world religions paper

Running head: WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER 1

World Religions Paper

Susan Kay Purnell

Webster University

WORLD RELIGIONS PAPER 2

Introduction

There are many religions in our world from which to choose. However, most of us, at least in

the early stages of our lives, do not choose religion but have one conferred upon us. Religions can be

examined in a variety of ways. Christianity, and it's basic tenets, is familiar to most of us in the United

States having been ingrained into our culture as the religion of the majority population (dominant

culture). Following is an examination of various world religions that are not as familiar to us. These

can be explored by looking at these religions in terms of their history, basic belief system and the

people who practice them.

Hinduism

Prior to writing this paper, the only real knowledge I had about Hinduism was that it originated

in India and was the source for my own religion, Buddhism. Hinduism is possibly the oldest and most

complex of all the religions of the world (Hopfe, 1991). “It is probably the most tolerant of all

religions” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 86). “Unlike most of the other major religions of the world, Hinduism has

no identifiable founder” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 86). Hinduism is an extremely difficult religion to try to

define for a few reasons. Being one of the oldest religions practiced by so many people throughout

time and also the potential for certain key terms and concepts to get lost in translation makes the

attempt to define it destined to be an oversimplification, at best. However, for the purposes of this

paper, an attempt to outline the basics will be made. There are many texts that make up Hindu

scripture, but the most influential is the Bhagavad-Gita (Velasquez, 1991). The Bhagavad-Gita

contains the basic principals and concepts of Hinduism (Velasquez, 1991).

One concept common to all expressions of Hinduism is the oneness of reality. This

oneness is the absolute, or Brahman, which the mind can never fully grasp or words

express. Only Brahman is real; everything else is an illusory manifestation of it. A

correlative belief is the concept of atman, or no self. What we commonly call I or the


self is an illusion, for each true self is one with Brahman. When we realize this unity

with the absolute, we realize our true destiny. (Velasquez, 1991, p. 164)

There are four primary values that are common to Hindu thought (Velasquez, 1991). They are

wealth, pleasure, duty and enlightenment. Wealth and pleasure are self-explanatory and in Hinduism,

viewed as worldly values that when kept in check, are good. Duty is described as a spiritual value

similar to virtues such as patience, sincerity, fairness, love and honesty. Having grown up Buddhist, I

am familiar with the concept of enlightenment. Enlightenment is the attainment of the highest spiritual

realm where one is no longer subjected to the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. I say subjected because

this cycle is viewed as worldly suffering. Karma is the law of sowing and reaping, also familiar to me

because of my Buddhist upbringing. Basically karma is the concept that if you do bad things, bad

things will happen and you are reborn into a existence of suffering. Whereas, if you do good things,

good things will happen and you will be reborn into a better life and work towards achieving

enlightenment.

Hindus can devote themselves to one or more of the three major gods: Brahma, the creator;

Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva, the destroyer. Hindus can also devote themselves to “the so-called

way of knowledge (Jnana Marga)” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 115). These are made of of the Samkhya System,

the Yoga System, the Mimansa System, the Vaisheshika System, the Nyaya System, and the Vedanta

System. Hinduism is most popular in India, where it orginated.

Islam

Islam is the youngest of the world's major religions, as well as one of the largest. “It is also the

dominant religion of many of the so-called Third World nations in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia”

(Hopfe, 1991, p. 400). Islam is monotheistic, with Allah, the one and only G-d. In Islam, Allah made

himself known to the prophet Muhammad. Muslims believe there is only one life and how that life is

lived will determine how believers will spend eternity.


The founder of Islam, Muhammad, was prone to religious revelations that came in the form of

seizures and fits in his sleep. “Muhammad memorized the contents of these divine messages and

eventually they were committed to writing, to become the scriptures of Islam, called the Quran”

(Hopfe, 1991, p. 404). An interesting difference between the monotheistic religions such as Judaism

and Christianity to that of Islam is the literal interpretation of the scripture, or rather the lack of

interpretation. Jews and Christians subject their scriptures to scrutiny and they are considered an

interpretation of the word of G-d, whereby the Quran is regarded by Muslims as the actual word of G-

d, with Muhammad having just transcribed it all.

The Mosque is the place of worship for Muslims, although they are free to worship anywhere.

The worship day for Muslims is Friday. There are five requirements to be a good Muslim. These are

referred to as “the five pillars of Islam” (Hopfe, 1991).

1. Repetition of the Creed. The most common religious act of the Muslim is the frequent

repetition of the creed of Islam...

2. Daily Prayer. In addition to the recitation of the creed, the Muslim is expected to pray

daily...

3. Almsgiving. Proper Muslims are expected to share their possessions with the poor of

the community...

4. Fasting. Islam requires the longest and most stringent fast of all. Each year during the

entire month of Ramadan, Muslims are expected to abstain from all food, drink,

smoking, and sexual relations during the daylight hours.

5. Pilgrimage. It has become a requirement for every Muslim who can afford the trip to

make the pilgrimage to Mecca and venerate the sacred shrines of Islam. The pilgrimage

takes place during a special month in the Muslim calendar called the dhul-Hijah (Hopfe,

1991, pp. 413-416).


Two main factions within Islam are the Sunnis and the Shi'ites. The Sunnis are the orthodox

branch of Islam and follow the religion in the most literal and observant fashion. The Shi'ites

“represents a basic rupture in the body of this religion” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 423). The discourse began

with a disagreement of leadership, then progressed to a dispute of theology.

“Islam is a universal religion. Though it arose in the Arab world, it recognizes no national

barriers and knows no distinction among races. All people are the children of Allah and all are

accepted as Muslims (Hopfe, 1991, p. 420).

Taoism

Taoism can be defined as a philosophy of nature and system of magical practices, as well as a

religion. The name, Taoism, comes from the book Tao Te Ching. A loose translation is, “the way” or

the “way of nature” (Hopfe, 1991). “In modern China Taoism is mainly associated with charms,

exorcisms, and magical attempts to prolong life” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 211). The founder of Taoism is

believed to be Lao-tzu who lived in China in the sixth century. Lao-tzu was a the keeper of royal

archives during the Chou Dynasty. He became dissatisfied with his position and life and retired. Lao-

tzu traveled west and when he came to a pass in the mountains at the northwest boundary of China, he

attempted to leave the country. A guard recognized him and would not allow him to leave before first

writing the “sum of his wisdom” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 212). This became the Tao Te Ching and became the

“most influential book in Chinese literature, except for the Analects of Confucius” (Hopfe, 1991, p.

212). The above story has been the subject of much debate. The general consensus is that the book

evolved over time. “The theme of the Tao Te Ching is that all human achievements are folly, especially

elaborate government” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 212). In the fourth century, a disciple of Lao-tzu, Chuang-tzu

tried to convince the Chinese to accept Lao-tzu over Confucius as their teacher and put together a book

comprised of his writings of the practice of Taoism.

The teachings of early Taoism as found in these books center around the following


themes:

1. The basic unity behind the universe is a mysterious and undefinable force called the Tao.

Usually the word Tao is defined as “the way,” and it may be best understood in terms of “the

way of the universe” or perhaps “nature's way.” Yet the true Tao is impossible to define...

2. Life is the greatest of all possessions. Because of their belief in the Tao as the source of all

life and their belief in the folly of achievement, the early Taoist philosophers taught that life

itself was the greatest of possessions; all others were doomed to decay. Fame, wealth, power,

and education were mere flitting, transient illusions. If people are not interested in the

acquisition of goods, power, or education, then they can give their full attention to the

enrichment of their own lives. This led the Taoists to search for a way to lengthen life, and

eventually they employed various magical practices in an attempt to prolong and enrich life.

3. Life is to be lived simply. Believing that all life originated from the Tao, which would

ultimately destroy peoples' achievements, the early Taoists turned their backs upon civilization

with all its ills and benefits and sought to live as simply as possible. The Taoist philosophers

may have carried this dream to its greatest extreme. They considered that education, wealth,

power, and family ties were all worthless and in fact impediments to living...

4. Pomp and glory are to be despised. Because the Taoists were concerned with living

according to the path of nature (i.e., as simply as possible), they despised the fame, pomp, and

glory that most people seek. They saw such things as the cause of strife and discord in society.

If each person were only content to live as the Tao intended, without seeking to rise above other

people, then life would be as it was intended. This attitude also contained a condemnation of

pride. It was a Chinese teaching, perhaps older than Taoism, that pride invited destruction, that

the tree that stood taller than its neighbors would be the first felled by the woodsman.

Therefore, it is better to be humble, small, or imperfect than to stand out from all the rest


(Hopfe, 1991, pp. 213-216).

“The early Taoists also seem to have had little concern for life after death” (Hopfe, 217). There

is a story about Chuang-tzu after his wife died. His disciples admonished him for not properly grieving

her death. He was in fact acting in a celebratory fashion. Chuang-tzu went on to explain that upon

reflecting on her existence prior to her birth, her life, and her death and likened the process to the

changing of the seasons. He went on to say that to mourn with crying would display that he was

ignorant to that natural process. “In general, the Taoists were concerned about the quality of life as it is

lived on a day-to-day basis, without much interest in the heavens, the gods, rituals, or life after death”

(Hopfe, 1991, p. 217).

Confucianism

“Even though Confucius was not an atheist or anti-religious, no evidence suggests that he was

interested in starting a religion. Rather, he developed a system of ethics, a theory of government, and a

set of personal and social goals that has deeply influenced the Chinese for almost twenty-five

centuries” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 224-225). “The earliest and most authentic material about Confucius is the

Analects of Confucius, a collection of his teachings compiled about seventy years after his death

(Hopfe, 1991, p. 223).

There were central themes to the teaching of Confucius. One is the concept of li. This can be

described as “propriety,” “rites,” “ceremonies,” or “courtesy” (Hopfe, 1991). The main current

throughout his teachings is the idea of social order.

According to Confucius, there were five basic relationships in life. If li were present in

these relationships throughout society, the social order would be ideal. These five relationships

are as follows:

1. Father to son. There should be kindness in the father and filial piety in the son.

2. Elder brother to younger brother. There should be gentility in the elder brother and


humility in the younger.

3. Husband to wife. There should be righteous behavior in the husband and obedience in

the wife.

4. Elder to junior. There should be consideration among the elders and deference among

the juniors.

5. Ruler to subject. There should be benevolence among the rulers and loyalty among the

subjects (Hopfe, 1991, pp. 225-226).

“The inward expression of Confucian ideals was called jen. Jen is frequently translated “love,”

“goodness,” or “human-heartedness” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 226). “Confucius taught that society was best

served when people acted toward each other with reciprocity (shu)...If the principles of li and jen were

present and operative in a person, the end product would be the Confucian goal, the superior human

being (Hopfe, 1991, p. 226).

Both Taoism and Confucianism are religions that have fallen out of favor in modern China.

They are generally regarded more as religions of the past that have current value for their history and

also as philosophies that greatly influenced life in China and helped shape that culture.

Buddhism

“Buddhism began in India in the sixth century B.C. as another interpretation of the Hindu

religious system” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 152). The missionary aspect of Buddhism made it different and

unusual for any type of Hinduism. While Buddhism originated in India, it hardly exists there now and

instead became popular in Asian countries as a result of its missionary efforts.

Siddhartha Gautama is the founder of Buddhism. Siddhartha was born into a privileged family

and his father attempted to shelter him from unpleasantness. However, despite his father's efforts, he

saw the suffering in the world around him. Siddhartha became disenchanted with his life of leisure and

decided to leave and lead a life of asceticism. This life of deprivation and discomfort did not lead to


the enlightenment that Siddhartha was seeking. After collapsing into a stream as a result of his

starvation, Siddhartha came to the conclusion his ascetic ways were not leading to enlightenment, he

ate a meal. Once finished, he sat under a fig or bo tree and there became enlightened with the

knowledge of the cycle of birth and death and how earthly desires cause karma. Once free of desire,

Siddhartha was able to attain enlightenment. One of his first sermons preached that either extreme,

indulgence or deprivation, was the correct way of life. He preached that one should “live in the middle

way” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 154).

A major tenet of Buddhism are the Four Noble Truths:

First, from birth to death every aspect of our lives that is tied to our individuality inevitably

involves suffering (although it may be temporarily avoided with youth, health, and riches).

Second, we suffer because we desire or crave things: Pleasure, life, power. Our desires keep us

returning to this transient world through successive “rebirths.” The more we try to satisfy our

cravings, the worse they become, making us suffer even more. Third, release from suffering

can only be gained by putting an end to our craving. Finally, craving can only be ended by

following the Noble Eightfold Path (Velasquez, 1991, p. 92).

“An early teaching of Buddhism setting forth the principles to be observed in order to attain

emancipation. They are: (1) right views, (2) right thinking, (3) right speech, (4) right action, (5) right

way of life, (6) right endeavor, (7) right mindfulness and (8) right meditation (NSIC, 1983, p. 78).

There are many sects of Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism is a conservative sect practiced

mostly in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia (Hopfe, 1991). Mahayana Buddhism became popular in the

Asian nations such as China, Korea, Japan, Mongolia and Tibet as it appealed to those not interested in

such an orthodox interpretation and observance of Buddhism. Because of this, it “became one of the

world's most successful missionary religions” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 163). Within Mahayana Buddhism are

more sects: the Pure Land Sect (Ching-t'u, Jodo); the Intuitive Sects (Ch'an, Zen); the Rationalist Sect


(T'ien-t'ai, Tendai); and the Sociopolitical Sect (Nichiren) (Hopfe, 1991). Nichiren Buddhism is the

sect of Buddhism into which I was born and raised. The Lotus Sutra is the scripture and the main goal

is to achieve enlightenment and to promote world peace. Tibetan Buddhism is also a sect in and of

itself practiced with its own distinct features in Tibet.

Baha'i

Baha'i grew out of a Shi'ite sect of Islam. Baha'i believes that all religions come from one

origin, that all the prophets received a message from G-d and that religion must be in balance with

science and education to bring about peace. Baha'i also believes in the equality of races and sexes.

The Shi-ites believed that there were twelve descendants of Ali, the son-in-law and successor to

Muhammad (Hopfe, 1991). “In 1844, a Shi'ite Muslim named Ali Muhammad declared that he was the

promised twelfth imam and called himself Bab-ub-Din (“the gate of faith”) (Hopfe, p. 442). The Bab

was executed in 1850 as a result of religious and political pressure in Persia. Bab's followers, his

disciple, Husayn Ali who assumed the name Bahaullah, and those Babis (followers of Bab) who

accepted him and his teachings became the Baha'is (Hopfe, 1991). The Baha'is were persecuted for

their beliefs and were forced from city to city and then imprisoned in Palestine, in the Turkish city of

Acca. The leadership of Baha'is passed to the son of Bahaullah, then to that son's grandson. By 1957,

the Baha'i came to be led by an elected body of Baha'is from around the world. The Baha'i do not hold

the Quran as the doctrine that must be adhered to as do the Shi'ite. The core belief is that all religions

have the same source (Hopfe, 1991). “All of humankind, all races, all sexes, and all religious truths,

are the work of the one G-d” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 444). An abridged version of their doctrines follows.

1. The oneness of the entire human race is the pivotal principle and fundamental doctrine

of the faith. This principal is essential to Baha'i. It is the basis for most of its teachings

and practices.

2. There must be an independent search after truth, unfettered by superstition or tradition.


Anyone who wishes to be a Baha'i must be willing to search out the truth of G-d without

relying on the prophets and the traditions of the past...

3. There is a basic unity of all religions...

4. All forms of prejudice, whether religious, racial, class, or national, are condemned...

5. Harmony must exist between religion and science...

6. There is equality of men and women...

7. Compulsory education must prevail...Bahaullah and Abdul Baha preached that universal

education was a necessary condition for world peace and stability...

8. Baha'i teaches that there should be a universal language...Abdul Baha advocated the

adoption of Esperanto as the universal language.

9. Extremes of wealth and poverty should be abolished...

10. A world tribunal for the adjudication of disputes among nations should be instituted...

11. Work performed in the spirit of service should be exalted to the rank of worship...a good

society is one in which everyone works at some task. There are no loafers or idlers.

12. Justice should be glorified as the ruling principle in human society and religion, for the

protection of all peoples and nations.

13. Finally, as a capstone to all the teachings of Baha'i, the establishment of a permanent

and universal peace should be the supreme goal of humankind9 (Hopfe, 1991, pp. 444-

447).

The Baha'i believe “heaven and hell are not places but conditions of the soul” (Hopfe, 1991, p.

447). They also believe that there is not a Satan figure as G-d is everything and that evil is “only the

absence of good” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 447).

The Baha'i are required to pray daily and to fast for one in nineteen months in their religious

calendar. They also participate in celebratory feasts. Monogamy is the rule of marriage for Baha'is and


they must obtain the consent of both sets of parents. Divorce is allowed under special circumstances,

but there is a one-year waiting period. If the couple has children, the best possible education is

required to be provided. The Baha'is are not allowed to partake in alcohol and drugs. The Baha'i

worship simply in the homes of members and without ritual. There is no sermon and no offering.

There are three levels of organization. The local community spiritual assembly, the national assembly

and the Universal House of Justice, “a nine-member body elected by members of the national spiritual

assemblies throughout the world” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 450). Baha'i is practiced around the world, but is a

relatively small religion with less than five million followers as of 1991.

Judaism

Judaism, as with all the religions in this paper, cannot be justly defined in the scope of this

paper. However, there are some basic pillars that make up the structure of the religion. The patriarchs

are important in that Judaism and its beliefs and practices are described historically. Abraham

communicated with and entered a covenant with G-d. “Abraham was promised that he would become

the father of a great nation, would possess a land, and would become a blessing to all people if he

would be faithful to his part of the covenant” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 297).

The Exodus is an important event in Judaism. The Jews were bound in slavery in Egypt and G-

d acted on their behalf and directed Moses to deliver them to freedom. Following this, G-d spoke to

Moses and gave him ten laws (the Ten Commandments).

They may be summarized as follows:

1. I am the Lord your God, who has brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house

of bondage. You shall have no other gods before me.

2. You shall not make any graven image.

3. You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain.

4. Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy.


5. Honor your father and your mother.

6. You shall not kill.

7. You shall not commit adultery.

8. You shall not steal.

9. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.

10. You shall not covet your neighbor's property.6 (Hopfe, 1991, p. 301)

Some practices of note that separate Jews from other religion are dietary restrictions and

circumcision. Observation of the Sabbath from sundown Friday to sundown Saturday) by not

participating in work is also a distinction.

The Torah is the main religious text (known also as the Old Testament as it relates to the

Christian bible). Also important are the Mishnah and the Talmud. An interesting facet of Judaism is

mysticism. “The concern for angels, demons, magical incantations, charms, witches, ghouls,

interpretation of dreams, the date of the coming of the Messiah, numerology, and the name of God have

been lumped together under the heading Cabala (tradition)” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 313). The Zohar is a

“compilation of cabalistic material” (Hopfe, 1991, p. 313). The Zohar, with it's mystical theme, was an

important book for Jews experiencing hardships such as persecution and exile in the fifteenth century.

There are three main groups within Judaism. These are Orthodox, Conservative and Reform

and can be described simplistically as going from the strictest observance to the most lenient,

respectively.

Zionism refers to the desire of Jews and the movement towards establishing an independent

Jewish state. Israel was established in Palestine, much to the dissatisfaction and protest of the native

populations. These populations worked towards restricting immigration and setting quotas limiting

said immigration. The quota was in place at the worst possible time, the Nazi Holocaust. The

Holocaust is an important part of Jewish history, but will not be covered due to the limitations of space


in this paper and also because it is a commonly known part of history. An important fact to note,

however, was that “the holocaust reduced the world population of Jews by as much as one-third”

(Hopfe, 1991, p. 321).

Conclusion

My own personal experiences are with Buddhism and Judaism, although as someone who grew

up in the United States, there was incidental and at times, overt exposure to Christianity as the religion

of the dominant culture. I feel fortunate to have grown up as a Buddhist. It was a religion of tolerance,

simple and easy understand concepts (cause and effect, karma). As an adult, I converted to Judaism,

although I did not renounce Buddhism. This was an easy transition as in the Western sense, Buddhism

is closer to the practice of a philosophy than that of a religion. There was no conflict for me to be able

to accept G-d as a universal being capable of putting into universal forces into motion. As a reform

Jew, I am able to have this interpretation of the Torah and accept it's stories as just that, stories based

loosely on some facts. My personal concerns with Judaism before my conversion was the role of

women. My own Rabbi put me in touch with a female Rabbi that had explanations and interpretations

that answered my questions and concerns. This paper has afforded me the opportunity to learn about

other religions in more specific detail and during a time of intense introspection as is urged of us in our

counseling program. As a result, I have learned new information regarding the religion of others, and

most importantly, that which could pertain to future clients.


References

Hopfe, L. M. (1991, 1987, 1983, 1979, 1976). Religions of the World. New York, New York:

Macmillan Publishing Company.

Nichiren Shoshu International Center (1983). A Dictionary of Buddhist Terms and Concepts.

Sendagaya, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo, Japan: Komiyama Printing Co., Ltd.

Velasquez, M. (1991, 1988, 1983, 1980). Philosophy, a text with readings. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth

Publishing Company.

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