Valley seals,archeologists have linked them to Shiva as the bull is associatedwith him in scriptures. In the Rig Veda, Shiva (Rudra) is termedVrishaba or "bull."[49]

Shiva connection with the three heads on the Indus Valley yogiseal is that Shiva has been described and portrayed a three-headedin certain parts of history. For example, in the an Elora temple heis depicted with three heads.[50]

Vedic period

Ascetic practices (tapas), concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests to conduct yajna (Vedicritual of fire sacrifice) might have been precursors to yoga.[note 3] Vratya, a group of ascetics mentioned inthe Atharvaveda, emphasized on bodily postures which probably evolved into yogic asanas.[51] EarlyVedic Samhitas also contain references to other group ascetics such as, Munis, the Keśin, and Vratyas.[53]

Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the Brahmanas (ritualistic texts of theVedic corpus, c. 1000–800 BCE) and the Atharvaveda.[51][54] Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda suggeststhe presence of an early contemplative tradition.[note 4]

The Vedic Samhitas contain references to ascetics, and ascetic practices known as (tapas) are referenced inthe Brāhmaṇas (900 BCE and 500 BCE), early commentaries on the Vedas.[57] The Rig Veda, the earliestof the Hindu scripture mentions the practice.[58] Robert Schneider and Jeremy Fields write,

Yoga asanas were first prescribed by the ancient Vedic texts thousands of years ago and aresaid to directly enliven the body's inner intelligence.[59]

According to David Frawley, verses such as Rig Veda 5.81.1 which reads, "Seers of the vast illuminedseer yogically [yunjante] control their minds and their intelligence,"[60] show that "at least the seed of theentire Yoga teaching is contained in this most ancient Aryan text".[61]

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According to Feuerstein, breath control and curbing the mind was practiced since the Vedic times.,[62] andyoga was fundamental to Vedic ritual, especially to chanting the sacred hymns[63]

While the actual term "yoga" first occurs in the Katha Upanishad[64] and later in the ShvetasvataraUpanishad,[65] an early reference to meditation is made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the earliestUpanishad (c. 900 BCE).[note 5] Yoga is discussed quite frequently in the Upanishads, many of whichpredate Patanjali's Sutras.[67]

Preclassical era

Diffused pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500–200 BCE such asthe middle Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and Mokshadharma of the Mahabharata. The terms samkhyaand yoga in these texts refer to spiritual methodologies rather than the philosophical systems whichdeveloped centuries later.[68]

Upanishads

Alexander Wynne, author of The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, observes that formless meditation andelemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition.[69] The earliest reference tomeditation is in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest Upanishads.[53] Chandogya Upanishaddescribes the five kinds of vital energies (prana). Concepts used later in many yoga traditions such asinternal sound and veins (nadis) are also described in the Upanishad.[51] Taittiriya Upanishad definesyoga as the mastery of body and senses.[70]

The term "yoga" first appears in the Hindu scripture Katha Upanishad (a primary Upanishad c. 400 BCE)where it is defined as the steady control of the senses, which along with cessation of mental activity, leadsto the supreme state.[53][note 6] Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of early Upanishads with conceptsof samkhya and yoga. It defines various levels of existence according to their proximity to the innermostbeing Ātman. Yoga is therefore seen as a process of interiorization or ascent of consciousness.[72][73] It isthe earliest literary work that highlights the fundamentals of yoga. Shvetashvatara Upanishad (c. 400-200BCE) elaborates on the relationship between thought and breath, control of mind, and the benefits ofyoga.[73] Like the Katha Upanishad the transcendent Self is seen as the goal of yoga. This text alsorecommends meditation on Om as a path to liberation.[74] Maitrayaniya Upanishad (c. 300 BCE)formalizes the sixfold form of yoga.[73] Physiological theories of later yoga make an appearance in thistext.[75][76]

While breath channels (nāḍis) of yogic practices had already been discussed in the classical Upanishads, itwas not until the eighth-century Buddhist Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti, that hierarchies of chakras wereintroduced.[77][78] Further systematization of yoga is continued in the Yoga Upanishads of theAtharvaveda (viz., Śāṇḍilya, Pāśupata, Mahāvākya).[79]

Bhagavad Gita

Main article: Bhagavad Gita

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Krishna narrating the Gita to Arjuna.

The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term "yoga" extensively in a variety of ways. In additionto an entire chapter (ch. 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including meditation,[80] it introducesthree prominent types of yoga:[note 7]

Karma yoga: The yoga of action.[note 8]

Bhakti yoga: The yoga of devotion.[note 9]

Jnana yoga: The yoga of knowledge.[note 10]

In Chapter 2 of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjunaabout the essence of yoga as practiced in daily lives:

योग�थ: क�� कम�िण स�ग� �य��वा धन�जय ।�स��स�ो: समो भ��वा सम�व� योग उ�य� ।।(yoga-sthaḥ kuru karmani sanyugam tyaktvādhananjaysiddhy-asiddhyoḥ samo bhutvā samatvam yoga ucyate)- Bhagavad Gita 2.48

A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada translates it as "Be steadfast in yoga (yoga-sthaḥ), O Arjuna.Perform your duty (kuru karmani) and abandon all attachment (sangam) to success or failure (siddhy-asiddhyoḥ). Such evenness of mind (samatvam) is called yoga."[85]

Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita into three sections, with the first six chaptersdealing with Karma yoga, the middle six with Bhakti yoga, and the last six with Jnana (knowledge).[86]

Other commentators ascribe a different 'yoga' to each chapter, delineating eighteen different yogas.[87]

Aurobindo, a freedom fighter and philosopher, describes the yoga of the Gita as "a large, flexible andmany-sided system with various elements, which are all successfully harmonized by a sort of natural andliving assimilation".[88]

Mahabharata

Description of an early form of yoga called nirodha–yoga (yoga of cessation) is contained in theMokshadharma section of the 12th chapter (Shanti Parva) of the Mahabharata epic. The verses of thesection are dated to c. 300–200 BCE. Nirodha–yoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from the contentsof empirical consciousness such as thoughts, sensations etc. until purusha (Self) is realized. Terms likevichara (subtle reflection), viveka (discrimination) and others which are similar to Patanjali's terminologyare mentioned, but not described.[89] There is no uniform goal of yoga mentioned in the Mahabharata.Separation of self from matter, perceiving Brahman everywhere, entering into Brahman etc. are alldescribed as goals of yoga. Samkhya and yoga are conflated together and some verses describe them asbeing identical.[32] Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation.[90]

Classical yoga

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Amitabha (Buddha) depicted as ayoga practitioner, Kamakura, Japan.

During the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta era (c. 200 BCE–500 CE) philosophical schools ofHinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began toemerge.[91]

Early Buddhist texts

Werner notes that "only with Buddhism itself as expounded in thePali Canon" do we have the oldest preserved comprehensive yogapractice:

"But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in thePali Canon that we can speak about a systematic andcomprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice,which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved forus in its entirety"[92]

Another yoga system that predated the Buddhist school is Jainyoga. But since Jain sources postdate Buddhist ones, it is difficultto distinguish between the nature of the early Jain school andelements derived from other schools.[93]

Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded in the Upanishads and some Pali canons are lost totime.[94][95][note 11]

The early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and states, some of which the Buddha borrowedfrom the ascetic (shramana) tradition.[97][98] One key innovative teaching of the Buddha was thatmeditative absorption must be combined with liberating cognition.[99] Meditative states alone are not anend, for according to the Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not liberating. Instead of attaining acomplete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity must take place: a liberating cognition, basedon the practice of mindful awareness.[100] The Buddha also departed from earlier yogic thought indiscarding the early Brahminic notion of liberation at death.[101] While the Upanishads thought liberationto be a realization at death of a nondual meditative state where the ontological duality between subject andobject was abolished, Buddha's theory of liberation depended upon this duality because liberation to himwas an insight into the subject's experience.[101]

The Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against thepalate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind, depending on the passage.[102] However there isno mention of the tongue being inserted into the nasopharynx as in true khecarī mudrā. The Buddha used aposture where pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to even modern postures used tostimulate Kundalini.[103]

Samkhya

Further information: Samkhya

Samkhya emerged in the first century CE.[104] When Patanjali systematized the conceptions of yoga, heset them forth on the background of the metaphysics of samkhya, which he assumed with slight variations.In the early works, the yoga principles appear together with the samkhya ideas. Vyasa's commentary on

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Traditional Hindu depiction ofPatanjali as an avatar of the divineserpent Shesha.

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali[107]

Pada (Chapter) English meaning Sutras

Samadhi Pada On being absorbed in spirit 51

Sadhana Pada On being immersed in spirit 55

Vibhuti Pada On supernatural abilities and gifts 56

Kaivalya Pada On absolute freedom 34

the Yoga Sutras, also called the Samkhyapravacanabhasya (Commentary on the Exposition of theSankhya Philosophy), brings out the intimate relation between the two systems.[105] Yoga agrees with theessential metaphysics of samkhya, but differs from it in that while samkhya holds that knowledge is themeans of liberation, yoga is a system of active striving, mental discipline, and dutiful action. Yoga alsointroduces the conception of god. Sometimes Patanjali's system is referred to as Seshvara Samkhya incontradistinction to Kapila's Nirivara Samkhya.[106]

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

Main articles: Raja Yoga and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

In Hindu philosophy, yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox(which accept the testimony of Vedas) philosophicalschools[108][109] founded by Patanjali. Karel Werner, author ofYoga And Indian Philosophy, believes that the process ofsystematization of yoga which began in the middle and YogaUpanishads culminated with the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.[note 12]

Scholars also note the influence of Buddhist and Samkhyan ideason the Yoga Sutras.[110][111] Patanjali's Yoga Sutras reminds us ofBuddhist formulations from the Pāli Canon, SarvāstivādaAbhidharma and Sautrāntika.[112] The yoga school accepts thesamkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic thanthe samkhya, as evidenced by the addition of a divine entity to thesamkhya's twenty-five elements of reality.[113][114] The parallelsbetween yoga and samkhya were so close that Max Müller saysthat "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguishedfrom each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without aLord...."[115] The intimate relationship between samkhya andyoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer:

These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects ofa single discipline. Sāṅkhya provides a basictheoretical exposition of human nature,enumerating and defining its elements,analyzing their manner of co-operation in astate of bondage ("bandha"), and describingtheir state of disentanglement or separation inrelease ("mokṣa"), while yoga treatsspecifically of the dynamics of the processfor the disentanglement, and outlinespractical techniques for the gaining ofrelease, or "isolation-integration" ("kaivalya").

—[116]

Patanjali is widely regarded as the compiler of the formal yoga philosophy.[117] The verses of Yoga Sutrasare terse and are therefore read together with the Vyasa Bhashya (c. 350–450 CE), a commentary on theYoga Sutras.[118] Patanjali's yoga is known as Raja yoga, which is a system for control of the mind.[119]

Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra, which is the definitional sutra for his entire work:

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A sculpture of a Hindu yogiin the Birla Mandir, Delhi

योग: िच�-व�ि� �नरोध:(yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ)- Yoga Sutras 1.2

This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates it as "Yoga isthe inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta)".[120] The use of the word nirodhaḥin the opening definition of yoga is an example of the important role that Buddhist technical terminologyand concepts play in the Yoga Sutras; this role suggests that Patanjali was aware of Buddhist ideas andwove them into his system.[121] Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)."[122]

Patanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as"Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight-limbed conceptderived from the 29th Sutra of the 2nd book, and is a core characteristic ofpractically every Raja yoga variation taught today. The Eight Limbs are:

1. Yama (The five "abstentions"): Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya(Truth, non-lying), Asteya (non-covetousness), Brahmacharya (non-sensuality, celibacy), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).

2. Niyama (The five "observances"): Shaucha (purity), Santosha(contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (study of the Vedicscriptures to know about God and the soul), and Ishvara-Pranidhana(surrender to God).

3. Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to theseated position used for meditation.

4. Pranayama ("Suspending Breath"): Prāna, breath, "āyāma", torestrain or stop. Also interpreted as control of the life force.

5. Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs fromexternal objects.

6. Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.7. Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.8. Samadhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.

In the view of this school, the highest attainment does not reveal the experienced diversity of the world tobe illusion. The everyday world is real. Furthermore, the highest attainment is the event of one of manyindividual selves discovering itself; there is no single universal self shared by all persons.[123]

Yoga Yajnavalkya

Main article: Yoga Yajnavalkya

The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga attributed to theVedic sage Yajnavalkya. It takes the form of a dialogue betweenYajnavalkya and his wife Gargi, a renowned femalephilosopher.[125] The text contains 12 chapters and its origin hasbeen traced to the period between the second century BCE andfourth century CE.[126] Many yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga

स�योगो योग इ�य��तोजीवा�मपरमा�मनोः॥saṁyogo yoga ityukto jīvātma-paramātmanoḥ॥

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—Yoga Yajnavalkya[124]

Tirthankara Parsva in Yogicmeditation in the Kayotsargaposture.

Pradipika, the Yoga Kundalini and the Yoga Tattva Upanishadshave borrowed verses from or make frequent references to the YogaYajnavalkya.[127] In the Yoga Yajnavalkya, yoga is defined asjivatmaparamatmasamyogah, or the union between the individualself (jivatma) and the Divine (paramatma).[124]

Jainism

According to Tattvarthasutra, 2nd century CE Jain text, yoga is the sumof all the activities of mind, speech and body.[7] Umasvati calls yoga thecause of "asrava" or karmic influx[128] as well as one of the essentials—samyak caritra—in the path to liberation.[128] In his Niyamasara,Acarya Kundakunda, describes yoga bhakti—devotion to the path toliberation—as the highest form of devotion.[129] Acarya Haribhadra andAcarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led certain Indologists like Prof.Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinkingthat grew into a full-fledged religion.[130] The five yamas or theconstraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear a resemblance to the fivemajor vows of Jainism, indicating a history of strong cross-fertilizationbetween these traditions.[131][note 13]

Mainstream Hinduism's influence on Jain yoga is noticed as Haribhadrafounded his eightfold yoga and aligned it with Patanjali's eightfoldyoga.[133]

Yogacara school

Main article: Yogacara

In the late phase of Indian antiquity, on the eve of the development ofClassical Hinduism, the Yogacara movement arises during the Guptaperiod (4th to 5th centuries). Yogacara received the name as it provided a"yoga," a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path ofthe bodhisattva.[134] The yogacara sect teaches "yoga" as a way to reach enlightenment.[135]

Middle Ages

Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga. Hatha yoga emerged as a dominantpractice of yoga in this period.[136]

Bhakti movement

Main article: Bhakti Yoga

Union of the self (jivātma) withthe Divine (paramātma) is said tobe yoga.

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The Bhakti movement was a development in medieval Hinduism which advocated the concept of apersonal God (or "Supreme Personality of Godhead"). The movement was initiated by the Alvars of SouthIndia in the 6th to 9th centuries, and it started gaining influence throughout India by the 12th to 15thcenturies.[137] Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions integrated aspects of Yoga Sutras, such as thepractical meditative exercises, with devotion.[138] Bhagavata Purana elucidates the practice of a form ofyoga called viraha (separation) bhakti. Viraha bhakti emphasizes one pointed concentration onKrishna.[139]

Tantra

By the turn of the first millennium, hatha yoga emerged from tantra.[12][13]

Tantrism is a practice that is supposed to alter the relation of its practitioners to the ordinary social,religious, and logical reality in which they live. Through Tantric practice, an individual perceives reality asmaya, illusion, and the individual achieves liberation from it.[140] Both Tantra and yoga offer paths thatrelieve a person from depending on the world. Where yoga relies on progressive restriction of inputs fromoutside; Tantra relies on transmutation of all external inputs so that one is no longer dependent on them,but can take them or leave them at will. They both make a person independent.[141] This particular path tosalvation among the several offered by Hinduism, links Tantrism to those practices of Indian religions,such as yoga, meditation, and social renunciation, which are based on temporary or permanent withdrawalfrom social relationships and modes.[140]

During tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation technique, particularlychakra meditation. This is often in a limited form in comparison with the way this kind of meditation isknown and used by Tantric practitioners and yogis elsewhere, but is more elaborate than the initiate'sprevious meditation. It is considered to be a kind of Kundalini yoga for the purpose of moving theGoddess into the chakra located in the "heart", for meditation and worship.[142]

Vajrayana

Main article: Vajrayana

While breath channels (nāḍis) of yogic practices had already been discussed in the classical Upanishads, itwas not until the eighth-century Buddhist Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti, that hierarchies of chakras wereintroduced.[77][78]

Hatha Yoga

Main articles: Hatha yoga and Hatha Yoga Pradipika

The basic tenets of Hatha yoga were formulated by Shaiva ascetics Matsyendranath and Gorakshanath c.900 CE. Hatha yoga synthesizes elements of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras with posture and breathingexercises.[143] Hatha yoga, sometimes referred to as the "psychophysical yoga",[144] was furtherelaborated by Yogi Swatmarama, compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika in 15th century CE. This yogadiffers substantially from the Raja yoga of Patanjali in that it focuses on shatkarma, the purification of thephysical body as leading to the purification of the mind (ha), and prana, or vital energy (tha).[145][146]

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An early illustration of Indiansperforming Yoga Asana in 1688

Compared to the seated asana, or sitting meditation posture, of Patanjali's Raja yoga,[147] it marks thedevelopment of asanas (plural) into the full body 'postures' now in popular usage[148] and, along with itsmany modern variations, is the style that many people associate with the word yoga today.[149]

It is similar to a diving board – preparing the body for purification, so that it may be ready to receive highertechniques of meditation. The word "Hatha" comes from "Ha" which means Sun, and "Tha" which meansMoon.[150]

Sikhism

Various yogic groups had become prominent in Punjab in the 15th and 16th century, when Sikhism was inits nascent stage. Compositions of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, describe many dialogues he hadwith Jogis, a Hindu community which practiced yoga.[151] Guru Nanak rejected the austerities, rites andrituals connected with Hatha Yoga.[152] He propounded the path of Sahaja yoga or Nama yoga(meditation on the name) instead.[153] The Guru Granth Sahib states:

Listen "O Yogi, Nanak tells nothing but the truth. You must discipline your mind. Thedevotee must meditate on the Word Divine. It is His grace which brings about the union. Heunderstands, he also sees. Good deeds help one merge into Divination."

—[154]

Modern history

Reception in the West

Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in themid 19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy. Aspart of this budding interest N. C. Paul published his Treatise onYoga Philosophy in 1851. The first Hindu teacher to activelyadvocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a western audiencewas Swami Vivekananda, who toured Europe and the UnitedStates in the 1890s.[155] The reception which SwamiVivekananda received is inconceivable without the active interestof intellectuals, in particular the New England Transcendentalists,among them R. W. Emerson, who drew on German Romanticism

and the interest of philosophers and scholars like G. F. W. Hegel, the Schlegel brothers, Max Mueller, A.Schopenhauer and others who found Vedanta in agreement with their own ideas and a cherished source ofreligious-philosophical inspiration.[156]

Theosophists also had a large influence on the American public's view of Yoga.[157] Esoteric viewscurrent at the end of the 19th century were a further basis for the reception of Vedanta and of Yoga with itstheory and practice of correspondence between the spiritual and the physical.[158] The reception of Yogaand of Vedanta are thus entwined with each other and with the (mostly Neo-platonically based) currents ofreligious and philosophical reform and transformation throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. M.Eliade, who was rooted in the Romanian currents of these traditions brought a new element into thereception of Yoga by the strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in his seminal book: Yoga: Immortality and

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A western style Hatha yoga class.

Freedom.[note 14] By introducing the Tantra traditions and philosophy of Yoga the conception of the"transcendent" to be attained by Yogic practice shifted from experiencing the "transcendent" ("Atman-Brahman" in Advaitic theory) in the mind to the body itself.[159]

In the West, the term "yoga" is today typically associated with Hatha yoga and its asanas (postures) or as aform of exercise.[160] In the 1910s and the 1920s Yoga suffered a period of bad public will largely as aresult of backlash against immigration, a rise in puritanical values, and a number of scandals. In the 1930sand 1940s it began to gain more public acceptance as a result of celebrity endorsement. In the 1950s therewas another period of paranoia against yoga,[157] but by the 1960s, western interest in Hindu spiritualityreached its peak, giving rise to a great number of Neo-Hindu schools specifically advocated to a westernpublic. During this period, most of the influential Indian teachers of yoga came from two lineages:Sivananda Saraswati (1887–1963) and Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888–1989).[161] Among the teachersof Hatha yoga who were active in the west in this period were B.K.S. Iyengar, K. Pattabhi Jois, andSwami Vishnu-devananda, and Swami Satchidananda.[162][163][164] Kundalini Yoga was brought to theUnited States by Yogi Bhajan in 1969.[165]

A second "yoga boom" followed in the 1980s, as Dean Ornish, a follower of Swami Satchidananda,connected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside ofcounter culture or esotericism circles, and unconnected to a religious denomination.[155] Numerous asanasseemed modern in origin, and strongly overlapped 19th and early 20th century Western exercisetraditions.[166]

Since 2001, the popularity of yoga in the USA has been on the constant rise. The number of people whopracticed some form of yoga has grown from 4 million (in 2001) to 20 million (in 2011).

In 2013, for the White House,

“ Yoga has become a universal language of spiritualexercise in the United States, crossing many linesof religion and cultures,... Every day, millions ofpeople practice yoga to improve their health andoverall well-being. That's why we're encouragingeveryone to take part in PALA (PresidentialActive Lifestyle Award), so show your support foryoga and answer the challenge.

”At this time some schools in America are against its practice insideeducational facilities, saying it promotes Hinduism in violation of the Establishment Clause.[167]

The American College of Sports Medicine supports the integration of Yoga into the exercise regimens ofhealthy individuals as long instruction is given by properly trained professionals, citing its promotion of"profound mental, physical and spiritual awareness" and its benefits as a form of stretching, and as anenhancer of breathe control and core strength.[168]

Medicine

Main article: Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine

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Potential benefits for adults

Long-term yoga practitioners in the United States have reported musculoskeletal and mental healthimprovements, as well as reduced symptoms of asthma in asthmatics.[21] Regular yoga practice increasesbrain GABA levels and has been shown to improve mood and anxiety more than some other metabolicallymatched exercises, such as walking.[169][170] The three main focuses of Hatha yoga (exercise, breathing,and meditation) make it beneficial to those suffering from heart disease. Overall, studies of the effects ofyoga on heart disease suggest that yoga may reduce high blood pressure, improve symptoms of heartfailure, enhance cardiac rehabilitation, and lower cardiovascular risk factors.[171] For chronic low backpain, specialist Yoga for Healthy Lower Backs has been found 30% more beneficial than usual care alonein a UK clinical trial.[172] Other smaller studies support this finding.[173][174] The Yoga for Healthy LowerBacks programme is the dominant treatment for society (both cheaper and more effective than usual carealone) due to 8.5 fewer days off work each year.[175] A research group from Boston University School ofMedicine also tested yoga’s effects on lower back pain. Over twelve weeks, one group of volunteerspracticed yoga while the control group continued with standard treatment for back pain. The reported painfor yoga participants decreased by one third, while the standard treatment group had only a five percentdrop. Yoga participants also had a drop of 80% in pain medication use.[176]

There has been an emergence of studies investigating yoga as a complementary intervention for cancerpatients. Yoga is used for treatment of cancer patients to decrease depression, insomnia, pain, and fatigueand increase anxiety control.[177] Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) programs include yoga asa mind-body technique to reduce stress. A study found that after seven weeks the group treated with yogareported significantly less mood disturbance and reduced stress compared to the control group. Anotherstudy found that MBSR had showed positive effects on sleep anxiety, quality of life, and spiritual growthin cancer patients.[178]

Yoga has also been studied as a treatment for schizophrenia. Some encouraging, but inconclusive,evidence suggests that yoga as a complementary treatment may help alleviate symptoms of schizophreniaand improve health-related quality of life.[18]

Implementation of the Kundalini Yoga Lifestyle has shown to help substance abuse addicts increase theirquality of life according to psychological questionnaires like the Behavior and Symptom IdentificationScale and the Quality of Recovery Index.[179]

Yoga has been shown in a study to have some cognitive functioning (executive functioning, includinginhibitory control) acute benefit.[180]

Physical injuries

Main article: Sports injury

Since a small percentage of yoga practitioners each year suffer physical injuries analogous to sportsinjuries;[181] caution and common sense are recommended.[182] Yoga has been criticized for beingpotentially dangerous and being a cause for a range of serious medical conditions including thoracic outletsyndrome, degenerative arthritis of the cervical spine, spinal stenosis, retinal tears, damage to the commonfibular nerve, so called "Yoga foot drop,"[183] etc. An exposé of these problems by William Broadpublished in January, 2012 in The New York Times Magazine[184] resulted in controversy within theinternational yoga community. Broad, a science writer, yoga practitioner, and author of The Science of

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Yoga: The Risks and the Rewards,[185] had suffered a back injury while performing a yoga posture.[186]

Torn muscles, knee injuries,[187] and headaches are common ailments which may result from yogapractice.[188]

An extensive survey of yoga practitioners in Australia showed that about 20% had suffered some physicalinjury while practicing yoga. In the previous 12 months 4.6% of the respondents had suffered an injuryproducing prolonged pain or requiring medical treatment. Headstands, shoulder stands, lotus and half lotus(seated cross-legged position), forward bends, backward bends, and handstands produced the greatestnumber of injuries.[181]

Some yoga practitioners do not recommend certain yoga exercises for women during menstruation, forpregnant women, or for nursing mothers. However, meditation, breathing exercises, and certain postureswhich are safe and beneficial for women in these categories are encouraged.[189]

Among the main reasons that experts cite for causing negative effects from yoga are beginners'competitiveness and instructors' lack of qualification. As the demand for yoga classes grows, many peopleget certified to become yoga instructors, often with relatively little training. Not every newly certifiedinstructor can evaluate the condition of every new trainee in their class and recommend refraining fromdoing certain poses or using appropriate props to avoid injuries. In turn, a beginning yoga student canoverestimate the abilities of their body and strive to do advanced poses before their body is flexible orstrong enough to perform them.[184][188]

Vertebral artery dissection, a tear in the arteries in the neck which provide blood to the brain can resultfrom rotation of the neck while the neck is extended. This can occur in a variety of contexts, for example,in a beauty shop while your hair is being rinsed, but is an event which could occur in some yoga practices.This is a very serious condition which can result in a stroke.[190][191]

Acetabular labral tears, damage to the structure joining the femur and the hip, have been reported to haveresulted from yoga practice.[192]

Pediatrics

Yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents, both as a form of physical exercise and forbreathing, focus, mindfulness, and stress relief.

Many school districts have considered incorporating yoga into their P.E. programs. The Encinitas,California school district gained a San Diego Superior Court Judge's approval to use yoga in P.E., holdingagainst the parents who claimed the practice was intrinsically religious and hence should not be part of astate funded program.[193]

Yoga compared with other systems of meditation

Zen Buddhism

Zen (the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyaana" via the Chinese "ch'an"[note 15] is a form ofMahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with yoga.[195] In thewest, Zen is often set alongside yoga; the two schools of meditation display obvious family

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resemblances.[196] This phenomenon merits special attention since yogic practices have some of their rootsin the Zen Buddhist school.[note 16] Certain essential elements of yoga are important both for Buddhism ingeneral and for Zen in particular.[197]

Tibetan Buddhism

In the Nyingma tradition, the path of meditation practice is divided into nine yanas, or vehicles, which aresaid to be increasingly profound.[198] The last six are described as "yoga yanas": "Kriya yoga," "Upayoga," "Yoga yana," "Mahā yoga," "Anu yoga" and the ultimate practice, "Ati yoga."[199] The Sarmatraditions also include Kriya, Upa (called "Charya"), and Yoga, with the Anuttara yoga class substitutingfor Mahayoga and Atiyoga.[200]

Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm.The Nyingma tradition also practices Yantra yoga (Tib. "Trul khor"), a discipline that includes breathwork (or pranayama), meditative contemplation and precise dynamic movements to centre thepractitioner.[201] The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama'ssummer temple of Lukhang. A semi-popular account of Tibetan yoga by Chang (1993) refers to caṇḍalī(Tib. "tummo"), the generation of heat in one's own body, as being "the very foundation of the whole ofTibetan yoga."[202] Chang also claims that Tibetan yoga involves reconciliation of apparent polarities,such as prana and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of tantrism.

Christian meditation

Main articles: Christian meditation, A Christian reflection on the New Age, and Aspects of Christianmeditation

Some Christians integrate yoga and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer and meditation. Thishas been attributed to a desire to experience God in a more complete way.[203] The Roman CatholicChurch, and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect tosome eastern and New Age practices that include yoga and meditation.[204][205][206]

In 1989 and 2003, the Vatican issued two documents: Aspects of Christian meditation and "A Christianreflection on the New Age," that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices. The 2003document was published as a 90 page handbook detailing the Vatican's position.[207] The Vatican warnedthat concentration on the physical aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cult of the body" and thatequating bodily states with mysticism "could also lead to psychic disturbance and, at times, to moraldeviations." Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity, when the church opposed thegnostics' belief that salvation came not through faith but through a mystical inner knowledge.[203] Theletter also says, "one can see if and how [prayer] might be enriched by meditation methods developed inother religions and cultures"[208] but maintains the idea that "there must be some fit between the nature of[other approaches to] prayer and Christian beliefs about ultimate reality."[203] Some fundamentalistChristian organizations consider yoga to be incompatible with their religious background, considering it apart of the New Age movement inconsistent with Christianity.[209]

Another view holds that Christian meditation can lead to religious pluralism. This is held by aninterdenominational association of Christians that practice it. "The ritual simultaneously operates as ananchor that maintains, enhances, and promotes denominational activity and a sail that allows institutional

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boundaries to be crossed." [210]

Islam

The development of Sufism was considerably influenced by Indian yogic practises, where they adaptedboth physical postures (asanas) and breath control (pranayama).[211] The ancient Indian yogic textAmritakunda ("Pool of Nectar)" was translated into Arabic and Persian as early as the 11th century.Several other yogic texts were appropriated by Sufi tradition, but typically the texts juxtapose yogamaterials alongside Sufi practices without any real attempt at integration or synthesis. Yoga became knownto Indian Sufis gradually over time, but engagement with yoga is not found at the historical beginnings ofthe tradition.[212]

Yoga is a growing industry in Islamic countries (Two Bikram Yoga studios in Iran). Also, yoga is used indeveloping countries like Palestine to help the population manage stress. This article is a comparative studyof yoga and Islam, showing their similarities.[213][214][215]

Malaysia's top Islamic body in 2008 passed a fatwa, which is legally non-binding, against Muslimspracticing yoga, saying it had elements of "Hindu spiritual teachings" and that its practice was blasphemyand is therefore haraam. Muslim yoga teachers in Malaysia criticized the decision as "insulting."[216]

Sisters in Islam, a women's rights group in Malaysia, also expressed disappointment and said that itsmembers would continue with their yoga classes.[217]

The fatwa states that yoga practiced only as physical exercise is permissible, but prohibits the chanting ofreligious mantras,[218] and states that teachings such as the uniting of a human with God is not consistentwith Islamic philosophy.[219] In a similar vein, the Council of Ulemas, an Islamic body in Indonesia,passed a fatwa banning yoga on the grounds that it contains "Hindu elements"[220] These fatwas have, inturn, been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband, a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India.[221]

In May 2009, Turkey's head of the Directorate of Religious Affairs, Ali Bardakoğlu, discounted personaldevelopment techniques such as yoga as commercial ventures that could lead to extremism. His commentswere made in the context of yoga possibly competing with and eroding participation in Islamicpractice.[222]

See alsoList of asanasList of yoga schoolsYoga series

References

Notes

1. ^ Jacobsen writes, "Yoga has five principal meanings:yoga as a disciplined method for attaining a goalyoga as techniques of controlling the body and the mindyoga as a name of one of the schools or systems of philosophy (darśana)

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yoga as a name of one of the schools or systems of philosophy (darśana)yoga in connection with other words, such as "hatha-, mantra-, and laya-," referring to traditionsspecialising in particular techniques of yogayoga as the goal of yoga practice."[23]

Monier-Williams includes "it is the second of the two Sāṃkhya systems," and "abstraction practised as a system(as taught by Patañjali and called the Yoga philosophy)" in his definitions of "yoga."

2. ^ See:Jonathan Mark Kenoyer describes one figure as "seated in yogic position."[37]

Karel Werner writes that "Archeological discoveries allow us therefore to speculate with somejustification that a wide range of yoga activities was already known to the people of pre-AryanIndia."[38]

Heinrich Zimmer describes one seal as "seated like a yogi."[39]

Thomas McEvilley writes that "The six mysterious Indus Valley seal images...all without exceptionshow figures in a position known in hatha yoga as mulabhandasana or possibly the closely related"utkatasana" or "baddha konasana...."[40]

Dr. Farzand Masih, Punjab University Archaeology Department Chairman, describes a recentlydiscovered seal as depicting a "yogi."[41]

Gavin Flood disputes the idea regarding one of the seals, the so-called "Pashupati seal," writing that itisn't clear the figure is seated in a yoga posture, or that the shape is intended to represent a humanfigure.[42]

Geoffrey Samuel, regarding the Pashupati seal, believes that we "do not actually "know" how tointerpret the figure, nor do we know what he or she represent."[43]

3. ^ See:Jacobsen writes that "Bodily postures are closely related to the tradition of tapas, ascetic practices in theVedic tradition. The use by Vedic priests of ascetic practices in their preparations for the performance ofthe sacrifice might be precursor to Yoga."[51]

Whicher believes that "the proto-Yoga of the Vedic rishis is an early form of sacrificial mysticism andcontains many elements characteristic of later Yoga that include: concentration, meditative observation,ascetic forms of practice (tapas), breath control..."[52]

4. ^ See:Wynne states that "The Nasadiyasukta, one of the earliest and most important cosmogonic tracts in theearly Brahminic literature, contains evidence suggesting it was closely related to a tradition of earlyBrahminic contemplation. A close reading of this text suggests that it was closely related to a traditionof early Brahminic contemplation. The poem may have been composed by contemplatives, but even ifnot, an argument can be made that it marks the beginning of the contemplative/meditative trend inIndian thought."[55]

Miller suggests that the composition of Nasadiya Sukta and Purusha Sukta arises from "the subtlestmeditative stage, called absorption in mind and heart" which "involves enheightened experiences"through which seer "explores the mysterious psychic and cosmic forces...".[56]

Jacobsen writes that dhyana (meditation) is derived from Vedic term dhih which refers to "visionaryinsight", "thought provoking vision".[56]

5. ^ Flood: "...which states that, having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (atman), withinoneself."[66]

6. ^ For the date of this Upanishad see also Helmuth von Glasenapp, from the 1950 Proceedings of the"Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur"[71]

7. ^ Flood writes, "...Bhagavad Gita, including a complete chapter (ch. 6) devoted to traditional yoga practice.The Gita also introduces the famous three kinds of yoga, 'knowledge' (jnana), 'action' (karma), and 'love'(bhakti)." [81]

8. ^ Karma yoga involves performance of action without attachment to results.[82]

9. ^ The yoga of devotion is similar to the yoga of action, but the fruits of action, in yoga of devotion, aresurrendered to Krishna.[83]

10. ^ Jnana yoga is the path of wisdom, knowledge, and direct experience of Brahman as the ultimate reality. Thepath renounces both desires and actions, and is therefore depicted as being steep and very difficult in theBhagavad Gita.[84]

11. ^ On the dates of the Pali canon, Gregory Schopen writes, "We know, and have known for some time, that thePali canon as we have it — and it is generally conceded to be our oldest source — cannot be taken back further

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Pali canon as we have it — and it is generally conceded to be our oldest source — cannot be taken back furtherthan the last quarter of the first century BCE, the date of the Alu-vihara redaction, the earliest redaction we canhave some knowledge of, and that — for a critical history — it can serve, at the very most, only as a source forthe Buddhism of this period. But we also know that even this is problematic... In fact, it is not until the time ofthe commentaries of Buddhaghosa, Dhammapala, and others — that is to say, the fifth to sixth centuries CE —that we can know anything definite about the actual contents of [the Pali] canon."[96]

12. ^ Werner writes, "The word Yoga appears here for the first time in its fully technical meaning, namely as asystematic training, and it already received a more or less clear formulation in some other middleUpanishads....Further process of the systematization of Yoga as a path to the ultimate mystic goal is obvious insubsequent Yoga Upanishads and the culmination of this endeavour is represented by Patanjali's codification ofthis path into a system of the eightfold Yoga."[79]

13. ^ Worthington writes, "Yoga fully acknowledges its debt to Jainism, and Jainism reciprocates by making thepractice of yoga part and parcel of life."[132]

14. ^ Eliade, Mircea, Yoga - Immortality and Freedom, Princeton, 1958: Princeton Univ.Pr. (original title: LeYoga. Immortalité et Liberté, Paris, 1954: Libr. Payot)

15. ^ "The Meditation school, called 'Ch'an' in Chinese from the Sanskrit 'dhyāna,' is best known in the West bythe Japanese pronunciation 'Zen' "[194]

16. ^ Exact quote: "This phenomenon merits special attention since yogic roots are to be found in the Zen Buddhistschool of meditation."[197]

Citations

1. ^ a b Bryant 2009, p. 10.2. ^ a b Bryant 2009, p. 457.3. ^ Bryant 2009, p. xvii.4. ^ See Abhidhamma Section 365.4: http://archive.org/stream/AManualOfAbhidhamma/abhidhamma_djvu.txt5. ^ Denise Lardner Carmody, John Carmody, Serene Compassion. Oxford University Press US, 1996, page 68.6. ^ a b Stuart Ray Sarbacker, Samādhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga. SUNY Press, 2005,

pp. 1–2.7. ^ a b Tattvarthasutra [6.1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar

p. 1028. ^ Changing World Religions, Cults & Occult by Jerry Stokes (http://books.google.co.in/books?

id=DTPJpanTizwC&pg=PA446&dq=yoga+is+one+of+the+six+astika+schools+of+hindu+philosophy&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6a81UqbZAsHIrQe8uoGoCQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false)

9. ^ Feuerstein, Georg (2001). The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy and Practice. Arizona,USA: Hohm Press. p. Kindle Locations 7299–7300. ISBN 978-1890772185.

10. ^ Aranya, Swami Hariharananda (2000). "Introduction". Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati. Calcutta,India: University of Calcutta. p. xxiv. ISBN 81-87594-00-4.

11. ^ Whicher, pp. 38–39.12. ^ a b James Mallinson, "Sāktism and Hathayoga," 28 June 2012. <URL>

(http://www.khecari.com/resources/SaktismHathayoga.pdf) [accessed 19 September 2013] pg.1 "Scholarship onhathayoga, my own included, unanimously declares it to be a reformation of tantric yoga introduced by thegurus of the Nath sampradaya, in particular their supposed founder, Goraksa."

13. ^ a b Burley, Mikel (2000). Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 16."It is for this reason that hatha-yoga is sometimes referred to as a variety of 'Tantrism'."

14. ^ Davidson, Ronald. Indian Esoteric Buddhism. Columbia University Press. 2002, pg.169-235.15. ^ Lama Yeshe. The Bliss of Inner Fire. Wisdom Publications. 1998, pg.135-141.16. ^ Norbu, Namkhai. Yantra Yoga. Snow Lion Publications. 2008, pg.1.17. ^ Smith, Kelly B.; Caroline F. Pukall (May 2009). "An evidence-based review of yoga as a complementary

intervention for patients with cancer". Psycho-Oncology 18 (5): 465–475. doi:10.1002/pon.1411(http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fpon.1411).

18. ^ a b Vancampfort, D.; Vansteeland, K.; Scheewe, T.; Probst, M.; Knapen, J.; De Herdt, A.; De Hert, M. (July2012). "Yoga in schizophrenia: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials". Acta PsychiatricaScandinavica 126 (1): 12–20., art.nr. 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2012.01865.x

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Scandinavica 126 (1): 12–20., art.nr. 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2012.01865.x19. ^ Sharma, Manoj; Taj Haider (Oct 2012). "Yoga as an Alternative and Complementary Treatment for Asthma:

A Systematic Review". Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine 17 (3): 212–217.doi:10.1177/2156587212453727 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F2156587212453727).

20. ^ Innes, Kim E.; Cheryl Bourguignon (November–December 2005). "Risk Indices Associated with the InsulinResistance Syndrome, Cardiovascular Disease, and Possible Protection with Yoga: A Systematic Review".Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine 18 (6): 491–519. doi:10.3122 (http://dx.doi.org/10.3122).

21. ^ a b Birdee, Gurjeet S. et al. "Characteristics of Yoga Users: Results of a National Survey." Journal of GeneralInternal Medicine. Oct 2008, Volume 23 Issue 10. p1653-1658

22. ^ Whicher, p. 6–7.23. ^ a b c Jacobsen, p. 4.24. ^ Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume

II, pp. 19–20.25. ^ Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975). A History of Indian Philosophy 1. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 226.

ISBN 81-208-0412-0.26. ^ Bryant 2009, p. 5.27. ^ Bryant 2009, p. xxxix.28. ^ Aranya, Swami Hariharananda (2000). Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati. Calcutta, India:

University of Calcutta. p. 1. ISBN 81-87594-00-4.29. ^ Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975). A History of Indian Philosophy 1. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 227.

ISBN 81-208-0412-0.30. ^ American Heritage Dictionary: "Yogi, One who practices yoga." Websters: "Yogi, A follower of the yoga

philosophy; an ascetic."31. ^ Larson, p. 142.32. ^ a b Jacobsen, p. 9.33. ^ Patanjali, Yoga Sutra III, 55, ed.: Miller, Barbara Stoler (transl., intr.), Yoga - Discipline of Freedom. The

Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali, New York, 1998: Bantam Books, p. 7334. ^ Dupler, Douglas; Frey, Rebecca. Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine

(http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/yoga.aspx#1), 3rd ed (2006). Retrieved 30 August 2012.35. ^ Possehl (2003), pp. 144–14536. ^ Chanda, Ramaprasad (August 1932). "Mohen-jo-Daro: Sindh 5000 Years Ago". Modern Review.37. ^ ""Around the Indus in 90 Slides" by Jonathan Mark Kenoyer" (http://www.harappa.com/indus/33.html).

Harappa.com. Retrieved 2012-11-28.38. ^ Werner, p. 103.39. ^ Zimmer, p. 168.40. ^ McEvilley, pp. 219-22041. ^ "Rare objects discovery points to ruins treasure"

(http://archives.dawn.com/dawnftp/72.249.57.55/dawnftp/2007/05/08/nat7.htm). Archives.dawn.com. 2007-05-08. Retrieved 2012-11-28.

42. ^ Flood, pp. 28–29.43. ^ Samuel, p. 4.44. ^ P. 79 Calcutta Review By University of Calcutta45. ^ P. 33 The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through the Ages By Mahadev Chakravarti46. ^ P. 104 The Birth of Kumāra By Kālidāsa47. ^ P. 14 The Megha-Dūta of Kālidāsa By Kālidāsa48. ^ P. 16 The Book of Hindu Imagery: Gods, Manifestations and Their Meaning By Eva Rudy Jansen49. ^ P. 89 The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through the Ages By Mahadev Chakravarti50. ^ P. 461 The Cave Temples of India By James Burgess51. ^ a b c d Jacobsen, p. 6.52. ^ Whicher, p. 12.53. ^ a b c Flood, p. 94–95.54. ^ Whicher, p. 13.55. ^ Wynne, p. 50.56. ^ a b Whicher, p. 11.57. ^ Flood 1996, p. 94.58. ^ P. 51 The Complete Idiot's Guide to Yoga By Joan Budilovsky, Eve Adamson

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58. ^ P. 51 The Complete Idiot's Guide to Yoga By Joan Budilovsky, Eve Adamson59. ^ Total Heart Health P. 170 (http://books.google.co.in/books?

id=adhwR1HUZ7gC&pg=PA170&dq=Yoga+asanas+were+first+prescribed+by+the+ancient+Vedic+texts+thousands+of+years+ago+and+are+said+to+directly+enliven+the+body%27s+inner+intelligence&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Zgs3Uoe4F4i4rgfwiYGwAg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false) By Robert H. Schneider, Jeremy Z. Fields

60. ^ Burley, Mikel (2000). Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice (http://books.google.ca/books?id=ezxQHzjwUosC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Hatha+Yoga:+Its+Context,+Theory+and+Practice&hl=en&sa=X&ei=MMYGUr-iGrGujAKxgoGQCQ&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Hatha%20Yoga%3A%20Its%20Context%2C%20Theory%20and%20Practice&f=false). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 25. ISBN 978-8120817067.

61. ^ P. 25 Haṭha-Yoga: Its Context, Theory, and Practice By Mikel Burley62. ^ P. 531 The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy and Practice By Georg Feuerstein (2002)63. ^ P. 538 The Yoga Tradition By Georg Feuerstein64. ^ Flood 1996, p. 95.65. ^ P. 99 The Wisdom of the Vedas By Jagadish Chandra Chatterji66. ^ Flood 1996, p. 94–95.67. ^ P. 132 A Student's Guide to A2 Religious Studies for the OCR Specification By Michael Wilcockson68. ^ Larson, p. 34–35, 53.69. ^ Wynne, pp. 44–45,58.70. ^ Whicher, p. 17.71. ^ "Vedanta and Buddhism, A Comparative Study"

(http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/vonglasenapp/wheel002.html). Retrieved 29 August 2012.72. ^ Whicher, p. 18–19.73. ^ a b c Jacobsen, p. 8.74. ^ Whicher, p. 20.75. ^ Whicher, p. 21.76. ^ Feuerstein, Georg (January–February 1988). "Introducing Yoga's Great Literary Heritage". Yoga Journal

(78): 70–5.77. ^ a b White, David Gordon. Yoga in Practice. Princeton University Press 2012, page 14.78. ^ a b White, David Gordon (2003). Kiss of the Yogini. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 224. ISBN 0-

226-89483-5.79. ^ a b Werner, p. 24.80. ^ Jacobsen, p. 10.81. ^ Flood, p. 96.82. ^ Fowler, p. xliv.83. ^ Jacobsen, p. 11.84. ^ Folwer, p. xli.85. ^ "Ch. 2.48" (http://www.asitis.com/2/48.html) "Bhagavad-Gita As It Is" by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami

Prabhupada, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International.86. ^ Gambhirananda, p. 16.87. ^ Jacobsen, p. 46.88. ^ Fowler, p. xlv.89. ^ Whicher, p. 25–26.90. ^ Wynne, p. 33.91. ^ Larson, p. 36.92. ^ Werner p. 119-2093. ^ Werner p. 119-2094. ^ Douglass, Laura (2011). "Thinking Through The Body: The Conceptualization Of Yoga As Therapy For

Individuals With Eating Disorders"(http://web.ebscohost.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=3&sid=1d8495be-1c1c-4423-ad48-1f6054f42876%40sessionmgr111&hid=103). Academic Search Premier: 83. Retrieved 19 February2013.

95. ^ Datta, Amaresh (1988). Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: devraj to jyoti (http://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1809). Sahitya Akademi. p. 1809. ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0.

96. ^ Wynne, pp. 3–4.97. ^ Richard Gombrich, "Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo."

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97. ^ Richard Gombrich, "Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo."Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, p. 44.

98. ^ Barbara Stoler Miller, "Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation ofthe Text, with Commentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords." University of California Press, 1996, p.8.

99. ^ Wynne, p. 92.100. ^ Wynne, p. 105.101. ^ a b Wynne, p. 95.102. ^ Mallinson, James. 2007. The Khecarīvidyā of Adinathā. London: Routledge. pg.17-19.103. ^ James Mallinson, "Sāktism and Hathayoga," 6 March 2012. <URL>

(http://www.khecari.com/resources/SaktismHathayoga.pdf) [accessed 10 June 2012] pgs. 20-21 "The Buddhahimself is said to have tried both pressing his tongue to the back of his mouth, in a manner similar to that ofthe hathayogic khecarīmudrā, and ukkutikappadhāna, a squatting posture which may be related to hathayogictechniques such as mahāmudrā, mahābandha, mahāvedha, mūlabandha, and vajrāsana in which pressure is puton the perineum with the heel, in order to force upwards the breath or Kundalinī."

104. ^ Larson, p. 38.105. ^ Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 342.106. ^ Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 344.107. ^ Stiles 2001, p. x.108. ^ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and

Moore, "Contents," and pp. 453–487.109. ^ For a brief overview of the yoga school of philosophy see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.110. ^ Karel Werner, The Yogi and the Mystic. Routledge 1994, page 27. "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without

Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there is much in the Yoga Sutras that reminds us of Buddhistformulations from the Pāli Canon and even more so from the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and from Sautrāntika."

111. ^ Larson, pp. 44–45.112. ^ Karel Werner, The Yogi and the Mystic. Routledge 1994, page 27. "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without

Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there is much in the Yoga Sutras that reminds us of Buddhistformulations from the Pāli Canon and even more so from the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and from Sautrāntika."

113. ^ For yoga acceptance of samkhya concepts, but with addition of a category for God, see: Radhakrishnan andMoore, p. 453.

114. ^ For yoga as accepting the 25 principles of samkhya with the addition of God, see: Chatterjee and Datta, p.43.

115. ^ Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy," p. 104.116. ^ Zimmer (1951), p. 280.117. ^ For Patanjali as the founder of the philosophical system called yoga see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 42.118. ^ Larson, p. 21–22.119. ^ For "raja yoga" as a system for control of the mind and connection to Patanjali's Yoga Sutras as a key work,

see: Flood (1996), pp. 96–98.120. ^ For text and word-by-word translation as "Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind." See:

Taimni, p. 6.121. ^ Barbara Stoler Miller, "Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of

the Text, with Commentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords." University of California Press, 1996,page 9.

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External linksYoga (http://www.dmoz.org//Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Yoga//) at the Open DirectoryProject

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