World War I

Chapter 28

04/20/23 1

The Seeds of WarSection 1

• What were the main causes of WW 1?– Competition for resources and territories– Nationalism– Militarism– Alliances

04/20/23 2

Terms to Define

• Militarism: glorification of war and the military

• Conscription: compulsory (mandatory) call up of civilians for military service

• Alliance System: defense agreements among nations

• Entente: friendly understanding between two nations

04/20/23 3

People to Know

• Otto von Bismarck– First Chancellor of the

German Empire– Crafty statesman

04/20/23 4

Otto von Bismarck

Places to Locate

• Morocco

• Alsace-Lorraine

• Bosnia-Herzegovina

04/20/23 5

Section Theme

• Cooperation: European powers form a series of alliances before World War I

04/20/23 6

French Prime Minister Briand

Overview

• In the summer of 1914, assassination sparked the beginning of WWI

• Competition for resources

• Nationalism• Militarism• Alliances

04/20/23 7

European Countries in the War

04/20/23 8

Overview

• WW I was known as the Great War and “the war to end all wars”

• WW I brought significant changes

• Empires toppled and European dominance of the world shaken

04/20/23 9

Funeral of Archduke Ferdinand

European Rivalries

• Since the mid-1800s industrialization and expansion led to intense competition among the countries of Europe– Each sought what was

best for growth

04/20/23 10

European Rivalries

• During the 1800s, Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Italy all sought to acquire new markets and to establish and expand global empires

04/20/23 11

European Rivalries

• Competition turned to hostility as one power crossed another in its efforts to accomplish its goals– Britain wanted to maintain its lifelines to its empire

and ensure no other nation would threaten it– France wanted to add minerals to its economy by

acquiring Morocco

04/20/23 12

European Rivalries

• Competition…– Germany had “eyes’ on the Ottoman Empire– Austria-Hungary wanted land in the Balkans– Russia wanted control of Dardanelles near the black

sea and more influence over Manchuria

04/20/23 13

Nationalism

• Growing spirit of nationalism brought tensions– Germany had united– France wanted Alsace-Lorraine back, lost after

Franco-Prussian War– In Austria-Hungary, Slavic nationalists were attracted

to Pan-Slavism (Slavs needed to develop their culture and become a nation)

• New nation would be carved out of current Austria-Hungary• Neighboring Serbs supported the Slavs in their efforts

04/20/23 14

Slavic Nationalism

• Austria-Hungary was alarmed by Serbian activities in the Balkans and was concerned that a Yugoslav state would harm the security of the empire

• In 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed the Slavic territories of Bosnia-Herzegovina (east of Serbia), once of the Ottoman Empire

04/20/23 15

Slavic Nationalism

• The Serbs were threatened by the Austria-Hungary move into Bosnia-Herzegovina– Serbs called on the Russian for help

(historically their ally)– Russia turned away Serb calls for help

• Russia made secret deal with Austria-Hungary that its war ships could have access to the Dardanelles

• Russia still weak from war with Japan

04/20/23 16

Slavic Nationalism

• Russia turned away Serbia (more)– Russia agreed Austria-Hungary could have

Bosnia-Herzegovina– Russia persuaded Serbs to retrain

themselves– Russia discovered Austria-Hungary made its

move before the final deal could get done• Russia was very angry it had been “duped”

04/20/23 17

Balkan Wars

• The first Balkan War further inflamed the Serbs (1912)– Serbia wanted Albania

as a warm water outlet to the sea

– Serbia was not awarded Albania after the war—resentment grew

04/20/23 18

Balkan Wars

• Second Balkan War, Albania made independent…more frustration for the Serbs– Russia not able to

support the Serbs in either war…Russians were humiliated

• Austria-Hungary worried about its future role in Europe

04/20/23 19

Militarism

• European powers spent much time assessing each other’s military strength. Diplomats maneuvered to win new allies, military leaders argued for increased spending, and all nations but Britain adopted conscription

• With tensions rising, so did militarism, the glorification of war and the military; very much associated with setting state policies

04/20/23 20

Militarism

• Each nation believed that its national security depended entirely on new technology and military readiness

04/20/23 21

Heavy field gun

Militarism

• Each nation’s actions caused a reaction in the other nations– Germans expand their navy– Britain felt threatened as an island nation

04/20/23 22

Alliances

• Along with militarism came a hardening of alliance systems – Defense agreements among nations– Otto von Bismarck created the Three

Emperors League to isolate France• Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia• Didn’t last long because of conflict between Russia

and Austria-Hungary in the balkans

04/20/23 23

Alliances

• With the crumbling of the Three Emperors’ League, Bismarck created a new and stronger alliance with Austria-Hungary

04/20/23 24

Otto von Bismarck

Alliances

• In 1882, Italy joined the Austrian-German alliance—now became the Triple Alliance– Italy wanted allies against France– Italy angry about France occupying Tunis in

Africa– Italy concerned that France would aid the

pope with whom they were having a dispute

• All agreed to aid of the other if threatened

04/20/23 25

Alliances

• France and Russia developed friendlier relations and another alliance began to develop– They developed an alliance to aid each other

if attacked by Germany or Austria-Hungary

• France and Great Britain (1904) developed an alliance called the Entente Cordial—not a full fledged alliance (friendly understanding)

04/20/23 26

Alliances

• These agreements developed into the Triple Entente– Loose alliance between France, Russia, and

Great Britain– Great Britain joined because of the perceived

threat to its naval fleet and its empire

04/20/23 27

Alliances

• The establishment of the Triple Alliance: (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (Russia, France, and Great Britain) threatened the peace of the continent. A minor conflict now had the potential to involve all major European powers in war

04/20/23 28

Alliances

Triple Alliance

• Germany• Austria-Hungary• Italy

Triple Entente

• Russia • France• Great Britain

04/20/23 29

The Spark

Chapter 28

Section 2

04/20/23 30

Terms to Define

• Ultimatum: a set of final conditions that must be accepted to avoid severe consequences

• Mobilization: the gathering and transport of military troops and fighting equipment in preparation for war

04/20/23 31

People to Meet

• Francis Ferdinand

• Gavrilo Princip

• William II

• Nicholas II

04/20/23 32

Section Theme

• Tensions between the two European alliances erupt into a Europe-wide conflict

04/20/23 33

Austrian dead

Overview

• What series of events provided the spark that ignited World War I?– The assassination of Archduke Francis

Ferdinand– Declarations of war– Mobilization of Austria-Hungary, Russia,

Germany, France, and Britain

04/20/23 34

Overview

• Until 1914, a false optimism prevailed in Europe– Most people didn’t think there would be war– Absence of war for long time lulled people into

thinking there couldn’t be one– Social reforms and scientific discoveries

made people think all was well…other ways to solve problems

– War was “triggered” in the Balkans

04/20/23 35

Trouble in the Balkans

• On June 28, 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian emperor, and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo (capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina) by members of a secret Serbian nationalist group

04/20/23 36

Trouble in the Balkans

• Archduke Ferdinand had actually planned on giving more voice to the Slavs

• Voice equal to Austrians and Hungarians

04/20/23 Archduke Ferdinand

Trouble in the Balkans

• Seven assassinations had been placed along the route of their ride in a convertible through the streets– All members of secret Serbia nationalist group

called the Black Hand– The first assassins’ attempt did not work

04/20/23 38

Trouble in the Balkans

• The car made a wrong turn and Gavrilo Princip (gah*VREE*loh*PREEN*seep) shot them

04/20/23 Gavrilo Princip39

German Support

• Although the assassination had not occurred in Serbia, Austria-Hungary held the Serbs responsible. Germany , through Emperor William II, assured Austria-Hungary that it would give its full support to any actions taken against Serbia

• Germany had approved any actions Austria-Hungary wanted to take

04/20/23 40

Declaration of War

• On July 23, Austria-Hungary gave Serbia an ultimatum: to cooperate in an Austro-Hungarian investigation of the assassination or face war. – They were given 48 hours. – Serbian leaders, outraged, rejected demand; Austria-

Hungary responded: declared war on Serbia July 28, 1914

– Both countries issued general orders for mobilization: the gathering of troops and equipment to prepare for war

04/20/23 41

A European War

• Believing falsely the others would back down at the last moment, the major European powers pushed each other to the brink of war

04/20/23 42

Archduke Ferdinand Funeral

A European War

• Russia immediately announce its support for Serbia. On July 30, Czar Nicholas II ordered a general mobilization of his armed forces against both Austria-Hungary and Germany– Russia new it would really lose face with the Slavs if it

backed down again– Russia also had the backing of France

04/20/23 43

A European War

• On July 31, Germany ordered Russia to cancel its mobilization order or face war. After France gave its support to Russia, Germany declared war on both countries

• Britain was undecided for a while and still hoped to use negotiations

• The Germans marched into Luxembourg and demanded passage across Belgium

04/20/23 44

A European War

• Belgium was a neutral country and its neutrality had been guaranteed by an 1839 treaty signed by Great Britain, Russia, France, and Germany– Germany invaded Belgium anyway– The Brits protested the invasion of Belgium– The German Chancellor called the treaty “a

scrap of paper”– The Brits enter the war August 4, 1914

04/20/23 45

A European War

• Most European believed war was a matter of defending their country’s honor or upholding “right against might”

• Few people imagined how long the war would last

• The war seemed to have no clear objective

• The entire world was dragged in

04/20/23 46

The War

Chapter 28

Section 3

04/20/23 47

Section Theme

• Conflict: The European war is transformed into a war that engulfs much of the world; the global conflict directly affects many civilians as well as soldiers

04/20/23 48

Terms to Define

• Belligerent: warring

• Propaganda: ideas or rumors used to harm an opposing cause

• War of attrition: tearing done the other side by constant attacks

• Trench: ditch

• Contraband: prohibited goods

04/20/23 49

People to Meet

• Alfred von Schlieffen

• Helmuth von Moltke

• Joseph Jacques Joffre

• Henri-Philippe Petain

• Winston Churchill

• Woodrow Wilson

04/20/23 50

Places to Locate

• Paris • Tannenberg • Verdun • Gallipoli

04/20/23 51

Overview

• Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria became known as the Central Powers

• Great Britain, France, Russia, Serbia, Belgium, Japan, and Montenegro became known as the Allied Powers (or Allies)

• None of the powers were really ready for what happened

• The Europeans thought the war would be over by Christmas

04/20/23 52

The Schlieffen Plan

• Germany’s invasion of Belgium on August 3 was part of a strategy designed by the German General Alfred von Schlieffen, who believed that the Germans could defeat the French in six weeks and then move on to the Eastern Front and fight against Russian forces– Schlieffen believed the Russians would take

longer to mobilize

04/20/23 53

The Schlieffen Plan

• Germany encountered far more resistance in Belgium than anyone expected; furthermore, Russia mobilized far more quickly that Schlieffen had estimated– The German commander, Helmuth von

Moltke, was surprised by the resistance– Advance was delayed until August 20th

04/20/23 54

The Schieffen Plan

• The German troops were held up further when they met British and French forces in the north of France and in Alsace-Lorraine

04/20/23 55

French shelling of German positions

The Battle of the Marne

• France struggled to recover after their defeat at Alsace-Lorraine– French general Joseph Jacues Joffre pulled

back to Paris to fortify his army’s position– The French counter-attacked and pushed the

Germans back 50 miles (called on French taxis to help move troops)

• This battle was called the Battle of the Marne• The German retreat from the Battle of the Marne

signified the abandonment of the Schlieffen Plan

04/20/23 56

The Battle of the Marne

• The battled signified not only the abandonment of the Schlieffen Plan, but that neither side could win easily

04/20/23 57

A Russian Disaster

• Russia sent troops into battle even before fully mobilized– Russia’s speedy invasion of East Prussia

diverted German troops from the attack against the French and British

– At Tannenberg in present day Poland, the Russians suffered a disastrous defeat

• The Russian army was encircled and destroyed

04/20/23 58

Years of Deadlock

• After the Battle of the Marne, the Germans and the Allies began a series of battles

• Each was attempting to reach the North Sea first: known as “the race to the sea” – Reaching there, one could outflank the other

• In November, the war reached a stalemate• To protect themselves in the war of attrition,

soldiers on both sides dug trenches• Through 1915 casualties mounted

04/20/23 59

Years of Deadlock• All the belligerent (warring) nations now

had to adjust their plans– To produce the weapons, food, ammunition,

etc.– Civilians had to enter the war effort—became

a total war– To raise morale, newspapers gave even the

smallest victories big headlines– Governments used propaganda

(ideas/rumors) to harm an opposing cause—to portray the enemy as beastly and inhuman

04/20/23 60

Trench Warfare

• The war turned into a war of attrition– Each side tries to wear down the other

through constant attacks– Trenches spread 500 miles: Switzerland to

North Sea– In the middle: “no man’s land”– Trench warfare: rats, disease, filth, barbed

wire, death

04/20/23 61

Trench Warfare

• At the Battle of Ypes, the Germans introduced poison gas– Yellow-green chlorine gas– Wind carried gas into French trenches

• Blindness, choking, vomiting, torn lungs, death

04/20/23 62

Verdun and the Somme

• In February 1916, the Germans staged a surprise attack against French forces at Verdun– After 6 bloody months, with the French

holding firm, the Germans finally abandoned the attack

– French General Henri-Philippe Petain (pay*TAN) ralled the troops with “they shall not pass”

– Both sides had half a million casualties

04/20/23 63

Verdun and the Somme

• Later, the British, aided by a small French force, launched a similar attack against the Germans in the Somme River Valley north of France– Terrible and inconclusive

• Germans: 500,000 men• British: 400,000• French: 200,000

– French introduce tank: made little difference—too clumsy, slow at the time—generals didn’t know best use for them

04/20/23 64

The Eastern Front

• Less entrenched, more mobile, no advance– Germany and Austria-Hungary made

determined efforts to remove Russia from the war

04/20/23 65

The Eastern Front

• As the least industrialized of the European powers, Russia did not have the resources and skills to fight a modern conflict– Russians forced to give up huge land mass – Russians suffered huge amounts of casualties– Russians promised access to the Dardanelles

04/20/23 66

The Eastern Front

• Inspired by the agreement for the Dardanelles, the Russians rebuilt their army– Their offensive against Austria-Hungary was

very successful• Took many cities• Lost a million men and most of their supplies• Helped the Western front: Germans had to transfer

men and supplies

04/20/23 67

Gallipoli Campaign

• Winston Churchill, Secretary of the British navy asked, “are there not other alternatives than sending our armies to chew barbed wire in Flanders?”– His plan, take Constantinople, cut supplies to

and defeat Austria-Hungary, help Serbia, and defeat the Ottomans

– Bad planning and the reinforced Turks caused the Allies to withdraw

04/20/23 68

On the Seas

• The British had been dominating the seas—stopped ships from carrying contraband (prohibited goods)

• Great Britain’s blockade of all ports under German control was very effective– Germans calling it “the hunger blockade”– Old saying: “All is fair in love and war”

04/20/23 69

On the Seas

• To wear down British sea power, the Germans introduced submarine warfare

• In 1915 the U-boats began to strike civilian and commercial ships, including the British passenger ship, the Lusitania

04/20/23 70

Submarine Warfare

• Lusitania– About 1200 killed– 128 Americans– Germans argued Lusitania carried weapons– President Woodrow Wilson threatened to

stop diplomatic relations with Germany• Germans responded by ending unrestricted

submarine warfare

04/20/23 71

United States Enters War

• Until this point, Americans were divided about whether the United States should enter the war– Many Irish were anti-British– Many German Americans sided with the

Germans– Others: Brits, Scots, etc., sided with the Allies

• Most Americans believed President Wilson: this was a European conflict

04/20/23 72

United States Enters War

• Germans did not want America to enter the war– But they announced they would sink

merchants ships going to Western or British ports

• Wilson broke diplomatic relations

04/20/23 73

United States Enters War

• The Zimmerman telegram– German foreign minister Arthur Zimmermann

sent telegram to Mexico: Germany would help Mexico regain New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona after a German victory

– Zimmerman proposed Mexico talk to Japan about joining Central Powers alliance

04/20/23 74

United States Enters War

• Zimmermann telegram…more– The British government had intercepted

the telegram and passed it to the American government

– The American newspapers printed the message

– The message heightened the anti-German attitudes in the U.S.

04/20/23 75

United States Enters War

• After German ships sink four American merchants ships, President Wilson asks Congress for a declaration of war and calls upon Americans to help “make the world safe for democracy” American financial aid and military intervention led to an eventual Allied victory

04/20/23 76

The Russian Revolution

Chapter 28

Section 4

04/20/23 77

Read to Find Out

• Main idea: A series of key events led to the Russian Revolution

• Terms to Define: provisional government, communism

• People to Meet: Nicholas II, grigori Rasputin, Alexander Kerensky, Vladimir Ilyinch Lenin, Leon Trotsky

• Places to locate: Petrograd, Siberia, Poland, Ukraine

04/20/23 78

Overview

• Russia devastated by war

• Over one fourth of the soldiers had to pick up weapons of the dead enemy to fight

• Resources went to supply the army

• The situation helped topple the autocratic czar and bring in Communism

04/20/23 79

Fall of the Czar

• Czar Nicholas II and his wife already not popular– Bad policies– Reliance on mystic healer, Grigori Rasputin– Two relatives of the czar assisted in killing

Rasputin in December, 1916– Public anger mounted as a result of shortages – Protesters in Petrogad demanded food and

an end to the war

04/20/23 80

Fall of the Czar

• Ordered to put down the riots, troops fail to fire on protesters– Many troops joined the rebellion

• With the country slipping into chaos, the czar finally abdicated on March 15

• The Mrch revolution cost feww lives and took place without the leadership of it revolutionary intellectuals

04/20/23 81

The Provisional Government

• After taking power, the middle-class provisional government soon had a socialist rival for power, the Petrograd Soviet. The Soviets, led by the Petrograd Soviet, called for immediate peace, the transfer of land to peasants, and the control of factories by workers. As the war went on, the soviet program gained great popularity

04/20/23 82

The Provisional Government

• Middle class government consisted of Duma middle class

• The majority of the Petrograd were Mensheviks—the most radical were the Bolsheviks

• Alexander Kerensky, moderate, moved freely between the two government classes

• The provisional government did not withdraw from the war– It didn’t carry out its promised reforms and lost much

popular support

04/20/23 83

Lenin

• A variety of provisional groups, including the Bolsheviks, vied to fill the power vacuum

• The Mensheviks outnumbered the Bolsheviks, but were not good planners– Believed the masses would create the

revolution, but nothing happened

04/20/23 84

Lenin

• The radical Bolsheviks believed revolution could be introduced by force– They believed a small group of revolutionaries

supported by a small group of peasants could force change

– Lenin urged them to try• Lenin’s brother had been hanged for conspiracy to

kill Alexander II• Lenin dedicated his life to revolution

04/20/23 85

Lenin

• Lenin—more– 1895, government had arrested Lenin and

exiled him to Siberia– After release, he wrote revolutionary articles

from Britain, Germany and Switzerland– Lenin return to Russian to lead the March

1917 revolution• A special train was given him for his travels and

leadership activities

04/20/23 86

Lenin

• Lenin’s slogan was: “peace, land, and bread”

• Promised to withdraw Russian from the war

• Wanted the Soviets to be the only government: ‘all power to the Soviets”

04/20/23 87

The Bolshevik Revolution

• In November 1917,the Bolsheviks overthrew the provisional government in the name of the Soviets: the revolution was largely bloodless– Bolshevik soldiers, sailors and workers took

over the main post office, phone system, power generating plants, and shot a battleships guns at the winter palace of the former czar

04/20/23 88

The Bolshevik Revolution

• Despite the Bolsheviks overthrowing the government, they received votes for only 225 seats in the election for a provisional government—the Social Revolutionaries received 420– By force, the Bolsheviks dissolved the assembly in a

day – Bolsheviks claim power

• End private property, distribute land to peasants, gave workers control of factories and mines

04/20/23 89

The Bolshevik Revolution

• They began calling themselves Communists– Their political viewpoint was based on the

writings of Marx and Lenin, communism– Wanted an international movement to spread

communism around the world

04/20/23 90

Civil War—The Bolsheviks “Bail” in March 1918

• Russia sought peace with Germany by giving up much western territory and a third of it population

• The new Bolshevik government “bails” itself out of the war in March, 1918, and moves toward their international communistic conquests

04/20/23 91

Civil War: Reds and Whites

• During the early months of 1918, Russia also slipped into a civil war between the Communists (the Reds) ad their political opponents (the whites). During the upheaval, the Communists imposed a policy called “war communism” and used terror as a weapon against their opponents– Communist leaders, Leon Trotsky, used force

and education to foster loyalty of communists

04/20/23 92

Civil War: Reds and Whites

• The Whites promised to defeat the Reds and get Russian back into the war– Received support from the Allies, including the United

States– Did not help the Whites and stirred distrust against

the West– Three grim years of revolution

• Whites suffered from lack of unity, were outnumbered, etc. The White armies admitted defeat in 1921—Lenin extended communism throughout the war-ravaged country

04/20/23 93

Peace at Last

Chapter 28

Section 5

04/20/23 94

Read to Find Out

• Ultimately, the Treaty of Versailles was unsuccessful

• Terms to Define: convoy, armistice, reparation, mandate, cordon sanitaire

• People to Meet: T.E. Lawrence, Ferdinand Foch, Woodrow Wilson, georges Clemanceau, Davis Lloyd George, Vittorio Orlando

• Places to Locate: Fiume

04/20/23 95

Overview

• Russia’s withdrawal from the war was offset by the United States entering– Here come “the Yanks”– Boosted Allied morale and provided much

need resources– Took time to build American army, but navy

was immediate help• Admiral William S. Sims introduced the concept of

a convoy—the protection of ships from German U-boats

04/20/23 96

Overview--more

• Convoy—– Clusters of merchant ships were surrounded

by war ships

• Increased use of mines and the airplane change the way the war was fought

04/20/23 97

Peace at Last: Turning the Tide

• Until the Americans arrived, the fighting along the trenches on the Western Front continued without lasting gains on either side

• Both British and Germans were reaching the end of their reserves

04/20/23 98

Turning the Tide: Total War

• The demands of large-scale war required the efficient use of human and natural resources– Governments carried out the principle of total war,

directing all people and resources to the war effort– Governments recruited, drafted, trained, and supplied

large armies– Governments borrowed money, raised taxes, placed

price controls on items, banned strikes, rationed food, and censored the press in an effort to control public opinion and keep morale high

04/20/23 99

Turning the Tide: Total War

• Women play important part in the war– Took men’s placing in factories making

munitions and supplies– Became nurses and joined the armed forces– Work proved the abilities of women– Although many had to leave those jobs after

the war, the point was made– Their contributions boosted self confidence in

the long term, and many countries after the war were ready to grant the woman’s vote

04/20/23 100

Turning the Tide: Global War

• European imperialist nations obtained needed resources from empires

• In Asia and Africa, allied forces won victories that took control of German colonies

• Asians and Africans expecting citizenship for their help were disappointed

04/20/23 101

Turning the Tide: Global War

• Arabs help Allies defeat the Ottoman Turks– Arabs seeking freedom– T.E. Lawrence, British officer, harassed Turks

and provided intelligence information to Allies which led to downfall of Turks

– Unknown to the Arabs, the British and French had made plans in the 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement to divide the defeated Ottoman Empire among themselves

04/20/23 102

Peace at Last: End of Fighting

• Allied breakthrough comes July 1918– French General Ferdinand Foch stops

German offensive 40 miles from Paris– With American forces now in place, the Allies

launch a counter attack on the Germans and push them back to the German border

– In September, German generals tell the Kaiser the Central Powers can’t win the war

04/20/23 103

Turning the Tide: End of fighting

• The collapse of other Central Powers follows– Ottoman Turks asked for peace after an Allied

drive through the Balkans– Austro-Hungarian military collapses after their

defeat in Northern Italy– Although the German army stood firm, morale

in Germany gave way. On November 11, the Germans signed an armistice (agreement) to end the fighting

04/20/23 104

Effects of the War

• The war shattered aristocratic order and increased social and political instability– Nine million soldiers and thirteen million civilians – Mass deaths or killings of (for example) the

Armenians by the Turks in 1915– Boundaries redrawn in parts of the world

• Armenian soldiers removed from ranks of Turks and deported them to labor camps

• Roped civilians together and sent them into desert • One million Armenians died

04/20/23 105

Restoring the Peace

• The hopes of many Europeans and North Americans focused on United States President Woodrow Wilson and his fourteen points peace plan– Freedom on the high seas and of trade– Self rule for all nations– Establish “general assembly of nations” to

work out problems

04/20/23 106

Restoring the Peace

• Wilson’s 14 points—more– Limitations on arms– An end to all secret alliances– No annexations, no contributions, and no

punitive damages

• Germany believed the 14 points were the basis of peace negotiations—a framework– Great Britain and France had issues with the

proposal

04/20/23 107

Restoring the Peace

• Objections by Great Britain and France– Brits: objected to open high seas– French: Wanted the Germans to pay

reparations—payments for damages

04/20/23 108

Restoring the Peace: The Paris Peace Conference

• In January 1919, delegates of 27 nations met to work out the peace accords: most decisions made by these men – President Wilson– Georges Clemenceau– David Lloyd George– Vittorio Orlando

04/20/23 109

Restoring the Peace: The Paris Peace Conference

• There was a large gap between the idealistic goals of Wilson and the nationalistic goals of the French, British, and Italian leaders. Wilson gave in on key points to ensure acceptance of the League of Nations

04/20/23 110

Restoring the Peace: The Treaty of Versailles

• The Treaty of Versailles spelled out the details of the Allied settlement with Germany– Lloyd George and Clemenceau prevailed in their goal

to punish Germany• Reduced the size of Germany; return Alsace-Lorriane • Reduced the army• Banned conscription and manufacture of major war weapons • France would control the coal rich Saar Basin, while Allies

would occupy the Rhineland

04/20/23 111

Restoring the Peace: The Treaty of Versailles

• Treaty—more– The Allies would establish an independent

Poland out of lands held by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia

– Stripped Germany of its overseas colonies• Great Britain and France divided the African

colonies• Australia and New Zealand split the Pacific islands

south of equator• Japan took pacific islands north of equator

04/20/23 112

Restoring the Peace: The Treaty of Versailles

• Treaty—more– France and Great Britain wanted Germany to

accept full responsibility for the war• Pay full reparations

– The Allies signed the agreement on June 28, 1919

• Only four of Wilson’s points were in tact: the most important was the Covenant of the League of Nations

04/20/23 113

Restoring the Peace: Other Settlements

• The Allied Powers signed separate peace agreements with Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Turkey with the greatest attention given to territorial matters: New nations emerged in Eastern Europe from the ashes of the old German, Russian, and Austro-Hungarian empires. The Allies regarded these countries as a quarantine line (cordon sanitaire) against potential threats from Russia or Germany. In the Middle East, Great Britain and France divided what was left of the Ottoman empire

04/20/23 114

Restoring the Peace: Other Settlements

• Ottoman Empire divided—– The Arabs did not receive the independence

that Great Britain had promised• Palestine Transjordan and Iraq became British

mandates• Lebanon and Syria became French mandates

04/20/23 115

Bitter Fruits

• A general disillusionment set in after the war: slogans rang hollow– “the war to end all wars”– “To make the world safer for democracy”

• Many people found themselves to be minorities within new nations

• Many thought they would be accepted citizenship in independent nations

• Those defeated were embittered by loss of territory and prestige

04/20/23 116

Bitter Fruits

• The Germans felt a deep sense of resentment– The provisions of the treaty left Germany

weakened, humiliated, and deprived of great power status

– Two decades later, this resentment would burst forward in greater resentment

04/20/23 117