WORKPLACE MOTIVATION & INDIVIDUAL

KINDS OF MOTIVATION

Positivevs Negative

KINDS OF MOTIVATION

Internal vs External

KINDS OF MOTIVATION

Basic vs learned

FACTORS INFLUENCING INDIVIDUAL MOTIVATION

1. Individual Needs2. Job Design3. Environment

MOTIVATION THEORIES

Early Ideas on Work Motivation

Scientific management and work of F.W Tylor

Hawthorne Experiment & human relation approach

Content TheoriesEmphasis on what motivates individual

Maslow Alderfer Herzberg McClelland

Process TheoriesEmphasis on actual process of

MotivationExpectancy Theory Equity Theory Goal Theory Attribution Theory

CONTENT THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Major content theories of motivation include:

■ Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model;■ Alderfer’s modified need hierarchy model;■ Herzberg’s two-factor theory;■ McClelland’s achievement motivation theory

10STUDY QUESTION : WHAT DO THE CONTENT THEORIES SUGGEST ABOUT INDIVIDUAL NEEDS AND MOTIVATION?

Acquired needs theory. Need for achievement (nAch).

The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.

Need for affiliation (nAff). The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with

others. Need for power (nPower).

The desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY

Based on Maslow’s theory, once lower-level needs have been satisfied (say at the physiological and safety levels), giving more of the same does not provide motivation. Individuals advance up the hierarchy as each lower-level need becomes satisfied. Therefore, to provide motivation for a change in behaviour, the manager must direct attention to the next higher level of needs (in this case, love or social needs) that seek satisfaction.

ALDERFER’S MODIFIED NEED HIERARCHY MODEL (ERG THEORY)

Existence needs are concerned with sustaining human existence and survivalRelatedness needs are concerned with relationships to the social environment and cover love or belonging, affiliation and meaningful interpersonal relationships of a safety or esteem nature.Growth needs are concerned with the development of potential and cover self-esteem and self-actualisation.

HERZBERG’S WORK

Herzberg’s work has had a considerable effect on the rewards and remuneration packages offered by corporations. Increasingly, there is a trend towards ‘cafeteria’ benefits in which people can choose from a range of options. In effect, they can select the elements they recognise as providing their own motivation to work. Similarly, the current emphasis on self-development, career management and self-managed learning can be seen as having evolved from Herzberg’s insights.Crainer, S. and Dearlove, D. (eds) Financial Times and book of Management, second edition, Financial Times Prentice Hall (2001), p. 361.

MCCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY

McClelland’s work originated from investigations into the relationship between hunger needsand the extent to which imagery of food dominated thought processes. From subsequent research McClelland identified four main arousal-based, and socially developed, motives:

■ the Achievement motive;■ the Power motive;■ the Affiliative motive;■ the Avoidance motive

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Process theories, or extrinsic theories, attempt to identify the relationships among the dynamic variables that make up motivation and the actions required to influence behavior and actions.

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

expectancy-based models – Vroom, and Porter and Lawler; Equity Theory – Adams; Goal Theory – Locke; Attribution Theory – Heider And Kelley

EXPECTANCY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

The underlying basis of expectancy theory is that people are influenced by the expectedresults of their actions. Motivation is a function of the relationship between:

1- effort expended and perceived level of performance; and2-the expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) will be related to performance.

There must also be:

3- the expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) are available

Expectancy theory hypothesises that individuals change their behaviour according to their anticipated satisfaction in achieving certain goals

(Vroom, 1964)

VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORYExpectancy theories of motivation

Vroom was the first person to propose an expectancy theory aimed specifically at work motivation. His model is based on three key variables: valence, instrumentality and expectancy (VIE theory or expectancy/valence theory). The theory is founded on the idea that people prefer certain outcomes from their behaviour over others. They anticipate feelings of satisfaction should the preferred outcome be achieved.

valenceThe feeling about specific outcomes is termed valence

instrumentalityDistinction between first-level outcomes and second-level outcomes.

expectancyPeople develop a perception of the degree of probability that the choice of a particular action will actually lead to the desired outcome.

THE PORTER AND LAWLER EXPECTANCY MODEL

Expectancy theories of motivation

Porter and Lawler see motivation, satisfaction and performance as separate variables and attempt to explain the complex relationships among them. Their model recognises that job satisfaction is more dependent upon performance, than performance is upon satisfaction.

Expectancy theories of motivation

THE PORTER AND LAWLER EXPECTANCY MODEL

Source: From Porter, L. W. and Lawler, E. E. Managerial Attitudes and Performance (1968), p. 165. Copyright © 1968 Richard D. Irwin Inc. Reproduced with permission from the McGraw-Hill Companies.

IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS OF EXPECTANCY THEORIES

■ Use rewards appropriate in terms of individual performance■ Attempt to establish clear relationships between effort–performance and rewards, asperceived by the individual.

■ Establish clear procedures for the evaluation of individual levels of performance.■ Pay attention to intervening variables such as abilities and traits, role perceptions, organisational procedures and support facilities■ Minimise undesirable outcomes which may be perceived to result from a high level of performance, such as industrial accidents or sanctions from co-workers, or to result despite a high level of performance, such as short-time working or layoffs.

25STUDY QUESTION : WHAT DO THE PROCESS THEORIES SUGGEST ABOUT INDIVIDUAL MOTIVATION?

A person’s motivation is a multiplicative function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (M = E x I x V).

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATIONEQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Equity theory focuses on people’s feelings of how fairly they have been treated in comparison with the treatment received by others. It is based on exchange theory. Social relationships involve an exchange process

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATIONGOAL THEORY

Locke subsequently pointed out that ‘goal-setting is more appropriately viewed as a motivational technique rather than as a formal theory of motivation’

Values Emotions & Desires Goals Responses and

Work BehaviorConsequences or Feedback

Goal Difficulty

Level of Commitment

The combination of goal difficulty and the extent of the person’s commitment to achievingthe goal regulates the level of effort expended

28STUDY QUESTION : WHAT ARE REINFORCEMENT THEORIES AND HOW ARE THEY LINKED TO MOTIVATION?

Reinforcement. The administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior. Proper management of reinforcement can change the direction,

level, and persistence of an individual’s behavior.

29STUDY QUESTION : WHAT ARE REINFORCEMENT THEORIES AND HOW ARE THEY LINKED TO MOTIVATION?

30STUDY QUESTION : WHAT ARE REINFORCEMENT THEORIES AND HOW ARE THEY LINKED TO MOTIVATION?

Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod). The systematic reinforcement of desirable work behavior

and the non-reinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior.

Uses four basic strategies: Positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement. Punishment. Extinction.

READING

Motivation Techniques & Tools –

CHAPTER 7 WORK MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION – Management & Organizational Behavior 9th Edition

CHAPTER 12 WORK MOTIVATION & REWARDS – Mullin 7th Edition

ESSAY – WORD LIMIT 2000 WORDS

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Harvard referencing