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CURRICULAR REFORM PART TWO

The extent and impact of higher education curricular reform across Europe

Final report to the Directorate-General for Education and Culture of the European Commission

Contract: 2006 – 1394 / 001 – 001 S02-81AWB Part Two: Summaries of national reports on curriculum reform in 32 European Countries

This study was requested by the European Commission, Directorate‐General Education and Culture. This report does not reflect the views of the European Commission. The interpretations and opinions contained in it are solely those of the authors Center for Higher Education Policy Studies (CHEPS) University of Twente P.O. Box 217 7500 AE Enschede The Netherlands T +31 – 53 – 489 3263 F +31 – 53 – 434 0392 W www.utwente.nl/cheps E [email protected]

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mailto:[email protected]

Table of Contents The National Report Template ______________________________________________________5

Surveys

Austria ____________________________________________________________________11

Belgium (French Community) __________________________________________________19

Belgium (Flanders) ___________________________________________________________25

Bulgaria ___________________________________________________________________31

Croatia ____________________________________________________________________39

Cyprus ____________________________________________________________________45

Czech Republic ______________________________________________________________47

Denmark___________________________________________________________________53

Estonia ____________________________________________________________________59

Finland ____________________________________________________________________63

France _____________________________________________________________________67

Germany ___________________________________________________________________75

Greece _____________________________________________________________________83

Hungary ___________________________________________________________________91

Iceland_____________________________________________________________________97

Ireland____________________________________________________________________101

Italy______________________________________________________________________107

Latvia ____________________________________________________________________115

Liechtenstein_______________________________________________________________125

Lithuania _________________________________________________________________127

Luxembourg _______________________________________________________________135

Malta ____________________________________________________________________139

The Netherlands ____________________________________________________________141

Norway ___________________________________________________________________145

Poland____________________________________________________________________149

Portugal __________________________________________________________________153

Romania __________________________________________________________________157

Slovakia___________________________________________________________________161

Slovenia __________________________________________________________________165

Spain_____________________________________________________________________169

Sweden ___________________________________________________________________173

Turkey____________________________________________________________________175

United Kingdom____________________________________________________________179

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The National Report Template

European Higher Education Curricular Reform Project National reports on curricular reform in 32 European countries

1. Introduction

The national report you are kindly asked to complete is part of a broader research project on the extent and impact of curricular reform in higher education across Europe conducted on behalf of the European Commission in the context of the Bologna and Lisbon process by the higher education research centres and think tanks ‐ CHEPS, CHE, ICHEM, NIFU‐STEP and ESMU. The research project includes 32 countries: the EU25, EEA/EFTA countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway), the acceding countries (Bulgaria and Romania) and candidate countries (Croatia and Turkey). The overall objective of this project is to better understand the state of the art with respect to the reform of national degree structures and related curricular change in five study areas selected by the European Commission (medical studies, engineering, law, teacher training and history), and to assess the impact of these reforms, using indicators such as improvements in access, graduation, employability, mobility, quality and cost effectiveness. This national report will be followed by a large‐scale in‐depth survey among deans and directors of studies in the five study areas and, for each study area, one in‐depth national case study of a country/higher education institution that can potentially serve as a reference of good performance. The underlying question for this national report is: What is the general national picture regarding curricular reforms, notably with respect to the five study areas, and what evidence is available on their impact?

2. Task for the national correspondents

The task for the national correspondents is to describe: (1) The overall state of the art concerning curriculum reforms in their higher education systems, focusing on the most recent national policy developments, particularly in so far as these are relevant for the five selected study areas; (2) Policy developments regarding curriculum reforms in the five study areas, particularly how they differ from the general national developments; and (3) The potential impact of the curriculum reforms. We recognise that national correspondents may well need to contact persons with more detailed knowledge of developments in the five selected areas of study. The length of the national report is difficult to prescribe given large variances in reform processes in and within the various countries. However, we envisage that reports can be limited to about 10 pages (2 pages general national picture, 1 page per field of study, 3 pages on impacts). In the case of limited information, correspondents are requested to make it clear whether change has not taken place, whether the change is too recent to assess its impacts, or whether impacts are there, but have not (yet) been measured.

If possible, national correspondents are asked to indicate if they think that national reforms in a particular study area potentially qualify as a reference of good performance for other European countries. The 32 national reports will be analysed by the research team responsible for the curricular reform project who may contact national correspondents with comments or further questions. The research team will carry out a comparative analysis across the countries and areas of study. Concepts and definitions Curricula: All the learning which is planned and guided by the higher education institution, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the institution. This definition includes both the content (or syllabus) and the organisation of the content. Curriculum reform (for the purpose of this study): the reform of national degree structures (e.g., the move from one‐cycle to two‐/three‐cycle degree structures) and related curricular change (notably in the following areas: competence‐based learning, flexible learning paths, mobility and recognition) that takes place in the context of Bologna and Lisbon processes. Specifically, these five – interrelated and partly overlapping – dimensions of curricular reform contain the following sub‐dimensions: • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

- Have first degrees been created that can be completed after a minimum of three years?

- Have these first degrees been made relevant to the (European) labour market (access to jobs after first degree)?

- How selective is access to the second degree (Masters) conceived? - Have curricula been reorganised to account for the adjusted structure?

• Competence‐based learning: - Have curricula been redefined in terms of competencies, possibly in line with

national qualifications frameworks and the European qualification framework (e.g., in the context of modularisation)?

- Has the transparency of skills and knowledge acquired been increased? • Flexible learning paths:

- Has the diversity of teaching modes been increased, as well as the number of entry and exit points of the programme(s), and the flexibility of courses chosen?

- Have excellence tracks for those qualified been introduced or promoted? - Are there possibilities for the validation of prior learning, increasing permeability

from vocational/professional education and for mature learners with prior professional experience?

- Do curricula provide for different target groups, e.g., by offering a variety of curricular options?

• Recognition: - Have diploma supplements been introduced, increasing the readability of curricula,

creating transparency in curriculum content? - Have modularisation and ECTS been introduced as facilitators for recognition? - Has consumer information and communication on studying in higher education been

improved? • Mobility:

- Are there efforts to increase international student mobility? - Are there efforts to increase graduate mobility, creating a European labour market? - Are there efforts to increase the mobility of teaching staff, internationalising the

teaching experience?

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Impact in the context of this project is concentrated on the following six issues (for each of the five study areas): • access:

− What is the impact on entry rates? − What is the impact on admission policies and criteria for access to the three cycles? − Has participation been widened to include underrepresented groups? − What is the “openness” of the programmes: can students enrol in the second cycle

from other disciplinary backgrounds or from other institutional types. • graduation:

− What is the impact on graduation rates? − What is the impact on time to degree? − Has flexibility on (international) labour market increased? − Has time to employment been affected?

• employability: − Do first cycle degrees actually qualify graduates for immediate employment? − Has the concept of transferable skills been implemented and/or institutionalised?

• mobility: − What is the impact on student mobility within Europe and across continents? − Has the mobility of graduates and of teaching staff been affected?

• quality of education: − Have “scores” on performance indicators regarding quality been affected? − Have institutional and national quality assurance mechanisms been adjusted?

• cost‐effectiveness: − Have the reforms in the study areas led to better results (given unchanged financial

inputs or lower levels of financial inputs)? Data on impact should be based as much as possible on “hard” data or qualitative descriptions of clearly visible impacts. Perceptions and views/comments will be gathered through our in‐depth survey among deans and directors of study.

3. Schematic depiction of model underlying the study

The figure below gives a simplified overview of the task at hand:

STATE of the ART

Curricular reform: Indicators: (in five areas of study)

‐ structure ‐ competence‐based learning ‐ flexible learning paths ‐ recognition ‐ mobility

‐ access Bologna/Lisbon ‐ graduation

‐ employability ‐ mobility ‐ quality of education ‐ cost effectiveness

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4. Timeframe

Report guidelines distributed to national correspondents: Wed 5 July Reports (drafts) to be returned to ESMU: Wed 26 July Finalised reports (following any comments from research team): mid August Members of the research team are available to answer your questions on the national report, timeframe, etc. Jeroen Huisman Director ICHEM (International Centre for Higher Education Management) University of Bath United Kingdom T +44.1225.383 304 F +44.1225.386 543 E [email protected] Johanna Witte Project Manager CHE Germany T +49.5241.976 154 F +49.5241.976 140 E [email protected]

5. Sources

We assume that national correspondents will find their way in the search for relevant documents. Nevertheless, we mention a number of useful resources: General trends (only to sketch the [national] context for the specific situation for the five areas of study): 1. Eurydice data such as the latest report “Focus on the Structure of Higher Education in

Europe (2004/05): National Trends in the Bologna Process” (Eurydice 2005); 2. the national reports submitted to the Bologna conferences (see www.bologna‐

bergen2005.no); 3. Other national reports, surveys and studies on the implementation of the Bologna process

and the reform of national degree structures in particular. Sources that address the five study areas in more detail: 1. European agreements for (some of the) areas of study. 2. National policy documents, papers from advisory councils, taskforces, etc. 3. National background documents and position papers from professional organisations (or

national branches of international/supranational professional organisations), possibly paying attention to how these national views relate to the views of international and supranational professional organisations.

4. National study‐area‐specific reports, if available.

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http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/


6. Follow-up

In the next phase, a survey of deans and directors of study in the five areas of study will take place. We will contact national correspondents separately to help us put together samples and gather e‐mail addresses for the web‐based survey.

7. Guidelines for the national reports

(1) Curriculum reform: overall national picture (2 pages) Please describe the overall state of the art concerning curriculum reforms in your higher education system, focusing on the most recent national policy developments, particularly in so far as these are relevant for the five selected study areas. Please focus particularly on the reform of national degree structures (1a) and related curricular change (1b). (1a) Reform of national degree structures (1b) Related curricular change Please describe general national policies on competence‐based learning, flexible learning paths, recognition and mobility. (1c) National reform focus Please highlight any particular national focus of the reforms and reform debates regarding curricula. This can include reforms other than in the five dimensions if they are very important in your country. (2) Curriculum reform in the five fields of study (5 pages) Please now describe specific policy developments regarding curriculum reforms in the five areas of study, particularly how they differ from the general national developments. Again, focus on the reform of degree structures and provide information on reforms in the four related dimensions (competence‐based learning, flexible learning paths, recognition and mobility) by field of study, if available. (2a) Medical studies (2b) Law (2c) Teacher training (2d) Engineering (2e) History (3) Impact (3 pages) Please now report on available information on the impact of these reforms to date, differentiated by field of study, using the issues and indicators given above (access, graduation, employability, mobility, quality of education, cost‐effectiveness). Please include the references for any reports or studies that are relevant to these questions. If there are experts within your country working on these sorts of research questions please include their contact details. (4) Potential case studies Please indicate if you think that national reforms in a particular study area in your country (possibly within a certain higher education institution) would potentially qualify as a reference of good performance for other European countries (we will be undertaking five such case studies as part of the project). Finally, please could you include the following information in your report?

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Name Contact details Country Date Many thanks for agreeing to participate in the project!

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Curriculum reform in Austria

National Report Summary

National Legislative and Policy Context

The Austrian higher education system consists of universities, private universities, Fachhochschulen (a polytechnique‐type of HEI), teacher training colleges (actually transformed in Pädagogische Hochschulen), and postsecondary institutions (mainly medical‐technical academies as well as agricultural and military colleges). Already since 1999 (with the amendment of the Federal Law for University Studies in 1997 (UniStG)), universities can award Bachelor and Master degrees instead of the traditional “Diplom” degrees (at Masters level). The University Act 2002 (UG 2002) taking effect in 2004 provides the legal framework for the full transition of degree programmes to the Bachelor and Master structure – in line with the Bologna aims (BMBWK 2005a, p.54). The only exceptions are teacher training (Lehramtsstudien) and medical studies (Medicine and Dentistry). However, already existing “Diplom” programmes in all subjects can be maintained. The implementation of the Bologna degree structure is thus an ongoing process. The Fachhochschule Studies Act (FHStG) in 1993 has introduced a new institutional type, the Fachhochschulen, to provide practice‐based vocational education at HE level. The amendment of the FHStG in 2002 provides the legal base for Fachhochschulen to implement the Bologna degree structure. As in the university sector, Bachelor and Master programmes replace and complement the former “Diplom” programmes. Private universities can be established since the year 2000, following the UniAkkG 1999 (University Accreditation Act), the federal law on the accreditation of educational institutions as private universities. Here too, the legal framework for implementing the Bologna degree structure is in place. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

The implementation of the Bologna degree structure is still ongoing. (In Winter semester 2004, 28.6% of degree programmes were transferred into the two‐cycle structure and private universities ran 40% of their programmes as international oriented Bachelor programmes. Fachochschulen had transferred 52% of their degree programmes in the two‐cycle structure in Winter semester 2005.) Length of university degrees. Bachelor: 180 ECTS, Master: min. 120 ECTS, Doctorate 120 ECTS, “Ph.D.” 240 ECTS. PhD programmes consists of compulsory taught courses and a doctoral thesis. A doctorate may also be awarded by several universities, including foreign institutions (joint degree programmes). Length of Fachhochschul degrees. Bachelor: 180 ECTS, Master: 60 to 120 ECTS (FHStG, §3, §12).

• Competence‐based learning:

Modularisation and the introduction of competence‐based learning is still ongoing as part of the transition to the two‐cycle structure. Regulations for universities are rather loose, except for the legal prescription that each curriculum needs to have a qualification profile in which employability is especially taken into account (UniStG §12). According to Lassnigg et al (2006), the implementation of the Bologna degree structure with regard to competence‐based learning ranges from a total reconstruction of curricula with a learner‐centered and outcome‐oriented approach to “re‐labelling”. Fachhochschulen have a quite elaborate approach due to strict accreditation requirements. Each curriculum consists of an overall description of qualifications and competencies, broken down into in sub‐qualifications and competencies within modules (FHR 2003, 2005). The discussion about the European Qualifications Frameowork (EQF) and the development of a National qualifications framework (NQF) has given competence‐based learning new stimulus.

• Flexible learning paths:

It is expected that modularisation will render programmes more flexible. Fachhochschulen offer programmes to non‐traditional students as part‐time programmes and programmes for different target groups.

The recognition of prior learning is possible, but handled differently at different levels of HE. An important prerequisite for official recognition and validation will be the development of an NQF, which is currently discussed (Lassnigg et al 2006). Admission to HE (university or Fachhochschule) is granted upon the basis on the Austrian higher secondary school leaving certificate (Reifezeugnis, “Matura”), its foreign equivalent, or the successful completion of a special university entrance examination (Studienberechtigungsprüfung). Students of compulsory lower schools who have completed additional schooling in the form of apprenticeships as skilled work may take a vocationally‐based examination acknowledged as equivalent to the higher secondary school leaving certificate (Berufsreifeprüfung). Universities of the applied arts also may admit students upon the basis of their previous vocational or technical experience and qualifications. Admission to Fachhochschulen is based on a selective admission process. Admission to degree programmes in the arts is based on aptitude ascertained by admission examinations. With regard to the recognition of prior learning and the admission for non‐traditional students, Fachhochschulen are most open. Nevertheless, as the statistics of the FHR for Winter semester 2003/04 show, just 12 % of the students entered based on individual admission. Non‐traditional ways such as Studienberechtigungsprüfung, Berufsreifeprüfung and apprenticeship are decreasing (FHR 2003).

• Recognition: There is a legal guarantee of academic recognition of study abroad periods, agreed upon between the student and the university in advance, by way of a so‐called ʺVorausbescheidʺ. The Diploma Supplement and ECTS are obligatory at universities and Fachhochschulen (BMBWK 2005, p.33, UG 2002). Law stipulates that the duration of study is expressed in terms of ECTS as a measure of student workload (see above). At universities, the paradigm change to understanding ECTS in terms of student workload is still ongoing.

• Mobility: Outward mobility is higher than inward mobility. The percentage of student mobility within the last years is quite constant. 1/3 of outgoing students within mobility programmes are from Fachhochschulen. Scholarship programmes for incoming and outgoing students are available for students and graduates alike both at national and federal levels (www.grants.at). Portability of grants and loans. Portability of national grants for study programmes abroad is possible for up to 2 years. Students can also receive an extra grant to cover their additional expenses abroad, and a reimbursement of their tuition fees. For their study periods spent abroad in mobility programmes, outgoing students do not pay tuition fees at their Austrian home university. The same is true for students coming to Austria in the framework of such programmes. Support for incoming students. The Austrian Exchange Service (OEAD) offers special University Preparatory Courses (Vorstudienlehrgänge) consisting of language preparation and various measures for cultural integration. There are constant efforts at improving the legal regulations for foreigners studying in Austria. The rates for accommodation for students in mobility programmes, for scholarship holders and guest professors could be increased. Due to high demand from abroad, double degree and joint degree programmes are increasing (BMBWK 2005).

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http://www.grants.at/

STATE OF THE ART

General With the UG 2002, the medical faculties of the Universities Graz, Innsbruck and Vienna were dissociated and became medical universities, taking effect in 2004. In this restructuring process, the medical faculties reformed and transformed their curricula and teaching radically, taking effect in Winter semester 2002/03.

Medical studies

The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Medical studies (including Human, Dental and Veterinary Medicine) are excluded from the Bologna degree structure, and are offered as “Diplom” studies. Nevertheless, profound curriculum reform occurred in the recent years, following international standards and developments. This also included tuning among Austrian medical universities to make curricula more compatible. In addition to the “Diplom” studies, the Medical University Graz offers a Bachelor study programme in Nursing Sciences (Pflegewissenschaften), the Medical University of Vienna a Masters programme in Medical Informatics (Medizinische Informatik), the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna a Bachelor‐Masters programme in Biomedicine & Biotechnology and a Masters programme in Equine Sciences. Programmes related to medicine (as e.g. biomedicine, health and nursing management, physiotherapy, logopedics) are mainly offered by Fachhochschulen in the Bachelor‐Masters structure. All medical universities currently develop a Bologna‐conform PhD programme. At the Medical University Vienna it already started in Winter semester 2005.

Competence‐based learning

Within the new curricula of the “Diplom” programmes, competence‐based learning plays a crucial role. The old discipline‐oriented degree structures and traditional subjects were replaced by a thematic structure that allows focusing on competencies and learning outcomes. Furthermore, social competencies play an important role. The guidelines for curricula, following the international development include: integration of disciplines, problem orientation (problem based learning), calculation of the capacity of education, evaluation, and quality control. The qualification profile comprises knowledge and understanding, clinical skills, communicative competencies, medical attitude, and relevant professional competencies of the graduates (BMBWK 2005).

Flexible learning paths

As part of the curriculum reform in medical studies, new teaching modes have been introduced (e.g. virtual medical campus at the Medical University Graz). The new curricula are based on differentiated models of learning, concentrating on thematic clusters. Validation of prior learning is not an issue at the moment, at least for “Diplom” programmes. Accreditation of single courses is possible. In the Bachelor programme Nursing Sciences at the Medical University Graz, professional experience of the student is highly recommended. Some Bachelor‐Master programmes of the Fachhochschulen can be studied part‐time by non‐traditional students.

Recognition Modularisation is very important, ECTS based on student workload plays an important role. The Medical University of Graz currently evaluates the correct use of ECTS based on workload.

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Mobility Student mobility within Austria is possible, due to a certain tuning of

curricula. International mobility (outgoings) is supported, at some points difficult because of the different curricula in international context. International experience of students is perceived as an important benefit for the students that should be rewarded by a generous recognition policy (Lassnigg et al 2006). For mobility in professional education after graduation, some problems arise from different health systems and different regulations concerning different national professional requirements. Within the Medical Universities, the graduates of the University of Veterinary Medicine have the highest intensity in stay abroads during their studies.

General Law is offered as long integrated first‐cycle “Diplom” studies at five universities in Austria, Graz, Innsbruck, Linz, Salzburg, and Vienna. The duration of the programmes is four years leading directly to the Masters level. Law has a professional preparatory function; professional specialisation and training comes on top after graduation.

Law


Law was not transferred to the Bologna degree structure (see above), partly because of negative responses from the juridical lobby. One argument from the Law society (Anwaltskammer) was that lawyers need a Masters degree for their professional work. In practice this means that a transition from “Diplom” degrees to a two‐cycle structure would require a prolongation from 4 to 5 years (as 3+2 is the chosen model in Austria) and that the Bachelor degree would be useless (at least in the current discussions). Interdisciplinary Bachelor and Masters programmes such as Business Law have recently been established at universities and Fachhochschulen.


No general statement can be made, but all reformed curricula have a clear qualification profile. In some curricula, social competence is (for the first time) explicitly mentioned.


Within the newly established “Diplom” programmes, a tendency towards some flexibility within the studies can be seen, e.g. through the possibility for students to concentrate on and specialize in different subjects. Although the programmes are generally not foreseen for part‐time students, many programmes allow students to study part‐time. The University of Linz e.g. offers a multimedia‐based “Diplom” programme in Law in a blended‐learning approach.

Recognition The new curricula are partly modularised, but law is traditionally more input‐oriented than other subjects. ECTS credits are obligatory, but as mentioned above are in some cases still not defined in terms of student workload.

Mobility Due to the concentration on national law, international student mobility (e.g. Erasmus) has so far received little interest. Recently it seems that more possibilities for outgoing students have been created and curricula are more internationally‐oriented (Lassnigg et al 2006). The University of Innsbruck e.g. has an integrated “Diplom” programme with the University of Padua that provides the possibility for students to study Italian Law. This supports further mobility within these two universities, also with regard to doctoral studies in Law for Italian students.

Teacher training

General The Academy Studies Act of 1999 provided the basis for turning teacher training colleges (Pädagogische Akademien) into universities for teacher training (Pädagogische Hochschulen, PH), with Bachelor programmes for teachers in primary and lower secondary education. This law was followed by the Hochschulgesetz 2005 (Federal Law on the Organisation of the PH and their degree programmes). Currently these new HEIs are established. Teachers for secondary school (AHS, BHS) graduate at universities in their respective subjects.

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Students at PHs graduate with a “Bachelor of Education” (180 ECTS) to qualify for primary and lower secondary teaching. Teachers for secondary schools (AHS, BHS) do their studies in their respective subjects at the universities. These are at the moment still exempted from the two‐cycle structure and are offered as “Diplom” programmes.


For the new curricula in the PHs as for the universities, a qualification profile has to be provided, as well as an analysis of the comparability of the programme with equivalent studies. Furthermore, competencies have to be defined (Hochschulgesetz 2005, §42).


In the Hochschulgesetz 2005 is foreseen for the development of degree programmes that the special situation of employed students and their professional experience has to be taken in account (Hochschulgesetz 2005, §40 (2)).

Recognition Additional to the legal requirements stated above (see also Hochschulgesetz 2005, §51) for the admission to the HE sector, PH can require evidence of specific prior experience (Hochschulgesetz 2005, §42 (5)). Recognition of degrees and courses from other PHs or other post‐secondary institutions is foreseen when equivalent (Hochschulgesetz 2005, §56).

Mobility Mobility will be enhanced through the Bachelor degree for teachers in compulsory schools, allowing the students to continue a Masters programme abroad.

General In 2000/2001 an interuniversity evaluation (peer review) of Engineering was conducted at the 4 universities offering these studies (TU Graz, TU Vienna, University of Linz, University of Leoben) to optimise the general conditions and interplay between research and education. Recommendations were given for several aspects, including teaching and learning (BMBWK 2002, p.25).

Engineering


Engineering is not formally excepted from the two‐cycle degree structure, but the sector is quite resistant (it is partly about losing the recognised degree “Diplomingenieur (DI)). Currently, Engineering at the TU Graz and TU Vienna is still offered as “Diplom” programme (three stages, de jure 10 semesters). In Graz, the first two stages of the “Diplom” studies have substantial equivalency to an accredited Bachelor of Engineering in Canada. Additionally, several specialised (e.g. at the University of Leoben) and interdisciplinary‐oriented studies including Engineering are offered (e.g. at the University of Linz: Mechatronik a combination of Engineering, Electrical Engineering, and Computer Science, programmes in Fachhochschulen).


Variations due to autonomy of the universities. The curriculum of Engineering of the University of Technology Vienna focuses on competencies, social competence being part of them. The study aims are formulated in “can‐do” statements. This is similarly described in the curriculum of Mechatronik (see above).


Within the newly‐established “Diploma” programmes a tendency towards some flexibility within the studies can be seen, e.g. through the possibility for students to concentrate on and specialise in different subjects.

Recognition Partly, the new curricula are modularised. ECTS credits are obligatory, but do in some cases still not take into account student workload.

Mobility International experience is required in the curricula.

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General History is offered at the Universities of Graz, Innsbruck, Klagenfurt,

Salzburg, and Vienna. History is both offered as general degree programme and as teacher training programme (Lehramtsstudium).

History


History is currently offered both as “Diplom” and as Bachelor and Masters programme. The Universities of Graz, Innsbruck, Salzburg, and Vienna have “Diplom” programmes, the University of Klagenfurt offers history in the two‐cycle structure and as teacher training (Lehramtsstudium) in the form of a “Diplom” programme.


Variation to curricular autonomy of universities. A tendency towards the formulation of competencies as well as knowledge and skills (similar to the EQF descriptors) and to learning outcomes (“can‐do” statements) can be perceived.


A tendency towards some flexibility within the studies can be seen, e.g. through the possibility for students to concentrate on and specialise in different subjects. The BA program in History at the university of Klagenfurt is constructed as broad program; the Master program allows different specialisations.

Recognition The Bachelor‐Masters programme at the University of Klagenfurt is modularised.

Mobility No data available.

IMPACT

Access The new “Diploma” curricula and teaching methods (not Bachelor‐Masters!) require better teacher‐student ratios and thus some limitation of the number of students. They have therefore served to decrease rather than increase access. The three medical universities (Graz, Vienna, Innsbruck) choose different methods of selection.

Medical studies

Graduation The effects of the new curricula with regard to the graduation rates as well as to the length of study will be seen within the next years.

Employability Students must follow a professional training after their studies first. In the new curricula, transferable skills have been institutionalised.

Mobility The number of incoming students (esp. from Germany, due to the Numerus Clausus applied there) is constantly increasing. Also within Austria, some student mobility can be observed. The effect of Bologna on mobility of outgoing students and staff will be seen in the next years. In 2002/3, the Veterinary Medical University Vienna had the highest number students spending a period abroad as part of their studies (BMBWK 2005b), due to strong international orientation and networking.

Quality of education

Effects on the quality of education will be seen in the next years with the first graduates. Like all universities, the medical universities are developing a quality management for the whole spectrum of their activities.

Cost‐effectiveness

No judgement on this can be made yet.

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Access A tendency towards facilitating access for non‐traditional students by

offering evening courses. Law

Graduation Law has high graduation rates. Employability In Austria the labour market is quite structured, there is still great demand

for “full“ lawyers. Supplementary specialisations and internationality are required especially of big law companies. There is a demand for people with postgraduate continuing education as the LL.M. At the moment, there exists no market for a Bachelor in Law. In the next years it will become clear how the new Bachelor in “Business Law” (offered at several universities and Fachhochschulen) will be accepted.

Mobility There is a tendency to more mobility and specialisation. Quality of education

Each university has to develop a quality management (including teaching evaluation) for the whole spectrum of its activities.


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Access Access will be widened as insofar students especially in the PHs will have new opportunities to follow Masters programmes after their Bachelor degree.

Teacher training

Graduation With the transformation Pädagogische Akademien to PHs, primary and lower secondary teacher training has been upgraded to a 3‐year Bachelor degree.

Employability The Bachelor degree qualifies graduates for immediate employment in primary and lower secondary teaching. On transferable skills nothing can be said at the moment as the PHs are currently developing their curricula. Teachers in secondary education who do a “Diplome” programme at the university in different subjects (in most cases two subjects have to be studied in combination) need to do a teaching internship after their graduation (Unterrichtspraktikum) and a training for teaching practitioners (Lehrgang für UnterrichtspraktikantInnen) in respective institutions.

Mobility The Bachelor degree allows international comparability in the training of teachers and enables the students to be international mobile also when continuing their studies in a Masters programme.


Quality of education be increased by the PHs, not least through a stronger focus on research by means of a practice‐oriented approach. For secondary school teachers at the universities: each university has to develop a quality management for the whole spectrum of its activities (including teaching evaluation).


Too early to assess.

Access Specialised and interdisciplinary programmes (partly offered as Bachelor‐Masters programmes) that include engineering could lead to changes in access.

Engineering

Graduation Graduates of “Diplom” Engineering programmes traditionally find jobs relatively easily (BMBWK 2005a, p.94).

Employability The mentioned new interdisciplinary Bachelor‐Masters programmes including engineering could in the long run have an impact of the labour market acceptance of Bachelor graduates in this sector.

Mobility Too early to assess. Quality of education

Each university has to develop a quality management for the whole spectrum of its activities, including teaching evaluation.


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Access No special changes noticeable yet, as the only Bachelor‐Masters programmes

just started at the University of Klagenfurt in Winter semester 2005/06. History

Graduation Too early to assess. Employability Too early to assess for Bachelor programmes, as there are no graduates yet.

Traditionally, the history “Diplom” studies have a broad qualification profile. Students are encouraged to combine history with other studies or to specialise on job‐market relevant qualifications in their optional subjects.

Mobility ‐ Quality of education

Each university has to develop a quality management for the whole spectrum of its activities, including teaching evaluation.


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References

Bacher, Gottfried (2005): Bologna Process. National Report Austria. BMBWK (2002): Hochschulbericht. Band 1. Wien. BMBWK (2005): Bericht über den Stand der Umsetzung der Bologna‐Erklärung in Österreich 2005. Berichtszeitraum 2000‐2004. BMBWK (2005a): Universitätsbericht 2005. Band 1. Wien. BMBWK (2005b): Universitätsbericht 2005. Band 2. Wien. EURYDICE (2005): Focus on the Structure of Higher Education in Europe 2004/2005. National Trends

in the Bologna Process. Brussels. Online in the Internet: http://www.eurydice.org/ressources/eurydice/pdf/0_integral/065EN.pdf [last access: 25.09.2006]. FHR (2004): Bericht des Fachhochschulrates 2003. Online in the Internet:

http://www.fhr.ac.at/fhr_inhalt/00_dokumente/jb2003.pdf [last access: 25.09.2006]. FHR (2005): Richtlinien des Fachhochschulrates für die Akkreditierung von Bakkalaureats‐, Magister‐

und Diplomstudiengängen (Akkreditierungsrichtlinien AR 2005, Version 1.0). Beschluss des Fachhochschulrates vom 24.06.2005. Online in the Internet:

http://www.fhr.ac.at/fhr_inhalt/01_ueber_uns/AR_24062005_Vers1.0.pdf [last access: 25.09.2006]. Fachhochschul‐Studiengesetz – FHStG (1993): Bundesgesetz über Fachhochschul‐Studiengänge.

Online in the Internet: http://www.bmbwk.gv.at/universitaeten/recht/gesetze/fhstg/Gesetz_Fachhochschul‐Stu4169.xml [last

access: 25.09.2006]. Lassnigg, Lorenz, Unger, Martin (Hrsg.) (2006): Fachhochschulen –Made in Austria. Ein Review des

neuen Hochschulsektors. Lit‐Verlag, Münster, Wien. Lassnigg, Lorenz/Vogtenhuber, Stefan/Pellert, Ada/Cendon, Eva (2006): Europäischer Qualifikationsrahmen – EQF im Kontext der tertiären Bildung in Österreich. Projektendbericht. Wien. Pechar, Hans/Arnold Markus/Unger, Martin (1999): Hochschulen und Wirtschaft. Reformimpulse zur

Stärkung des Außenbezuges im österreichischen Hochschulsystem. TSER/HEINE: Nationale Fallstudie. Wien, März.

Pechar, Hans (2006): Die Internationalisierung der Hochschulen. In: Lassnigg, Lorenz/Unger, Martin (Hg.): Fachhochschulen – Made in Austria. Ein Review des neuen Hochschulsektors. Münster, Wien 2006. S. 161‐189.

Pellert, Ada (2005): Erfahrungen mit dem Bologna‐Prozess an Österreichischen Hochschulen. In: Hanft, Anke/Müskens, Isabel (Hg.): Bologna und die Folgen für die Hochschulen. Bielefeld. S. 10‐12.

UG 2002: Bundesgesetz über die Organisation der Universitäten und ihre Studien (Universitätsgesetz 2002). Online im Internet unter:

http://www.bmbwk.gv.at/universitaeten/recht/gesetze/ug02/Universitaetsgesetz_2002_inh.xml [last access: 16.3.2006].

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http://www.eurydice.org/ressources/eurydice/pdf/0_integral/065EN.pdf

Curriculum reform in Belgium (French Community)

National report summary


• The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

Higher education in the French Community of Belgium is organized in a binary system with Higher education provided both outside universities, in Hautes Ecoles and within Universities. In the French Community, with the start of the bachelor programmes, the Bologna reform has been in operation since September, 2004. This was set up in a progressive way and for a period of several years the two systems for the organisation of the study programmes will operate along parallel lines.


1.1. Higher education outside universities in Hautes Ecoles Higher education outside universities organizes both long‐term studies and short‐term studies. The common feature being that they both provide professionally oriented instruction. 1.1.1. Short‐term studies Before the Bologna reform, this cycle was already organised in 3 years. Most short‐term studies last for three years (180 credits); some are four years (240 credits). The training aims at the immediate operational efficiency on the field for each concerned profession and is relevant to the labour market. This (one) cycle is called bachelor and leads to the title of Bachelor; it can be followed by a year of specialization. 1.1.2. Long‐term studies The long‐term studies are always in two cycles. The first cycle is called bachelor and the second cycle master. A master programme leads to a master diploma for the second cycle. It comprises 60 credits (one year) or 120 credits (two years). Master programmes are organised in the form of two different branch orientations, depending on whether the future Master is oriented to a profession or to teaching. The two different branch orientations are a new concept coming from the Bologna reform. Before the Bologna reform, the first cycle, called candidature had 2 years and the second cycle, called licence had 2 or 3 years. 1.2. Higher education inside Universities Universities organize studies in three cycles. Academic education is based on scientific or scholarly research carried out in universities. This form of education leads to autonomous work and critical

application of scientific or scholarly knowledge. The first cycle is called bachelor, the second master and the third consist of PhD, doctoral studies or work relating to the preparation of a PhD thesis. Bachelor and master programmes have been redefined in terms of competencies (learning outcomes). 1.2.1. Bachelor programmes Before the Bologna reform, the first cycle at the university had two years. All programmes have been modified in order to adapt the new system. A bachelor programme leads to the bachelor diploma and to the title of Bachelor. It comprises 180 credits, spread over at least three years of studies. The first year provides a general study programme in the chosen domain and brings together the majority of basic courses common to the programme sector (human sciences, medical sciences, exact sciences). This first year also helps the student to become acquainted with the university teaching methods and the principal course content of the subject chosen. Equivalences are established between the basic courses of the different programmes in order to facilitate study reorientation of students at the end of their first year, via the recognition of their acquired knowledge on this new programme The main objective of university bachelor programmes is to gain access to the master, which is the main university diploma. However, should the bachelor student wishes to interrupt his programme, the bachelor diploma may be recognised on the employment market. Return to the interrupted course is then facilitated through the accumulation of credits. 1.2.2. Masters and complementary masters A master programme leads to a master diploma for the second cycle. It comprises 60 credits (one year) or 120 credits (two years). In the case of Medicine, the master is 240 credits (4 years). The 120 credit masters are usually spread over two years of studies and include the writing of a thesis. Students can extend their studies and specialise. At this level, master programmes are organised in the form of three different branch orientations, depending on whether the future Master student intends to carry out a profession, take up research or go into teaching. The research branch does not exist in non university higher education institutions. The three different branch orientations are a new concept coming from the Bologna reform. The masters, aiming at specialisation and extension of knowledge, enable the student to acquire the relevant knowledge relating to the subject as well as the skills and expertise necessary for the carrying out of a profession, teaching or research. In the case only of 120 credits master (i.e. not after a 60 credits master), a complementary master can be obtained. A complementary master programme constitutes a curriculum of at least 60 credits to which master diploma holders who have completed a curriculum of at least 300 credits are entitled access. In order to qualify for access to these specialised courses, students must have completed the 120 credit master programme or an equivalent education abroad.

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This type of diploma is a specialised professional qualification, which either authorises students to carry out certain professions (health sector etc.), or to gain access to the acquisition of skills recognised for team research. 1.2.3. Third cycle The third study cycle will comprise: the PhD or doctoral studies the work relating to the preparation of a PhD thesis. The PhD studies worth 60 credits will be validated by a research‐training certificate. The work relating to the PhD thesis will correspond to at least 180 credits, acquired after an initial course (bachelor + master) of at least 300 credits (or something considered equivalent).


With a diploma from one system (i.e. in a university or outside a university), it is possible to switch to the other system. Some bachelors acquired in a non university higher education institution (HEI) give access to the second cycle in universities.

The access can be direct but it can be also submitted to some conditions: passing an examination or one preparatory year (maximum 60 credits). It is also possible after a first year at the university to go to the second year of a Bachelor in a non university HEI. Official regulations regarding switches (which diploma for which other program) have to be respected. The switch between both systems was already possible before the Bologna reform but the reform allowed for a new evaluation of the process and has contributed to an enlargement of switches. The flexibility of courses chosen has been increased. In the bachelor programme, it is possible to follow courses from another programme. These courses can allow, in some cases, to reach another master programme than the one linked to the bachelor. There are a large variety of curricular options. Both in university and non university HEI (long term studies), each bachelor programme gives direct access, with full rights, to the corresponding master programme. However, depending on the studentʹs programme and his choice of courses (number of credits obtained), other masters may be accessible, with or without prerequisites. Students with the title of bachelor may access the programme of that master either by integrating course complements into his master programme (max. 15 credits), or, depending on his former credits, by doing a one or two‐year complementary course during the bachelor studies to be able to have access to that master programme. The validation of prior learning in higher studies, or the validation of personal or professional experience (at least five years) are possible, but have to be examined by the competent jury.

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• Recognition: Diploma supplements have been introduced and will provide more information and

transparency in curriculum content. In the same way, ECTS (called credits), have been introduced and will facilitate recognition. Each of the bachelor or master course activities is calculated in the form of credits. A credit not only covers the course of the subject concerned but also the traineeships, practical work, library research, study and memorisation time and laboratory activities, etc. i.e. thus the total workload that a student needs to complete in order to meet the programme objectives. One credit represents 24 hours of student work in one year. For each successful course activity, a jury awards a number of credits to the student, which is equivalent to the credits of each course activity. From year to year, the student will accumulate a series of credits that can be recognised or valued for his ensuring university studies, depending on the restrictions proper to the programme towards which he is orienting.

• Mobility: A lot of efforts have been made to increase international student mobility. There are more international aspects in the curricula. The study language in the French Community is usually French but it will be possible to teach some courses or programmes in another language (mostly at the second cycle). Many contacts have been taken with international partners to promote graduate and teaching staff mobility.

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STATE OF THE ART

The reform of national degree structures concerns the five study areas (Medical studies, Law, Teacher training, Engineering, History) but some points may be detailed. Medical studies

General Access to the studies in Medicine or Dental Sciences is subject of some changes. The Federal State has introduced a limit to the possible number of new doctors or dentists able to practice in the context of the AMI (sickness and invalidity insurance). This limitation has been effective since September 2004 for Medicine and since 2002 for Dental Sciences. In order to respond to these quotas, the Faculties of Medicine are duly obliged to establish a selection procedure for their students. Only those students selected will receive an attestation allowing them to pass from the 1st to the 2nd cycle of studies in Medicine or in Dental Sciences. Some programmes have to respect the legislation concerning access to some professions. In that case, the student will receive a diploma and a professional qualification. The different professional qualifications are : architect, business engineering, Doctor in medicine, doctor in veterinary medicine, pharmacist, kinesitherapist, actuary, bioengineering, civil engineering. In some cases, the teacher training can be organised during the 120 credits master but can also be followed after a 60 or 120 credits master. The 120 credits master is organised in three different branches. One of them concerns the teaching training. It includes 30 credits only for the teacher training. If the teaching training is followed after a 60 or 120 credits master, the program will also include 30 credits.

Teacher training

General The teacher training can be, in some case, organised during the 120 credits master but can also be followed after a 60 or 120 credits master. The 120 Credits master is organised in three different branches. One of them concerns the teaching training. It includes 30 credits only for the teacher training. If the teaching training is followed after a 60 or 120 credits master, the program will also include 30 credits.

Engineering General Engineering sciences (civil engineering) is subject to passing a special entrance exam to be admitted to the bachelorʹs programme. This is a legally required condition throughout the French Community. This exam is organised in each of the 4 faculties of Applied Sciences within the French Community and it entitles access to any of these 4 faculties, irrespective of where it was taken. It was already so before the reform.

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IMPACT

• Access There is no particular impact on entry rates for the first cycle. The French Community has not yet organized all master programmes. It is too early to have a correct view on the impact on the criteria access to the three cycles. In some cases, depending on the studentʹs programme (in Belgium or abroad) and his choice of courses (number of credits obtained), other masters than the ʺnormalʺ one may be accessible, with or without prerequisites. The validation of prior learning in higher studies, or the validation of personal or professional experience (at least five years) are possible, but have to be examined by the competent jury.

• Graduation It is too early to evaluate the impact on graduation rates or on time to degree. But the French community gives the possibility to a jury to authorize a student with only 48 credits (on the 60) not to fail the year. The student may register to a next year but has the obligation to succeed at the remaining credits. The new system will perhaps change the graduation rates.

• Employability Higher education in the French Community is organized in a binary system. The first cycle outside universities qualifies graduates for immediate employment. The first cycle at the university is mainly the first step to the second cycle and is normally not directly employable. The concept of transferable skills already existed and will continue to exist.

• Mobility It is probably too early to envisage the impact on student mobility. Nevertheless, there is more cooperation between both systems in the French Community. The student or teaching staff mobility is increasing. In the same way, universities have concluded a lot of agreements with foreign universities in order to promote and facilitate student and teaching staff mobility.

• Quality of education An agency responsible for the evaluation of the quality of higher education has been created. It is operational since January 2004. In higher education outside universities and in universities, internal mechanisms have been set up to assess education.

• Cost‐effectiveness It is probably too early to have a correct point of view.

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Curriculum reform in Belgium (Flanders)



In the Flemish Community of Belgium there are 31 publicly funded Higher Education Institutions: 6 universities, 1 transnational University (in cooperation with The Netherlands), 22 other Higher Education Institutions (Hogescholen) and 2 postgraduate university institutions. Privately funded higher education is still a marginal phenomenon. The quasi totality of recognised Higher Education Institutions are publicly funded, although not necessarily pertaining to public law (many publicly funded institutions are under private law). Since the 2003 decree on the structure of Higher Education it is possible for privately funded institutions to apply for registration and accreditation, provided that they comply with the general quality standards set out for Flemish higher education. One of the results of the transformation process since the Decree is the officially registered co‐operation between a University and one or more hogescholen, known as “association”. Its purpose is to evolve into‐co‐operating entities on education and research to harmonise fields of study and create bridges between bachelor and master studies. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

The Structural Decree of April 2003 introduced the two‐tier structure. The first degree (bachelor) should be completed after three or four years (i.e. after 180 or 240 credits); In reality, all bachelors (academic and professional oriented) have for the moment 180 credits. Professional oriented bachelors are relevant to the labour market, although students can continue to study a master after having successfully followed a bridging programme. Academic bachelors are not yet oriented to the labour market. Access to the second degree (master) is open for all bachelors described in the prerequisites. It is not possible, according to the decree to set a maximum of students. As the first ‘real’ bachelor students started only in 2004‐2005, there is no indication yet as to whether academic bachelors will leave spontaneously to the labour market. Every HEI has followed his own procedure to restructure programmes.


In some disciplines the idea of competence‐based learning was already introduced in the recent past or introduced at the time of the move to the two‐tier structure. It is premature to say whether transparency of skills and knowledge has increased on a broad level.


Students can enrol for a ‘diploma contract’ and can take a programme of 60 credits per year (the traditional approach, taken by a vaster majority of students). It is also possible to take separate course units to follow an individual path. Students can also enrol for an ‘examination contract’ (not taking part in courses, but only in the examinations). This can be done for a set of 60 credits or for separate course units. According to the decree, possibilities for validation of prior learning have been developed at the level of the associations. Some disciplines offer options for special target groups; mostly structured options are related to specialisations in the specific field. Options in the final phase of professional bachelor tracks will be more and more introduced for those willing to go to a master afterwards.

• Recognition: Diploma Supplements have been introduced in the beginning of the nineties

according to the UNESCO descriptions. They have been renewed completely, according to the guidelines of the European Commission

ECTS is obligatory since the 1991 decree (not mentioned as ECTS, but as a credit system recognisable in Europe). Programme modularisation is obligatory in some HEIs, but in most cases departments can decide. Both HEIs and authorities provide significant information to the general public to explain about the changes in Higher Education and the new study programmes as there is a lot of confusion.

• Mobility: Flemish HEIs have been very active since the eighties in improving and supporting mobility. Nevertheless there is now a certain stagnation of outgoing students.

Since ministries are increasingly introducing output criteria in their funding systems and a focus on research in their allocation models, increasing mobility of teaching staff is getting a lower priority.

STATE OF THE ART

General The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

The orientation of the bachelor degree to the labour market remains a difficult topic

Medical studies


Programmes were – more and earlier than others – completely restructured and competence‐based


Recognition Mobility General The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

The orientation of the bachelor degree to the labour market remains a difficult topic

Law



Recognition Mobility

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Teacher training

General Teacher training in order to become teacher in a prep school, primary school or the first part of the secondary school is organised as a professional oriented bachelor. Teacher training organised at a university or a university college (after finishing a master degree) is kept out of the two‐tier structure. A new decree will be voted in the coming months and creates new conditions. It will increase the cooperation between all stakeholders in this process (universities, university colleges, other providers (education of social promotion) and the schools as providers for internschip and as employer)

General History The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

As a consequence of the governmental decision that the introduction of the two‐tier structure may not lead to longer periods of study, some disciplines (like history) face now a “3+1” situation. This can hamper the transparency on a European level




IMPACT

Access Entry rates have increased over the past years mostly due to the abolition of the entrance examination, not the transformation into the Bachelor/Master structure. Admission procedures to the Bachelor level have been impacted by the abolition of the entrance examination. Admission to the Master and Doctoral level has been broadened to a larger set of degrees, in particular for degrees from the polytechnics (see below). Underrepresented groups in engineering are women in general, and students from immigrant populations. There are no clear structural changes in admission procedures. Unconditional admission to the Master’s Programme has been opened to specific science degrees (informatics, physics) and to corresponding degrees from the polytechnics. Admission has further been widened to a large set of other disciplinary backgrounds, conditioned upon the completion of specific preparatory programmes.

Engineering

Graduation It is too early to say what the impact is on graduation rates. In order to avoid the expected increase of the time to degree (as a consequence of the introduction of gradual abolition of the study‐year system (flexibility), HEIs are more and more investing in counsellors, helping students with their study track

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Employability First cycle degrees of academic disciplines do not really qualify graduates

for immediate employment as this is for the moment not the intention. There are sufficient offerings in the whole of engineering education programmes (including the polytechnics) to have employment qualification (after 3 or 4 years) at the professional Bachelor’s level or the polytechnic Master’s level, and after 5 or 6 years at the University Master’s level, without having to combine these in the same programmes. The concept of transferable skills has been implemented with the ECTS system, and mechanisms to recognise prior skills acquired elsewhere are developped.

Mobility There is currently a certain stagnation of outgoing students. Quality of education

Quality assurance procedures (internal QA as well as international visitations) have been in place for several years prior to the programme changes, and apply without change. Internal procedures indicate no significant changes. Several visitations, however, have indicated that the new programmes improve on the old ones on several counts. Existing institutional quality procedures are standardized across faculties. National Quality Assurance Mechanisms have been adapted to the international accreditation process.


Access Entry to medical studies is regulated through a Flemish entrance examination. Since then the criteria for passing the examination have been released; but this was rather due to a recalculation of the needs of the country than to the Bologna Process. Access to the first cycle is without limitation for all students who have passed the entrance examination. Bachelors from other directions in the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences have to follow bridge programmes to get access to the Master in Sciences’ studies, but this rarely happens. Medical doctors from non‐EU countries may be referred to the beginning of the second cycle, depending on their results of an equivalence examination by an interuniversity commission. Apart from the entrance examination there is no real limitation concerning access to medical education. For students from low income families there is a system of funding without the obligation for repayment after graduation (no student loan). During the implementation of the Bologna process, specific programmes have been formulated for Bachelors from other fields. Candidates have to pass the entrance examination.

Medical studies

Graduation It is too early to assess impact on graduate rates, degree flexibility or (international) labour market.

Employability First cycle degrees do not qualify graduates for immediate employment. Rules have been formulated for the concept of transferable skills.Students can get support from the study guides in our faculty to establish their portfolio of acquired competencies.

Mobility The new curriculum has increased the interest of students for one or more Erasmus or overseas periods (3 months). The current graduates have not followed the new Bachelor/Master programme. On the mobility of graduates or teaching staff there are no figures yet. Mobility of teaching staff is quite limited.

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Some years before the implementation of the two‐tier structure, the programme has been renewed completely (as an undivided cycle), based on a competence oriented and problem oriented approach. Every year, tests are organised in order to benchmark the ‘scientific knowledge’ of students of this new approach in comparison with medical students from other European countries. The results are always positive.


Before the introduction of “individualised study tracks” students could follow individualised packages of study elements from two different years. The reform has attracted more attention to the logical sequence of study elements in a student’s career. So far the implementation of Bologna has not lead to big shifts in the input/output ratios of the study programme.

Access There has been no significant change on entry rates. Admission requirements are now more formalised and bridging programmes with professionally oriented higher education have been created, especially with the professional bachelor ‘practice of law’. Through a bridging programme for ‘practice of law’, students can enrol in the second cycle from other disciplinary backgrounds or from other institutional types. Some academic bachelors can choose a minor ‘law’ (history, sociology, criminology). When they want to continue afterwards in law, those courses are then waved.

Law

Graduation It is too early to say, but an analysis of the results of the 1st year of bachelor shows a slight decrease of rates.

Employability First cycle degrees do not qualify graduates for immediate employment. There might be some pressure in the future from the labour market.

Mobility Possibilities for mobility exist already for a long period; Bologna brought no change.


New regulations on QA and control of the political authorities are now linked with internal QA: the report of the external commission of the visitations is now the basis for accreditation.


Reforms in the study areas have not led to better results given unchanged financial inputs or lower levels of financial inputs.

Access Like in most other disciplines, access to teacher training for prep schools, primary schools and the first part of the secondary school, is open to all holders of a secondary school degree. The specific teacher training in a large number of disciplines requires a master degree. Nevertheless, this training can be followed at the same moment as the master studies; the degree can only be obtained after finishing the master.

Teacher training

Graduation In the very near future, a new decree on teacher training will be voted in Flemish Parliament. This will change completely the existing situation. Therefore, it seems to be too early to go into detail in these questions.

Employability Mobility Quality of education


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Access No changes related to the Bologna Process Graduation As the introduction of the two‐tier structure started in 2004‐2005, the first

bachelors will graduate in 2006‐2007. It is too early to see effects on the graduation

History

Employability In order to increase employability and flexibility, in the history programmes of some universities, ‘minors’ (economics, political sciences, law, …) have been introduced

Mobility International mobility of students follow the general evolution. The introduction of minors is in some cases a complication


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‐

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Curriculum reform in Bulgaria



The reform of HE started with the new law in 1990 which increased institutional autonomy and introduced private HE. However, the law lacked a proper control system and the HE system deteriorated. The Law on HE from 1995 restricted the institutional autonomy and introduced a multi‐stage education. On the basis of this Law a National Evaluation and Accreditation Agency was established as a national authority under the Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers adopted State Educational Standards for bachelors and masters degrees which strongly limited institutional autonomy in curricula development. In 2002 they were repealed by the national gazette which defines a framework of professional areas with academic workload for most study programs, except for the regulated professions which follow national approved standards related to a specific profession. Forthcoming changes focus on improvement of the HE quality and harmonization with the European HE. The curricula reforms focus on shortening study programs, identifying competences and skills requirements, increase course options and students’ mobility. Other concerns are on improving performance of the National Evaluation and Accreditation Agency, HE funding system, autonomy of HEI’s concerning internal structure and management efficiency, increasing number of young academic staff, and improving HE access system. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

The Law on Higher Education (LHE) from 1995 introduced 4 stages: • Specialist: 3 years of tuition (ISCED 5B) • Bachelor: 4 years of tuition (ISCED 5A) • Master: 1 year of tuition (ISCED 5A) • Doctor: 3 years of tuition (ISCED 6) Regulated professions are exceptions: at medicine, law, civil engineering and architecture only masters’ degrees are awarded (duration 5‐6 years). Students are admitted to specialist’s and bachelor’s degree programs on the basis of admittance examinations. Each HEI makes its own decision on admittance examinations number and kind. The admittance rating score is based on the admittance examination(s) performance and selected grades from the secondary education certificate. The number of students admitted to HEI is determined by the state. The state assigns a relatively small number to admittance of students to master’s degree programs funded by the national budget. HEIs are allowed to admit an extra number of students who pay higher tuition fees. Students are admitted to masters’ degree programs on the basis of the Bachelor’s Degree average grade. The state determines the number of doctoral students on yearly basis and covers their allowances. Doctoral students receive scholarships. Any applicant for doctoral studies shall sit for an admittance examination on the subject related to his doctoral program and for a foreign language examination.


The study plans are usually developed on the basis of an initially approved description of the graduating students’ qualification. It explains the knowledge and skills that graduates shall have. Many universities offer additional possibilities to their students to learn foreign languages or computer skills. Different competence‐building approaches to work with students are used; the students are encouraged to participate in workshops and conferences. Some universities provide possibilities for their talented

students to work in amateur clubs: they have students’ drama groups, dancing groups, fine arts and so on. However, the competence‐based learning principles in the learning process are still underused and not quite well developed. The concept of transferable skills has been applied in a limited scale. The disciplines are closely related to their professional qualifications.

• Flexible learning A very limited choice of courses and lectures is offered. Under the HE Act, any study plan shall include compulsory, elected and optional courses. Usually, the elected courses are grouped in modules. In Bulgaria, there are a big number of HEIs offering a big number of degree courses; a relatively small number of students are educated in each course. This limits the possibilities to provide flexible learning paths. Unsatisfying involvement of employers’ associations in designing the curricula.

• paths:

• Recognition: The amendments of the LHE introduced the ECTS and the Diploma Supplement in 2004. However, the implementation of the ECTS is not fully adequate yet. Each HEI decides about the procedure of recognizing education diplomas and credits from other higher educational institutions in the country. The same refers to education credits from foreign higher schools. Foreign diplomas shall be recognized by the Ministry of Education and Science.

• Mobility: Asymmetric mobility pattern: number of outgoing Bulgarian students and academic staff is higher than the number of incoming foreign students and academics. Reason: teaching language is Bulgarian. A growing number of Bulgarian universities offer teaching in English, German and French hence the possibilities to admit foreign students are improved. Furthermore, in order to support students and academics mobility under the Socrates/Erasmus program, HEIs spend funds from their own budgets. There is no state policy to support mobility. From the 41 universities in Bulgaria in 2005, 35 were involved in students exchange under the Socrates/Erasmus program. The CEEPUS (Central European Exchange Program for University Studies) also enables mobility. There are no data of students’ mobility between universities in Bulgaria. There are data indicating a growing mobility with Russia.

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STATE OF THE ART

General Six years study programs lead to master degree. The curricula follow the national requirements approved by the Council of Ministers. Medicine is a regulated profession. Medical education is by 4 specialized universities. The annual number of graduating medical students is about 1400.

Medical studies


The tuition is at the masters’ level and it takes 6 years. A doctoral degree can only be obtained after the master’s degree.


The curricula comply with the Ministry of Health’s standards and are in conformity with national and European labour market. The professional competency of a medical doctor graduate is described in the Medical Doctor/Master qualification description.

Flexible learning The curricula offer elected and optional courses and modules. paths Recognition Diploma Supplement is going to be issued for the first time to the

graduates in 2006. Many foreign students enter medical universities. Medical education degrees are recognized in Bulgaria providing that the similarity between the study plans is over 80%.

Mobility The ECTS is implemented. The discussions between medical universities on coordination credits are still taking place. The involvement of medical universities in the students exchange under the Socrates/Erasmus program is relatively low.

General There are 10 universities providing study programs of law. Law is a regulated profession and the study plan is in conformity with the state standard as adopted by the Council of Ministers.

Law


5 years long masters’ programs enable graduates to postgraduate education leading to doctor’s degree. Discussions on introducing the bachelor’s degree are taking place.


The curricula offer elected and optional courses and modules.

Flexible learning Inflexible: the state specifies curricula standard that prescribe compulsory courses. paths

Recognition The Diploma Supplement has been implemented. There are restrictions on recognizing foreign degrees in law. Degrees in European Law are recognized without any problems. In the general case, some extra examinations shall be passed.

Mobility Very limited, but the ECTS has been widely implemented. The difficulties are related to the circumstance that most of the courses refer to the national legislation.

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General The curricula for bachelor approved in 2005 have 2800 – 2850 teaching hours. Teachers are educated at universities that have pedagogy (education) faculties. The annual number of graduates is about 3500. Some universities offer special post‐graduation programs for teacher training.

Teacher training


Three cycle structure: Bachelor: 4 years of study, Master: not shorter than 1 year, Doctor: 3 years Discussion: to reduce bachelor study to 3 or 3.5 years and prolong the duration of masters study, so that the total period of bachelor and master study is 5 years. Applicants for education at pedagogy faculties shall sit for admittance examinations: one in the Bulgarian language and the other one correspond to the education program field. The applying students shall meet certain health requirements (the communication skills are tested and a mental health document is requested).


In teachers’ courses, much attention is paid to learning skills for working with children, field work in schools is part of the education, building competences beyond the particular study plans is encouraged.

Flexible learning Insufficient, because the profiles of the degree courses to which the students are admitted are of extremely narrow scopes hence choice options in a degree course like this are very limited.

paths

Recognition The Diploma Supplement and ECTS have been implemented. Foreign diplomas are recognized.

Mobility The ECTS has been implemented. The number of students and academics involved in the Socrates/Erasmus mobility program is growing. There is data indicating a growing mobility with Russia and other countries of the former Soviet Union.

General In 1997 the Council of Ministers adopted the national requirements for curricula with specific number of teaching hours. Technical universities or universities with technical faculties offer engineering degree programs. The annual number of graduates is about 5000.

Engineering


Three cycle structure: Bachelor: 4 years of study, Masters: not shorter than 1 year, Doctor: 3 years Discussion: to reduce bachelor study to 3 or 3.5 years and increase the masters, so that the total period of study together with bachelor is 5 years. To enter technical faculties, the students shall sit for at least two examinations, in mathematics and in physics as a rule, or for a general technical knowledge test.


Underdeveloped in most of the universities. There are problems with ensuring field training outside the universities.

Flexible learning Insufficient. As a rule, the elected courses of the engineering degree programs are grouped in modules that can be elected. The options are limited because of the limited scope of the education programs for which the students can apply. Therefore, at a later stage it is difficult for the students to move to another degree program.

paths

Recognition The Diploma Supplement and ECTS have been implemented. The engineering faculties recognize education credits from other HEIs (including foreign HEIs). Foreign diplomas are recognized but by the Ministry of Education and Science.

34

Mobility ECTS has been implemented as of 2004 plus a modular curriculum structure. The academics and students’ mobility is predominantly related to the SOCRATES/ERASMUS program. The students’ mobility between Bulgarian universities is fairly low.

General The education in history was thoroughly reformed after 1995. History students are educated at universities of the humanities and/or pedagogy faculties.

History


Three‐cycle structure: Bachelor: 4 years of study, Master: not shorter than 1 year, Doctor: 3 years Discussion: to reduce bachelor study to 3 or 3.5 years and increase the masters study so that the total period of bachelor and master study is 5 years. The students who opt to become teachers of history shall sit for examinations in Bulgarian and history. The students who opt to become professional historians shall sit for an examination in history.


In the recent years, diverse teaching and education methods were implemented (individual assignments, practical fieldwork – archaeological, ethnographic, archive and so on) to enable the students to acquire (apart from knowledge) certain applied practical skills that will let them solve certain specific theoretical and practical tasks.

Flexible learning Big diversity of elected and optional courses and modules. paths Recognition The Diploma Supplement and ECTS have been implemented. Higher

education degree in history is recognized by the Ministry of Education. Mobility ECTS has been implemented in 2004. There is no mobility data for the

country. Mobility with foreign countries is largely based on the Socrates/Erasmus program.

IMPACT

Access Access to HE is limited and fully controlled by the state. Admission procedure: compulsory admittance examinations are organised by universities to enter bachelor study programs. Ministry of Education imposed limitations to admit master students on the basis of semester fees and high grades in the bachelor’s degree. The Law of HE provides special possibilities for disabled people and mothers with children. Curricula are more open to change study programs and institutions.

General for all studies

Graduation The number of graduates has increased. The total number of admitted students has grown from 28293 (2002) to 33839 (2005), while the total number of students for the same period has grown from 211272 to 214693 (this number covers bachelor and master programs). The new curricula have led to shorter study programs. The annual number of graduating bachelors and masters is about 40000. There are no accurate data for the drop‐out rate. The summarized statistical data indicate a very low drop‐out rate.

35

Employability The number of employed people with higher education degrees has grown

by 2% in 2005 related to 2004 while the unemployment level in the same period has fallen by 2%. In 2005, the unemployment rate of the holders of university degrees was 4.4% (the average unemployment level in the country was 10.5%) The reformed study programmes are not sufficiently adequate to the labour market demands. Employers’ organisations are dissatisfied with the qualifications of bachelors in some professional fields.

Mobility Student mobility has been improved and is concentrated in the EU countries. No published systematic statistical data of domestic and foreign mobility of academics and students are available. About 47% of the scholars were not involved in any mobility program between 1994 and 2004; most mobile are scholars at the age of 36‐40. There is no state policy to support mobility. Of the total number of students in Bulgaria, about 1% per annum is involved in mobility programs.


The “scores” on performance indicators have been affected. Significant improvement of institutional and program assessment. The National Evaluation and Accreditation Agency was reorganised in 2004. The evaluation and decision‐making criteria have changed. Continuous monitoring of the accredited universities and programs was implemented. The universities are launching internal quality control systems.


The complex economic changes have made it impossible to make unconditional comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of the HE system prior to the changes and after them.

Access Access to HE is limited and fully controlled by the state. Graduation The number of graduating students has not changed. Employability The number of employed doctors has a minor drop: from 27688 (2002) to

27507 (2005). The graduated doctors can find jobs.

Medical studies

Mobility Limited. The number of students involved in mobility programs is relatively low (for example, out of 4000 students, about 30 were involved in mobility programs per year).


Quality of education has largely been preserved in the medical education system. Under the Higher Education Act, any higher education establishment shall implement an internal quality control and management system. The implementation of such systems in higher medical schools is currently in progress. The National Evaluation and Accreditation Agency shall monitor the performance of such systems.


No data are available.

Access Access to HE is limited and fully controlled by the state. Graduation The number of graduating students has grown considerably.

Law

Employability The rate of unemployed lawyers is low. The reform of judicial system in Bulgaria demands for a bigger number of law graduates.

Mobility Limited mobility possibilities. There are no official data. However, the information collected from HE establishments shows that a relatively small number of students and academics are involved in mobility programs. The reason probably is that education in law is largely related to the national legislation.


Significant difficulties in providing academic staff. Underdeveloped quality assurance system.



36

Access Smaller interest in teaching degree programs. The state reduces study places in these programs.

Graduation The number of graduating specialists is falling because of the smaller need of the state to educate teachers on account of the diminishing number of children.

Teacher training

Employability Good coordination with the education system needs. Teachers are educated in close partnership with schools. The students have field classes in schools and their education is largely based on their future job requirements.The number of teachers has fallen by 3.2% comparing to 2000. In 2004, 4.7% of the teachers were unemployed.

Mobility Underdeveloped possibilities. There are no official data. The data collected from a number of higher schools indicate that compared to engineering and natural sciences degree courses, the academics and students’ mobility is low.


Quality systems have been implemented. Regular accreditation. The quality control and management system includes the individual fields of studies as well as the university management. Accreditation is given in Bulgaria to individual fields of studies as well as to the university at the institutional level.



Access Slight growth of the numbers opened to students applying to engineering programs. Particularly big interest in computer engineering and communication programs.

Engineering

Graduation The interest in engineering programs has been falling, with the exception of computer engineering and communications.

Employability Insufficient coordination and cooperation with the labor‐market needs. Employers have a very limited influence over the preparation of study plans and programmes. The students are not motivated to take engineering degree courses. The employers are not satisfied with the quality of the graduating engineers. There is unsatisfied demand on engineering staff.

Mobility Relatively good mobility level. The comparative data obtained from higher schools indicate that the engineering degree courses have a considerable share in students and academics mobility. With students’ mobility, there is a particularly high interest in writing graduation papers at foreign universities.


The internal quality assurance systems are reasonably developed. The systems incorporate document turnover measures, analyses on students’ and academics’ views, study plans and programmes approval and amendment procedures. In many higher schools, the quality assurance systems are audited by authorized companies on a regular basis. The obsolete equipment is a problem for effective quality assurance. The teaching equipment is obsolete.



Access The numbers of study places in history is determined by the state and has been decreased.

History

Graduation The number of graduated specialists is falling due to the smaller number of study places.

Employability Vacancies are hard to find. Mobility Insufficiently developed possibilities. There are no official data for the

mobility of history students and academics. The data received from HEIs indicate that mobility is underused.


Internal quality assurance systems are reasonably developed. The history education is at a good quality level.


There is no information available.

37

References

Higher Education Law, (2005) Sofia, the Parliament State Standards for Higher Education, Sofia, State Gazette Statistical Yearbooks Bulgaria, (2005, 2006) Sofia, National statistical institute Program Socrates/Erasmus (2005) Annual Reports for Student and Teaching Mobility. Sofia Internal Reports by the Ministry of Education and Science, Sofia Ivanova, M. (2005) ECTS and the Diploma Supplement, Sofia, National seminar “The Bologna Process in

Bulgaria”. Central European Exchange Program for University Studies (CEEPUS), www.ceepus.infoNational Education Institute (2005) Monitoring report on the Bulgarian higher education progress towards implementation of the Bologna Process goals. Sofia, National education institute.

Pashkina, J. (2005) The higher education in Bulgaria in the context of the Bologna process, Sofia, National education institute.

Anastassova, L. (2005) Profession ”Researcher” in Bulgaria – a Sociological View on the Factors and Conditions for Development of Bulgarian Researchers, J. Science, Sofia.

38

http://www.ceepus.info/

Curriculum reform in Croatia



In 2001 at the ministerial conference held in Prague the Minister of Science, Education and Sport signed the Bologna declaration. The new Science and Higher Education Act (2003) indicates that in the academic year 2005/2006 the HE system has to be changed according to the Bologna process. The new Law, however, does not envisage solutions for a number of regulative and practical problems regarding the implementation. The Ministry organised some workshops to promote the Bologna approach, but lack of clarity remains about the meaning of changes and about reorganisation of study programs and teaching approaches. As a consequence criteria are not applied consequently across universities and even across the same study programmes. Some programmes have been changed formally, leaving traditional views on teaching and teaching conditions unchanged. The overall result is that the rationalisation of study programmes has been achieved only at some faculties. An important obstacle for implementing the reforms is a lack of functional autonomy on the part of institutions in developing academic self‐governance and implementing institutional strategies. Cooperation and coordination between faculties/ institutions is also lacking. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

Basically a three cycle structure, although different from the Bologna process and not in a systematic way. Disciplinary programmes developed at different universities have different structures, e.g. 3+2 years in one university and 4+1 in another. Other programmes in professional areas remain undivided as five or six year programmes Generally speaking 75% of the university programs has adopted the two‐tier system with the 3+2 model. The major exceptions are: medical studies adopting 6‐year model as well as law studies and teacher education which adopted a 4+1 model.


National policies on competence‐based learning have been regulated in the new Act of 2003. Nevertheless, the majority of bachelor undergraduate programmes at the university are not preparing for the labour market and students are supposed to continue in the second cycle. The Dublin descriptors have been used for the definition of learning goals. On the other hand study programs at the polytechnics are labour market oriented.


At some faculties the number of relatively rigid study programmes increased instead of increasing the number of entry and exit points. To illustrate this inflexibility: students who did not complete their studies (in the old structure) within the allocated time (for whatever reasons) and thus did not achieve any academic degree, cannot enter any new programme in order to achieve a bachelor or master degree. The Bologna process does not seem to solve these problems.

• Recognition: The graduation rate is in Croatia very low compared to other European

countries. In the old one‐cycle system the graduation rate does not exceed 35 % of the cohort. Students who fail to complete the long first degree (which corresponds to the integrated two cycles) are counted as secondary education diploma holders.

It is expected that the curricular reform will increase the graduation rate, recognising first (bachelor) degrees. A problem with recognition of the new degrees and study duration is how to find equivalences with the old structure. In the former structure, graduates of undergraduate study (4 years programme) have been called bachelor even though the workload was equivalent to the master degree; the former postgraduate study of 2‐3 years are masters which is the equivalent of doctorates according to Bologna. The actual (and unsolved) questions are: should former bachelors become masters, should former master degrees be recognised as doctorates, former doctorates habilitated doctorates? And should students not finishing their undergraduate study (6 years work load for 4 years programme) be eligible ‐ considering their work load ‐ to obtain a bachelor degree?

• Mobility: To date, the Bologna process has not brought about mobility. See above under recognition. Although new study programmes have been established and ECTS assigned, most faculties did not adjust mobility schemes and teaching methods and therefore permeability between studies remains low.

It seems more difficult to achieve 60 ECTS credits per year then to pass a year before the reform. For students the regulations for new study programmes are not clear, and neither for students under the old system to transfer to the new system. Admission criteria for the second cycle are not clear and students seem to be poorly informed. According to students’ impressions, some study programmes are organised as integrated two‐cycle form not because of practical reasons, but because of institutional interests to obstruct mobility of students. In this situation students have no real exit after the first cycle and are forced to continue in the second cycle. International mobility is still not high (about 1200 students per year on exchange programs ‐ 0.8% of total HE student population). Major problem is the fact that Croatia has not yet been admitted to the Socrates/Erasmus programs. International mobility of students and staff is based upon bilateral agreements between home and foreign universities.

40

STATE OF THE ART

General Medical studies (human and animal) have maintained their old one cycle structure. Medical studies at the University of Zagreb also offers full 6 year program in the English language for international students.

Medical studies


Integrated curriculum at BA/MA level. Development of third cycle, i.e. doctoral studies is in process.


Competence‐based curriculum is in process of development within the national qualification framework in all four medical schools in Croatia


The structure of study has been changed. Block system and modularisation has been introduced. Flexibility of learning path is not envisaged, other entry and exit points do not occur. There are no curricular options for different target groups.

Recognition ECTS introduced, no diploma supplements, Mobility There are efforts to increase international student mobility, graduate

mobility and mobility of teaching staff. The basic university infrastructure (International Relation Offices) supporting mobility has been developed since 2004. The disadvantage is also a lack of study programs in English or other foreign languages. On the other hand Croatian courses for foreigners are offered at most HEIs.

General The law studies have transformed according to the suggestion from the International Law Association (ELFA)

Law


Two tier‐system has been introduced adopting the 4+1 model. Doctoral and specialist studies at the third cycle level are being developed.


This is in the process of redefinition in accordance with ELFA association to meet the European qualification framework


The curriculum is not flexible and the number of entry and exit points has not increased. However, for some target groups such as traditional legal professions, administrative, business, and internationally oriented lawyers a variety of curricular options are provided.

Recognition Modularisation and ECTS introduced. Consumer information considerably improved.

Mobility There are efforts to increase international student mobility, graduate mobility and mobility of teaching staff

Teacher training

General Primary school teachers (classroom teaching) and kindergarten teachers are educated at the teacher’s colleges, while subject teacher for higher grades of primary school and for secondary school are educated at faculties where they take both academic and educational sciences as well as courses in methodology. Practice at schools or kindergarten is obligatory for all of them. The major change has been introduced for the teachers colleges which functioned as vocational Hochschule. The new Law prescribes upgrading of teacher colleges to the level of university studies. Their name has changed to teacher faculties. The major changes for subject teacher education has been the transition from the parallel model of integrated study programs (academic and educational sciences taught in a parallel way) to the consecutive model (BA level only for academic content, MA as combination of academic content and the educational sciences /school practice ( with minimum 60 ECTS credits for the latter).

41


Teacher education has adopted two‐tier system but differentially regarding the education of classroom or subject teachers. (The BA program for kindergarten teachers has been prolonged for 1 year but is still at the level of vocational courses). Programs for primary school teachers have adopted 4+1 model, while programs for subject teachers (higher primary school, and secondary schools) have adopted 3+2 model. Both levels are also developing third cycle doctoral programs as well as a range of postgraduate specialist programs.


In accordance with the national qualification framework and schooling system. Transferable skills and teaching competences are better defined.


There is no flexibility in learning paths, apart from curriculum options that can be chosen through different elective courses. Additional entry nor exit points are not envisaged. Life long learning is offered by external institutions (Ministry and its agencies or even by NGO sector. There is no possibility to include professionals into teacher training programme, not even specialists who are already involved in educational business at some level. For secondary schools, Ministry supports study programmes that prepare teachers of two subjects. Only related subjects (like mathematics‐physics, chemistry‐biology, two languages etc.) are envisaged by faculty (not university) authorities and students are not able to combine two subjects from different faculties in accordance with their interests and prior knowledge.

Recognition Yes, through diploma supplements; ECTS. Mobility There are efforts to increase international student mobility, graduate

mobility and mobility of teaching staff General Majority of engineering programs have adopted the 3+2 model while some

also have 3,5 + 1,5 model. Program development has been influenced by professional associations (CAESAR, SEFI)

Engineering


Three‐cycle structure.


For some study programmes in accordance with the European qualification framework


There is a diversity of teaching methods, and there are special tracks for excellent students. Second‐cycle provides options for different target groups

Recognition Modularisation and ECTS introduced and transcript of records used Mobility There are efforts to increase international student mobility, graduate

mobility and mobility of teaching staff. There are some instances of joint programs at MA level) for international students (chemical engineering and mechanical engineering).

General History is taught at the faculties of humanities and social sciences. This can be a major or in the major/minor combination leading to MA in education.

History


Three‐cycle structure. No decision regarding access to the second cycle. For the second cycle students can choose between a research or a teaching orientation.


In the second‐cycle students can develop their competencies in accordance with the European qualification framework

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A variety of curriculum options has been offered through different courses that can be chosen.

Recognition Modularisation and ECTS introduced Mobility There are efforts to increase international student mobility, graduate

mobility and mobility of teaching staff

IMPACT

Generally the impact questions are difficult to answer because the restructuring of the programmes according to Bologna requirements started in the academic year 2005/2006 Regarding quality: The Agency for Science and Higher Education is in the process of being established. Indicators will be developed. It is too early to assess the impact

Access This has not increased Graduation Too early to predict. Graduation rates were relatively high in pre‐Bologna

period.

Medical studies

Employability No qualification for employment after first cycle. After 6 year MA program internship is required.

Mobility Mobility between Croatian medical schools does not occur but is planned with new curricula. University of Zagreb offers also a full MA course in English for foreign students, but home students can enrol as well.


Introduction of one‐semester courses, block teaching, problem‐based teaching, differentiated methods of assessment.


Yes, without additional financial resources the organisation of study has improved with better results

Access Increased, but probably because of active marketing and less due to the redefined curriculum

Law

Graduation Too early to say, but law reports a high passing rate from first to second year Employability No qualification for employment after first cycle Mobility Increased after social transformation (establishment of relationships with

international professional associations). Increased mobility of academic staff. Quality of education

Introduction of one‐semester courses, teaching in smaller groups.


Better results already at the end of the first year. Performance is more expensive due to very high student/teacher ratios. The same lectures are repeated several times.

Access Up‐grading of primary teachers programs to university level has increased the attractiveness of the sector. Enrolment rates increased with about 20%. Subject teachers programs are also highly attractive, special for social sciences and humanities.

Teacher training

Graduation It is too early to predict the effects on graduation rates since these have been fairly high before as well (between 50 and 60%)

Employability No qualification for employment after first cycle Mobility International mobility is not high since Croatia is not member of Erasmus

and Socrates networks. Mobility within Croatia is not encouraged. Quality of Introduction of one‐semester courses, more teaching methodology and

school practice, more interactive and cooperative teaching. education Cost‐effectiveness

This is expected, but too early to say

43

Access No change Graduation Too early. Electrical engineering reports a high passing from the first to the

second year

Engineering

Employability First cycle qualifies for employment Mobility Results are poor since Croatia is not member of Erasmus and Socrates

networks. International students are attracted by MA programs in English language.


Introduction of more project and problem based teaching, more placements and practical experience.


Organisation of study process took a turn for the better and resulted in high passing rate what generally improved the cost‐effectiveness, since additional financial resources have not been available.

Access No change. Graduation Too early to predict results.

History

Employability First cycle does not qualify for employment Mobility Not increased considerably Quality of education

Introduction of one‐semester courses, more site visits, and more group work.


It is expected

References

Science and Higher Education Act (2003).

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Curriculum reform in Cyprus




Three cycles since 1992 (start University of Cyprus, which is only university. Open University started September 2006, Technological University to start in 2007). Ptychio/Bachelor: 240 ECTS, Master: 90‐120 ECTS, Didactoriko: 2‐8 years. At some other tertiary state institutes and private schools: three years to basic degree with access to second cycle elsewhere. At other state institutes of tertiary education: 1‐3 year programmes (Certificate, Diploma or Higher Diploma). Hardly master programmes at other institutions than the university. Access to all institutions through secondary education (Apolytirion) or equivalent and entrance exams: number of places are centrally determined.


Finalisation of a three‐year of certain state institutions allows students to enter second cycle elsewhere. Access to Master level is relatively limited (at university: of the 5,000 students, 1,000 are Master and PhD). More flexibility expected in 2006: e.g. places at university for graduates from technical schools (currently not eligible).

• Recognition:

ECTS and Diploma Supplement regulation on its way, University of Cyprus has already implemented ECTS (2005) and DS (2004). Cyprus Council for recognition of degrees (KYSATS) in charge of recognition issues.

• Mobility:

Cyprus joined Erasmus/Socrates in 1998, increased mobility since then. Six‐month sabbatical for every three year of teaching for every academic staff member is a good motive for staff mobility.

STATE OF THE ART

Medical studies

General Not (yet) offered in Cyprus

Law

General Not (yet) offered in Cyprus, probably in 2007

General Elementary school/Kindergarten: bachelor degree of 240 ECTS The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Teacher training



Elementary school: 164 ECTS compulsory, Kindergarten: 176 ECTS compulsory.

Recognition Mobility General Is relatively new: in civil, civil and environmental, electrical, computer,

mechanical and manufacturing engineering, so easy to adjust to recent developments

Engineering


Bachelor of 240 ECTS


Curricula have been redefined, but further improvements are required.


At least 15 ECTS should be electives (i.e. electives not part of the specialisation). Special entry arrangements for mature learners having professional experience in the army. Special entry arrangements also for minority groups (about 10% of entrants)


Bachelor of 240 ECTS History




IMPACT

General tendencies: first cycle degrees qualify for immediate employment, but no data available on actual judgements by employers. Mobility in general increased (also through European programmes). Graduation rates of university are generally high.

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Curriculum reform in the Czech Republic



The three cycle system has been introduced by the Act on Higher Education already in 1998. Its amendment in 2001 made the three cycle system obligatory. Exceptions to this must be approved by the Accreditation Commission. This has happened, especially in the field of medicine, veterinary medicine, pharmacy, law, and discussions are taking place around teacher training. The 2006‐2010 Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport document “The long‐term plan of educational research, developmental, artistic or other creative activity in the area of Higher Education Institutions” and its annual updates put a strong emphasis on the new structure of studies and on the number of students studying in particular fields. The curriculum content is the responsibility of each HEI/faculty; each study programme should be accredited and re‐accredited after a limited time. Positive developments can be seen in terms of collaboration with industry and employers in general. The five study areas do not differ in curricular reforms in principle. The most complicated discussions and still unsolved problems are found in teacher training and law, with a low degree of permeability between study programmes. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

First degrees lead to a degree relevant to the (European) labour market after 3/4 years. Access to the second level (Masters) differs by study programme. Generally the access to both study levels (first and second degrees) is limited by the public financial resources available. The public budget for teaching is allocated according to the number of students multiplied by cost of studies. The limits (percentage of annual increase of students) are negotiated between the Ministry of Education and representatives of the Czech Rectors’ Conference, and the Council of Higher Education Institutions (including students, registrars and trade unions). In recent years the increase of student numbers was 5‐10%. So it is not a numerus clausus controlled by the State but a kind of assurance of acceptable funding of teaching activities. The limited access is similarly managed in both cycles (bachelor and master) even if the agreed percentage of student enrolments is usually different. Private HEIs can decide on the number of students on their own. Curricula have been reorganised to account for the new multi‐cycle system.


The curriculum has not yet been redefined along the EQF. The obligatory part of the application for accreditation of each study programme is the description of the graduate‘s profile, i.e. the determination of his/her knowledge, skills and competencies. The Accreditation Commission requires that the profile is in harmony with study programmes goals and with its content even if it is not explicitly specified in legal rules. At the current time, there are not enough reliable data available to judge whether the transparency of skills and knowledge acquired have been increased.


The Czech Republic does not have a dual system of Higher Education and the question of increasing permeability with vocational/professional education is therefore not relevant.

HEIs in the Czech Republic can provide different groups/individuals with a special study plans and curricular options. There are in theory good possibilities and no formal barriers for flexibility within the Bachelors, and from the Bachelor to the Master. In practice it is still not common, partly due to HEIs themselves partly due to students who have not been used to plan their studies differently, partly to the rigidity of the Accreditation Commission: its priority is still much geared towards the traditional way of studies.

• Recognition: Diploma supplements have been introduced in two languages and are free of charge. Theoretically, modularisation and ECTS have been introduced as facilitators for recognition; this has sometimes lead to practical problems like credit recognition recognition of diplomas etc. Validation of prior learning and professional experience is practically non‐existent. Information and communication on studying in Higher Education has been improved through websites (Ministry, CHES, individual HEIs), and publications for Czech and foreign students.

• Mobility: Efforts are made to increase international student mobility with additional State support. There is no information available regarding efforts to increase graduate mobility on the (European) labour market. There is State support to increase the mobility of teaching staff (internationalising the teaching experience).

STATE OF THE ART

First degrees have been created that can be completed after a minimum of three years. These degrees have relevance to the (European) labour market.

General The study programmes in general medicine lasts six years. Their content fully responds to EU Directives. Agreement has not been reached to re‐structure medical studies into three cycles. There are more or less two cycles: the first cycle includes the bachelor and master (although no bachelor degree is awarded); the master degree entitles graduates to enter doctoral study programme. The doctoral study programme lasts three years (as stipulated by the Act for all study fields) and graduates are awarded with the PhD degree. Dentistry is five years in duration, in accordance with the EU Directive. Structured studies exist in several health professions (general nurse and midwife), leading to a bachelor degree in accordance to EU Directives. In the fields of physiotherapy, optometry, health management programmes are structured according to the three cycles.

Medical studies


See above.


The curriculum has not yet been redefined along the EQF. The obligatory part of the application for accreditation of each study programme is the prescription of graduate‘s profile, i.e. determination of his/her knowledge, skills and competencies. The Accreditation Commission requires that the profile is in harmony with study programme goals and with its content even if it is not explicitly specified in the regulations. At present, there are not enough reliable data available to judge whether the transparency of skills and knowledge acquired have been increased.


Several HEIs (with medical faculties) intend to structure general medical studies in bachelor studies (natural sciences). After two years (in the first cycle) students will be asked to choose between general medicine, natural sciences, teacher training, and be prepared to enter the practice in case they do not wish to continue with a master. The proposal has not been accepted by the Accreditation Commission yet.

Recognition Validation of prior learning and professional experience is practically non‐existent.

Mobility Efforts are made to increase international student mobility with additional State support to complement Socrates/Erasmus support

48

General The former structure has been maintained for study programmes of law. These last five years. One of the four faculties intends to re‐structure the long master study programme but has not been successful yet in the accreditation procedure.

Law


The Bologna Process has not been implemented


see Medical studies


The possibility for students to use flexible path of their studies among classical “long term” study programmes and structured study programmes (graduates form Bachelor study programmes of other study fields or graduates from Bachelor study programmes of related study fields offered by private non‐university HEIs) is very limited.

Recognition Validation of prior learning and professional experience is practically non‐existent (see general context).

Mobility General For pre‐primary teacher training, graduates come from tertiary professional

schools with a diploma obtained after in average three years of study, or alternatively from bachelor studies provided in the faculties of pedagogy in HEIs. Master qualification is required by the Education Act for Primary teacher training. Study programmes are provided by the faculties of pedagogy. Teacher training for secondary education is provided by both faculties of pedagogy and other faculties (philosophy, natural science etc.).

Teacher training


The new structure of programmes leading to qualification of teachers for primary education has been a topic of heated debates. The main issue is whether to structure these programmes along the lines of Bologna. Studies leading to qualification of teacher for secondary education are mostly structured in two cycles: the first cycle (bachelor) is frequently oriented towards various fields of study while the second cycle is mostly focused on pedagogical subjects.


see Medical studies


Recognition Mobility General All studies in this field were structured along the Bologna process. In most

cases the re‐structuring of the content of both the bachelor and master cycles were changed to meet student needs, i.e. either to enter the job market or to continue in their studies.

Engineering


See above


see Medical studies


No significant differences from other study fields.

Recognition No significant differences from other study fields. Mobility No significant differences from other study fields.

49

General Studies are structured in accordance with the Bologna process. The programmes are provided mostly by faculties of philosophy.

History


See above


see Medical studies


See Engineering


IMPACT (GENERAL)

Entry rates to public HEIs are still regulated due to limited public sources. Private HEIs are not limited because in principle they are not financed by the State. During the last years participation has been widened to include underrepresented groups. In theory, students can enrol in the second cycle from other disciplinary backgrounds and institutional types, there are no legal barriers. In practice there are significant differences among particular HEIs in their approach to this possibility. The impact on time in relation to degree has had most effect on master degrees; increasingly more students finish their studies after the bachelor degree and find employment on the labour market. The unemployment of HE graduates is very low in average; HE graduates are very flexible and able to accept jobs not related to their field of study etc. There is no data available as to whether flexibility on the (international) labour market increased. The first cycle degrees qualify graduates for immediate employment; the problems with bachelor graduates were caused first of all by the job market itself which did not know what to expect from bachelor graduates; the situation is improving. The concept of transferable skills have not yet been implemented and/or institutionalised. European mobility (education programmes) is seen in mutual share of good practice; the impact is considered as highly positive. They affect both the mobility of graduates and mobility of teaching staff. The quality of the education has been affected but the result needs to be monitored. Institutional and national quality assurance mechanisms have been adjusted.

Access Highly selective due to interest in studies. Graduation Employability There are no problems of employability

Medical studies

Mobility No problems have been indicated. Quality of education

The content of studies has to be approved by the Ministry of Health. All faculties were accredited by the American National Committee on Foreign Medical Education and Accreditation (NCFMEA).


Studies are financed mostly on the basis of formulae (number of students and financial requirements of the relevant field of study). On the basis of a project on the effectiveness of the use of public sources, commissioned by the Czech Rectors’ Conference in collaboration with the Council of HEIs the conclusion was that the cost requirements of all fields of study are in principle satisfactory but all programmes are underfinanced.

50

Access Highly selective Graduation

Law

Employability Very good for graduates of all programmes Mobility Possibility for student mobility among classical long term programmes Quality of education

All study programmes are accredited.


See Medical studies

Access In some cases selective Graduation Employability Very good, but graduates mostly enter their job somewhere else than in

education

Teacher training

Mobility No problems Quality of education



See Medical studies

Access Open acess (Mechanical engineering), in some branches still selective (informatics, computer sciences)

Engineering

Graduation Employability Very good; some graduates end up in jobs less related to their initial studies. Mobility Exists at national level as well, international mobility without problems Quality of education


See Medical studies

Access Selective Graduation

History

Employability Very good; some graduates end up in jobs less related to their initial studies. Mobility Quality of education



See Medical studies

References

Beneš, J., Huisman, J., Šebková, H. (2003) Infrastructure, Trends and Policy Issues‐The Czech Republic. In: J. File and L. Goedegebuure (eds.) Real‐Time Systems. Reflections on Higher Education in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovenia. Brno: Vutium. 41‐57.

Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (1998) Act No. 111/1998 Coll. on Higher Education Institutions (http://www.csvs.cz/projekty/2006_OECD/annex/act111.doc)

Menclová, L., Baštová, J., Kronrádová, K. (2004) Neúspěšnost studia posluchačů 1. ročníků technických studijních programů veřejných vysokých škol v ČR a její příčiny. Praha: MŠMT, CSVŠ.

Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (1999) Decree No. 42/1999 Contents of Application for Study Programme Accreditation (http://www.csvs.cz/projekty/2006_OECD/annex/decree42.doc)

Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (2005) The Long‐term Plan of the Ministry for 2006‐2010. (http://www.csvs.cz/projekty/2006_OECD/annex/longterm2006_2010.pdf).

Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (2004,2005) Annual Reports (In Czech) (http://www.msmt.cz/_DOMEK/default.asp?CAI=2447).

51

http://www.csvs.cz/projekty/2006_OECD/annex/act111.doc

Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (1997) Vyhláška č. 139/1997 Sb., o odborné a pedagogické způsobilosti pedagogických pracovníků (Decree No. 139/1997 Coll. on Conditions of Pedagogical Competence of Teaching Staff). (http://www.mv.cz/sbirka/1997/sb048‐97.pdf).

Šturzová, J. et al. (2005) Analysis of the Cooperation of HEIs with Industrial and Service Enterprises (http://www.csvs.cz/projekty/2006_OECD/annex/report_industry.doc)

52

Curriculum reform in Denmark




In Denmark, the three‐cycle structure (bachelor, master and Ph.D.) was introduced at university level already in 1993. The aim of the new structure was to enable students with a bachelor degree to enter the job market and after some job experience to go back to university to finish a master programme. Although the new structure was introduced after negotiations with the relevant employer organisations the bachelor degree was not well accepted at the job market. It was obvious that a structural change must be matched with proper redevelopment of the curricula, and often this has not been completed. Further the difference between the salary for an employee with a bachelor degree and the salary for an employee with a master degree was so little that one could not blame the employer to prefer the master graduate. With the exception of few areas, for example medicine, law, theology, pharmacy and veterinary science the new structure was mandatory for the whole university sector. For some areas it was more difficult than for others to adopt to the new structure, for examples the humanities and the natural sciences. In spite of the initial difficulties the Danish universities were familiar with the three‐cycle structure when it was introduced with the Bologna Declaration for the whole EHEA. Within a binary system the university bachelors met competition from the medium tertiary education (3 – 4 year programmes including internships) was evident at the bachelor level, for example school teachers, day‐care teachers, nurses, diploma engineers, social workers, diploma business administrators etc. The non university sector has been changed from a very diversified system with many small institutions through merging some of the small institutions and intensifying cooperation between the non‐university sector and the university sector. Through institutional accreditation by the Danish Evaluation Institute (EVA) some of these merged institutions (a so called CVU (Centre of medium tertiary education)) has been awarded the name University College and admitted to award the title: Professional bachelor after 3‐4 years of study. At the same time the title: University bachelor was introduced for the university sector. For some areas at university level (as evident from the five selected areas) it has been very difficult to match the structural change with proper development of the curricula.


In January 2003 Denmark published a national qualifications framework for higher education with the intention to make it possible to compare Danish programmes with those of other countries, and to make the degree structure for higher education programmes more. The Danish Qualifications Framework is also a helpful tool in the shift of focus from teaching to learning. The level of implementation differs from university to university and that the description of the Danish degree structure (related to the Bologna Declaration) has been followed differently because of the extension and various interpretations of the competence concept.


The implementation of the Danish “Qualifications Framework” at Danish HEIs has especially made the need for a further increase in diversity of teaching modes obvious. The OECD evaluation in 2004 of Danish higher education recommended a greater focus on the development of the quality of teaching and learning in Danish universities. A working group recommended the strengthening of the quality of the teaching in Danish universities among other things through increase of the modes of teaching. The report was very well received at the Danish.

All programmes and the individual components of the programmes (courses and modules) are according to Danish law denoted in ECTS points. According to the ECTS rules, 60 ECTS points make up a year of full‐time studies. Most programmes in Danish HE are structured with a mandatory core and the possibility to choose from electives a number of voluntary courses and/or modules to create a more individualized profile of the total programme. Excellence tracks have recently been introduced in Denmark. In June 2006 the Aalborg University as the first university in Denmark announced seven elite master’s programmes. To be accepted into these study programmes, the students must have shown excellent qualifications as a BA‐student. Further, elite‐studies at the Aalborg University are meant to give their students serious research experience and to qualify them optimally for further research, typically as PhD students after having concluded the elite‐study in question. In the Danish system of higher education various possibilities exist for the validation of prior learning, e.g. the transfer from a short cycle or medium cycle higher education programme to a university bachelor study programme sometimes in form of special established shorter bridging programmes. For mature learners the executive part‐time MBA‐programmes or the full‐time MBA programme all students must besides a bachelor degree have at least three years of professional training.

• Recognition: Diploma supplements, modularisation and ECTS have due to the University Act or ministerial order already for some time been implemented in the Danish higher education system The ECTS is used both for accumulation and transfer.

Due to the stronger competition for students all Danish universities put more emphasis on marketing their university.

• Mobility: Internationalisation and increased mobility of students and staff are on the top of the agenda in Danish HEIs. The Governments objectives for education and training programmes with a global perspective are the following:

• All young people should complete an education programme with a global perspective

• Many more Danish students should go abroad to study, so that they can acquire international insight and greater understanding of other cultures

• It must be made more attractive for highly qualified foreign students and teachers to come to Denmark

• The education and training institutions should develop attractive academic and professional environments that can contribute to attracting and retaining highly qualified labour and companies in Denmark.

The government further suggests ten key initiatives to support its objectives. The headings of these initiatives are:

1. The teaching of English should be strengthened 2. More international activities 3. New scholarships for studying abroad targeted at young people 4. Educational institutions should set objectives for internationalisation 5. Targets for the number of study periods abroad 6. Targets for the number of courses and programmes taught in English

54

7. A new internationally comparable grade scale 8. Marketing Denmark as an education‐oriented country 9. New Quota 3 for applicants outside EU/EEA 10. More scholarships to talented foreign students

STATE OF THE ART

General In Denmark medical studies take place in three universities: Copenhagen, Århus and Southern Denmark. There are some differences in the speed in which the curricular reform has been adapted. Where the difference is substantial it will be mentioned.

Medical studies


Medicine has recently revised its degree and introduced bachelor programmes. The structure is 3+3+3. It is not considered to be any substantial labour market needs for the bachelors in medicine


The curricula are in different stages of redefinition, but the process has started in all three medical schools. The process has resulted in a more transparent description of skills and knowledge.


The diversity of teaching modes has increased introducing e.g. problem‐based and case‐based learning into the curricula

Recognition Diploma supplement are not used, ECTS has been introduced Mobility Student and graduate mobility in the field of medicine is extensive and

growing General The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Law introduced a 3+2 structure already in 1992. Law


A reform of law degree programmes with new degree regulations for both the bachelor and the master’s degree will be established. A stronger focus on competencies, educational and careers guidance, and types of learning


It has been discussed whether the law programmes should be divided into different specialisations; however, the idea has been rejected.

Recognition In 2002, the University of Copenhagen introduced the concept of a Diploma Supplement cantaining course descriptions and grades as well as the number of ECTS credits for each course.

Mobility It is possible to take courses in foreign languages, primarily English, and to complete the entire master’s degree in English. An International Office ha been established to increase student mobility and internationalisation.

General Teacher training is the education of teachers working within primary and lower secondary education.


4‐year entitles you to a professional bachelor’s degree giving direct access to the labour market.

Teacher training


During the autumn and winter of 06/07 the curriculum will be redefined according to the European Qualification framework.


Core subjects are taken by all students, but each student specializes in two or three main subjects of her/his choice. IMature students with a professional background or with a degree from another field may complete the programme in two years or less.

Recognition Diploma supplements were introduced a few years ago, and each graduate is entitled to receive one from the university college.

Mobility The future curriculum guidelines will increase both student and staff mobility.

55


The engineering programs at Aalborg University (AAU) have up to 2004 been a five year program. The Bologna and Lisbon processes have called for a curriculum reform which means that the students who have been admitted to the engineering program in the autumn of 2004 and later are admitted to a bachelor program (first‐cycle) that has a duration of three years. The university does not yet knows how the labour market will react an the graduates from the first cycle. There is also a 3½ year Bachelor of Engineering which is non‐researched based and which leads to a so‐called “professional” bachelors degree.

Engineering


Competence‐based learning has been integrated according to the European and the Danish Qualifications Framework. A handbook with definition of the competences where the competences for each engineering program has been described competence of practice and professional qualification


At Aalborg University’s master level there are excellence tracks called elite programs.

Recognition Students receive a Diploma supplement together with their degree certificate. The ECTS system is fully implemented at the Aalborg University.

Mobility All students have the possibility of one semester abroad. Mobility of the teaching staff within the engineering field has always been high.


The reform implemented at the Copenhagen University in 2005 has been a reform within an established three‐cycle structure. In 2005 only the first cycle has been touched. The second cycle is due for 2008. This has been almost inconsequential, but the introduction of a new modular structure made quite extensive formal changes necessary.

History


The listing of desired competencies is assessed being a valuable tool, and the transparency of skills and knowledge acquired has been considerably increased.


Increased diversity of teaching modes. No excellence tracks.

Recognition Diploma supplements, modularisation and ECTS were already standard before the reform.

Mobility Notchanged by curricular reform. Student mobility during at the second cycle is prioritised

IMPACT

Medical studies

General In general it is a little early to measure the impact, since the changes have either recently been introduced or are in the process of introduction.

Law General As the new degree regulations have not yet been implemented, it is not possible to refer to surveys or survey results

Access Entry rates have been going down slightly during the last three to four years, but they are expected to go up next year following the new curriculum requirements. But obviously, the exact entry rates won’t be known till the start of the new programme by August 2007.

Teacher training

Graduation The Ministry of Education expects graduation rates to rise and flexibility on an international labour market to increase

Employability Graduates with a professional bachelor’s degree in education, a first cycle degree, are immediately employable – and employed.

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Mobility The Ministry of Education expects student and staff mobility to increase, but

the exact increase won’t be known till the start of the new programme by August 2007.


Evaluation and quality assurance are integral parts of tertiary education and mechanisms are being constantly revised.


The financial input from 2007 is identical to the present one. Whether the reforms will lead to better results will not be known till the start of the new programme by August 2007.

Access No visible impact on entry rates. Students can enrol from other disciplinary background

Engineering

Graduation To early to see impacts Employability Mobility No visible impact Quality of education

No visible impact


No visible impact

Access Entry rates have developed favourably compared with other areas of the humanities.

History

Graduation Drop out and delay rates for the first semester have improved significantly, for the first year as a whole, however, only slightly


As a consequence of reduced drop‐out and delays, cost‐effectiveness has slightly improved

References

Andersen, A.L., Carlsen, A. (2006) Rapport om universiteternes arbejde med competence‐ og kvalifikationsbeskrivelser – en kortlægning af kompetencearbejdet på et udvalg af universiteter og fakulteter. Arbejdsgruppen vedr. evaluering af den danske kvalifikationsnøgle. (only available in Danish).

Danish Bologna Follow‐up Group (2003) Towards a Danish Qualifications Framework for higher education. Danish Government (2006) Progress, Innovation and Cohesion. Strategy for Denmark in the Global Economy

– Summary. www.statsministeriet.dk. Danish National Report (2005) Towards the European higher education area – Bologna process. Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (2003) Danish universities – at the brink of transition.

Background report to the OECD examiners panel. Copenhagen: MSTI. http://videnskabsministeriet.dk/site/forside/publikationer/2004/danish‐universities‐in‐transition‐‐‐

background‐reports‐to‐t Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (2006) Kvalitet i undervisningen. Copenhagen: MSTI.

(only available in Danish)

57

Curriculum reform in Estonia




Adopted 3+2 structure in 2002/2003, currently (2006) 193 Ba and 288 Ma programmes. In 2006, only access to new structure. Because of rather high drop‐out rate at Bachelor level, most students (that want to) continue at Master level.


Higher education standards are developed for HE qualifications since 2000, but are at a very general level and mostly from the perspective of the teacher (not the learner), also there is no comprehensive framework of qualifications. Fall 2006 Ministry has formed working group to bring qualifications more in line with EQF


Strong increase of student numbers. More flexibility as a consequence of new types of students (adults, part‐time).

• Recognition:

From September 2004 on, HEIs are supposed to develop rules and procedures for registering previous studies and work experience. ECTS implemented

• Mobility:

Legislative framework supports mobility schemes (e.g. student loans are portable). Shorter Ba programmes limit mobility somewhat (no time to go abroad), but socio‐economic discrepancies play a role as well (many students need to work to be able to afford to study).

STATE OF THE ART

General Only offered at Tartu University The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Integrated 6 year programme for Medicine, thereupon 3‐5 years residency studies


Rather general descriptions in Act of Government (2004); hard to follow how competences are obtained and evaluated


Very limited (fixed curricula)

Recognition Less then average applications for recognition of prior experience

Medical studies

Mobility Very limited General Only at Tartu (and a few private institutions) The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

3+2


Very generally described: “to provide broad basic knowledge in social sciences, including law. Completion provides a student with knowledge for work in positions requiring basic knowledge in law”


Bachelor programme is modularised, limited flexibility given rather strict requirements for both Bachelor and Master programme

Recognition Very limited number of applications for recognition of prior experience

Law

Mobility Average

General Framework requirements for teacher training (2000 and 2004) Tartu and Tallinn, music education at Academy, technical subjects at Tallinn University of Technology

Teacher training


Pre‐school: Bachelor; primary education class‐teachers: integrated 5 year programme; primary education subject teachers: 3+2 structure (but division between Bachelor and Master is not logical); secondary education: Master level after subject studies at Bachelor level


Very general description of competences


Flexible modes because of need for retraining of current teachers and many adults taking up teacher training

Recognition More than average number of applications for recognition of prior experience

Mobility Very low General Tallinn University of Technology and Estonian University of Life Sciences +

few other institutions Engineering


Integrated five‐year programmes (Act of Government, 2004), one programme follows 3+2 structure.



Rather limited (hardly part‐time opportunities)

Recognition Working on plans in this area: recognition of study at applied higher education institutions. Also on recognition of prior qualifications and work experience (but impossible to implement because of national regulations)

Mobility Lower than average mobility General Offered in Tallinn and Tartu

Area of study encompasses Estonian history; contemporary history; general history; archaeology; archival studies; ethnology and history of arts.

History


3+2


Very generally described.


Distance education possible

Recognition ‐ Mobility (relatively) high mobility among humanities in general

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IMPACT

No specific details available for the five areas of study. But there are some general trends: ‐ generally, more flexibility in access at Master level, sometimes shortage of applicants ‐ employability is high also at Bachelor level, but particularly due to positive economic situation in Estonia ‐ concept of transferable skills (competences, employability) hardly implemented because of resistance academics (not enough “space” in the shortened programmes). ‐ mobility increased, but this is also due to entering the EU (Erasmus/Socrates grants). At the same time, there is limited time for going abroad given the shortened programmes. ‐ no information available on impact on quality and cost‐effectiveness.

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Curriculum reform in Finland




The situation in Finland is different from that in many other European countries, since it had already a two‐cycle degree structure and implemented ECTS credits. In the last decade before the reform, however, the two‐tier system has been “sleeping”. Study programmes were mainly designed as 5‐years programmes, and with a few exceptions, the bachelor degree from universities was not recognised as final preparation for the labour market. The amended Universities Act (715/2004) enacted a Bologna‐compatible two‐tier degree structure, with an obligatory Bachelors level (1st cycle) degree before Masters level (2nd cycle) degree in all fields except medicine and dentistry. The new Act makes it possible for universities to award official English degrees and degree titles. The Government Decree on University Degrees (794/2004) detailed the two‐tier degree structure and aims and structures for Bachelors, Masters and Doctoral degrees. ECTS‐equivalent credit system was also enacted by the law. Official degree titles in Finnish, Swedish and English were determined. The Polytechnics Act (351/2003) was amended in 2005. In amendment (411/2005) the polytechnics second‐cycle (master’s) degrees were put into permanent legislation. The polytechnics introduced ECTS in 2005.


There have been several propositions for a national qualification framework aligned with the EQF. The first version of the framework (including the third cycle) was published in 2005. The framework has led to the discussion within the respective fields: what does it actually mean to study these subjects, and what are the learning goals? A development has been going on for some years to enhance descriptions of course content and what competencies students actually possess. Most of the curricula were restructured to include more transferable skills and to meet the needs of working life both in university and polytechnics sector. The Finnish Higher Education Evaluation Council (FINHEEC) has developed an audit procedure focusing on the quality assurance systems of Finnish HEIs in order to show the international community that Finland has a valid and competent quality assurance practice. FINHEEC started quality audits in 2005. The aim is to audit all higher education institutions by the year 2011.


The OECD review of the Finnish polytechnics pointed at the dilemma of the lack of mobility from polytechnics to universities (OECD 2003). There seem, however, to be some developments in some regions towards a closer cooperation between universities and polytechnics (see also the 2005 changes in the regulations). New, cross‐disciplinary or multi‐disciplinary degrees are being introduces at master‐level. A regionally covering network on higher education institutions has been created in order to ensure access from all geographical areas in the country. A public student finance scheme has been developed in order to ensure equal possibilities to enter higher education regardless of the studentʹs social or financial background. Affordable student housing is arranged by independent foundations. All higher education leading to a degree is free of charge for students. Special needs of the national linguistic minorities are taken into consideration in student selection and educational provision. Access into higher education is wide, also from non‐traditional paths: vocational secondary education provides eligibility for higher education. The university

and polytechnic legislation makes it possible for higher education institutions to admit students without formal qualifications, in case the institution otherwise verifies the studentʹs abilities. Through a national agreement students can also attend courses and modules in other universities in Finland. There is also a virtual university and a virtual polytechnic to give students (irrespective their educational background) wider selection of studies than they home institution can offer.

• Recognition: The prerequisite for access is the completion of the academic branch in upper secondary education. Access based on prior work experience or real competencies is so far not on the agenda. Neither are credits completed at polytechnics automatically recognised by the universities. Diploma supplements, modularisation and ECTS have been introduced in all disciplines.

• Mobility: Mobility to Finland is on the increase, whereas mobility from Finland is decreasing, as well as that within Finland. National and international mobility is promoted by policies and public funding instruments.

STATE OF THE ART


Not included in the two‐tier system Medical studies



Recognition Mobility General Degree system changed as a consequence of 2005 regulations. The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

The Bachelor of Laws degree is the first law degree and comprises 180 ECTS credit points. The degree does not qualify its holder for legal professions (e.g. advocate, judge) in Finland. Consequently, it is envisaged that most students will go on after having taken their Bachelor’s degree and complete the Master of Laws degree as well. All students admitted to the Faculty of Law for the first degrees have the right to complete both the Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees. Admission of law students is based on a compulsory entrance examination. The Master of Laws Degree entitles the holder to entry into the legal professions. The degree comprises 120 ECTS credit points.

Law


Flexible learning paths Recognition Mobility

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General Reforms in the structure took place in the mid 1990s. Nursery school

teachers, class teachers and subject teachers are all educated in universities. The curricula were revised based on national evaluations.

Teacher training


Five years of study is necessary to by qualified as a teacher. The reform has not changes this.


The contents of the programmes were renewed and the curricula contain now more features towards transferable skills.

Flexible learning Flexibility is quaranteed in many ways. E.g., individual study plans and compensation and recognition practices have been developed further. Recognition matters are similar accross disciplines.

paths


Polytechnics prepare students with bachelor degrees for the labour market, but not the university bachelors.

Engineering


Flexible learning paths Recognition Mobility General The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

History


Flexible learning paths Recognition Mobility

Impact

The new degree structure has been implemented relatively recently (August 2005). Universities are developing follow‐up systems to monitor the impact of the changes, but no data is available yet. Also, at this point, questions concerning graduation and employability are premature because there are no graduates yet.

References

Qualifications Framework. Description of Finnish higher education qualifications (http://www.minedu.fi/export/sites/default/OPM/Julkaisut/2005/liitteet/opm_265_tr04.pdf).

Finland national report and national action plan for recognition. (http://www.dfes.gov.uk/bologna/index.cfm?fuseaction=docs.list&DocCategoryID=17&StartRow= 21).

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http://www.minedu.fi/export/sites/default/OPM/Julkaisut/2005/liitteet/opm_265_tr04.pdf

Curriculum reform in France



A specificity of the French HE system is the dualism of universities and grandes écoles. While the universities offer education for large student numbers and have an obligation of open access, grandes écoles are highly selective and offer training for the future elites in the state and in industry. At the same time, most research takes place in the university sector (often in cooperation with national research centres, like the CNRS), not at grandes écoles. Governance structures differ greatly between the two systems: universities come under the authority of the national ministry of education’s directorate of higher education (DES), grandes écoles fall under the authority of different other public authorities, with an important presence of industrial stakeholders. Traditionally, grandes écoles focus more on subjects like engineering and management, but the lines have blurred. Degree structures, too, have traditionally differed strongly between the two sectors. At universities, there was always a three‐cycle system, but the three cycles were defined differently than today (2+2+1 (+ up to 4 for doctorate)). After two years training, the DEUG (diplôme dʹétudes universitaires générales) was granted. At the IUTs (instituts universitaires technologiques), technological institutes with some independence within universities, an applied technological diploma was granted at this level, the DUT (diplôme universitaire technologique). Similarly, the BTS (brevet de technicien supérieur) was offered by the STS which are however not formally part of HE. The second cycle led to the licence (after three years) and the maîtrise (after four years). The third cycle ended after five years of HE with an professionally‐oriented degree like the DESS (diplôme dʹétudes supérieures spécialisées) and research degree like the DEA (diplôme dʹétudes approfondies), which in turn laid the basis for a doctorate after another three years. At all levels, additional, often professionally‐oriented and more selective degrees were offered. At grandes écoles, the degree structure was fundamentally different with a system of preparatory classes at post‐secondary but non‐HE level, an entry exam, and a training duration of mostly three years (2+3). • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

Since 1998 there is a degree reform under way, aiming at a 3‐5‐8 system, today referred to as LMD (licence‐master‐doctorat). It mainly concerns the university sector. In the new system, the first relevant level of graduation from universities is the licence after three years (180 ECTS). A professionally‐oriented variant, the licence professionelle, has been newly introduced; it is so far a niche degree, limited in scope due to heavy demands on employer involvement. The two‐year DUT has however been maintained, with transition possibilities to the licence and licence professionelle. After another two years (120 ECTS), a Masters‐level degree called diplôme de master is granted. The first year is often still strongly reminiscent of the ancient maîtrise level, the second year of the DESS and DEA. So far licence graduates are still entitled to study up to the ancient maîtrise level, in the middle of the new two‐year Masters programmes. After three additional years, the doctorate is granted. Nearly all universities take part in the LMD reform, but implementation is still in progress. Systematic implementation has started in 2002. Grandes écoles have so far remained largely untouched by the reforms. They – like universities ‐ are entitled to grant the title grade de master to their graduates after completion of 2+3 years without reforms. If they want to grant a diplôme de master, they have to undergo accreditation (habilitation) according to state procedures and criteria. There is no exit point at Bachelor level at grandes écoles.


The move to the LMD system in France goes hand in hand with the consequent implementation of modularisation, ECTS as an accumulation system, and the move to a semester system (with exams after each semester). Part of modularisation is that HEIs have to define learning outcomes.

The policy to re‐arrange curricula in terms of tracks (parcours) leading to certain specialisations can also help to make clearer the competences of graduates. Furthermore, the licence professionelle has a clear professional profile for students entering the labour market at Bachelor level. All this is laid down in decrees (Décret 2002‐482) encouraged through ministerial communication and checked in the accreditation process (habilitation).


Another policy encouraged by the ministry, mainly in response to excessive failure rate in first cycle, is to improve student orientation in the first years, for example by means of a less specialised first semester and progressive specialisation. Some institutions follow an approach with orientation at the end of the first semester, others create little groups, or specialised groups of students. This ties in with the idea of tracks (parcours) mentioned above; transition paths between different tracks (passerelles) are encouraged.

It is hoped that modularisation and ECTS will facilitate activities in the field of lifelong learning, particularly as credits once gained now can be kept and carried by students (valorisation). Based on a long tradition in France with recognition of prior learning, a new decree from 2002 (Décret 2002‐509) improves possibilities in this field: not only prior professional competencies (validation des acquis professionnels) , but also other experience (validation des acquis de l’expérience) can now in principle be recognised and lead to the direct granting of a HE degree. This legislation affects all certification processes and not only educational institutions.

• Recognition: ECTS has been introduced. There will be legislation to introduce diploma supplements, a working group of the rectors’ conference under the ministry has prepared the ground. A decree on the recognition of studies from other countries is meant to improve mobility (Décret 2002‐529).

• Mobility: International mobility is an overarching political objective (Annual Colloquium of the French University Rectors’ Conference (CPU) in Nantes, 15 ‐17 March 2006,

www.cpu.fr, dossier international (Décret 2002‐482; Décret 2002‐529); but

there is only little impact so far. The intention is to replace mobility largely founded on historical (French speaking countries) and economical reasons by contracted mobility within a pedagogical exchange policy. A second objective is to increase international mobility of French students. A third objective is to facilitate mobility within France based on the LMD reform and ECTS (AEF 2006).

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http://www.cpu.fr

STATE OF THE ART

General Medical studies are taught at universities. In many medical universities, professional university institutes (IUP, instituts professionnels universitaires) exist in fields like health engineering (Montpellier 1, Nancy 1, Toulouse 3, Angers, Marseille) or in biotechnological fields (Toulouse 3, Rennes 1). They had the task to accommodate candidates with two years of general university education which fulfilled the criteria for entering medical education in principle but did not pass the numerus clausus. Integrating these IUP into the LMD structure poses problems, as they traditionally led to four‐year degrees. A national commission has been set up in 2002 on the integration of medical and pharmaceutical professions into the two‐cycle degree structure (Commission sur lʹintégration des professions médicales et pharmaceutiques au cursus LMD), resulting in the Debouzie report of 20023and the Thuillez report of 2006 This has resulted in first reform measures (see “flexible learning paths”).

Medical studies


The traditional French degree structure in medicine follows a 2+4‐structure, followed by doctoral studies. The degree after a total of 6 years is not considered a Masters degree as it is not integrated into the LMD framework. In spite of the 2+4‐structure, the first important exam takes place after one year, and only 15% of students passed upon the first attempt. Another important exam (ECN) takes place after 6 years, implying specialisation.


Modularisation is currently being introduced, work in progress.


The most important recommendation of the Debouzie report (2003) was to create a common first year for a range of medical and health professions including medicine, dental medicine, midwife and physiotherapist studies, in order to (a) give health and medical students a common culture, (b) facilitated orientation, (c) improve permeability and (d) increase success rates. These reform measures for the first year of studies have been implemented in 2005. The contents of the first year are broader and integrate general and social sciences, at the end of the first semester, students can choose between a scientific and a social‐science track. Some universities go further, and create bridges between training levels, like Joseph Fourier (Grenoble 1) for physiotherapist studies. There is a debate about the “universitarisation” of training for health professions, which will have little effect on medicine itself. A university qualification will be given to students who so far only received a professional qualification. ECTS will help recognising their competencies.

Recognition Too early to judge. Mobility Too early to judge.

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General Law is part of the LMD reform, and the reform has been largely implemented without special problems. Law faculties are well organized, and deans facilitated this job. In April 2002, a national report was directed by Professor Lyon‐Caen and made reform recommendations. Traditionally law is taught at universities, but there are also law programmes at grandes écoles. With the university sector, the mode and institutional locus of provision varies. Many “professionalised” law programmes are offered at IUTs, IUPs, or formerly through DESS. Sometimes, law is organised in a separate faculty, sometimes linked to economics and management or other disciplines, leading to broader first degrees.

Law


Traditionally, most studies were organised according to a four‐year cycle. The move to LMD meant that studies were lengthened. Starting from 2002 (first university Lille 2), the LMD (3‐5‐8, 3+2+3) structure is gradually implemented in law faculties.


ECTS and the semester system are applied as for other subjects.


Traditionally, access to law studies was possible without the baccalauréat (exam at the end of upper secondary education) through the “capacité en droit”, or the special exam for university studies (ESEU, then DAEU, the latter is true for every access in university). But in fact, studies duration was very different with several professional ways : trainings in technological institutes (two years), Professional University Institutes (IUP), and Specialised High Education trainings (DESS). Special professionalised programmes and “exit points” to the labour market include the licence professionelle in law after three years, and at the end of the fifth year, the professional master (ancient DESS). As there were not many IUP in law faculties or departments, their integration into the LMD (by moving from a 1+3 to a 2+3‐structure) is largely complete. An issue raised by the commission is that law studies are too technical (and scattered), and not easily understandable. Also, as these studies lead to many professions with a statutory access, there is a challenge how to better tune university degrees and professional entry (Rapport Lyon‐Caen 2002: 12‐14). The reforms are geared at clarifying the study landscape, moving to a more integrated approach instead of too scattered and piece‐meal courses.

Recognition See general description above. Mobility See general description above. Mobility and internalisation are problems of

first importance for reflection, especially in double and interdisciplinary degrees.

Teacher training

General In the ancient French system, teacher training took place outside of universities, in the écoles normales and écoles normales supérieures. In 1991, the IUFM (Institutes Universitaires de Formation des Maîtres) were created. Teachers are trained in these special institutes, which are attached to each of the regional universities, but do not grant university degrees. During a first year, they prepare for the competitive state exams (CAPES and aggregation), which regulate entry into the profession. This is followed by professional training, accompanied by the IUFM. This comes on top of a university education in a relevant subject. Application for the primary teacher exam is possible after 3 years of education, application for secondary teacher exam after 4 years of education minimum. A law for “priorities and curriculum in the future of school” stipulates that IUFM will, between the January 2007 and March 2008, be fully integrated into universities as “internal schools”.

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Training in IUFM is not part of university education. It proves difficult to integrate teacher training at IUFM into LMD, as IUFM do not offer university degrees and as the initial IUFM programmes are of one year duration after a licence (3+1), so not at Masters level.


Only those who have passed the competitive and highly selective state exams undergo practical training with in‐school placements. Selection is solely on academic criteria. This has been criticised in a report by control bodies (IGEN IGAENR 2003:26).


Permeability has been increased.

Recognition ‐ Mobility ‐ General Engineering education is offered by a few highly renowned and traditional

grandes écoles (Ponts et Chaussée (1747), Mines (1783), Polytechnique (1794), Central (1892) etc. and in engineering schools (école d’ingénieur) in universities. Their degrees are accredited by the CTI (commission des titres d’ingénieur). They are organised in their own rectors’ conference, the CDEFI. So far, engineering education is hardly touched by the LMD reform due to its base in the grandes écoles sector.

Engineering


Engineering schools do not deliver university degrees (except for the Masters, see below), but the diplôme d’ingénieur. There is no Bachelor‐level degree in Engineering. The DUT after two years is a common entry point to the labour market for the technician level. The common way to an engineering degree (diplôme d’ingénieur), is: two years of preparatory classes (two years), followed by a competitive exam and a three‐year‐training (2+3). However, there are exceptions: come engineering schools have integrated 5‐year curricula (i.e., integrated preparatory classes, no exam after the first two years). It is also possible to access engineering schools after two years of relevant education at universities (DEUG, DEUST) or an IUT (DUT) – for the very best graduates. While engineering schools continued to grant their traditional qualifications,

on top of those, they are entitled to grant the new grade de master for their unchanged long‐one cycle programmes (subject to certain accreditation criteria). In addition, they are entitled to grant the diplôme national de master for two‐year Master programmes if they submit them to state quality control. Up to 2004, this remained largely confined to engineering programmes for foreigners (Duby commission). Grandes écoles continue to grant the Mastère specialisé, a highly specialised and applied, one‐year postgraduate qualification at level ‘bac + 6’ for mature students.


In spite of the technological nature of engineering schools, competence‐ and skills‐based learning are not very developed.


Permeability has been somewhat increased through agreements with universities. CNISF (2006) explains that 91% of practicing engineers in France come from initial training (88% from studies, 3% from apprenticeships, after a DUT or a BTS), of which 53% passed their first years in preparatory classes. The remaining 9% acquired their competences through lifelong learning: The “filières DECOMPS” lead higher technicians to the level of academic engineers.

Recognition ‐ Mobility International mobility is strongly encouraged and seen as an indicator for

training quality by control bodies.

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General History has fully been involved in the LMD reform. The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

History education has largely made the transition to the two‐cycle structure (3+2). There are also licences professionnelles in history.

History


ECTS, modularisation and the semester system have been introduced. Many history graduates work in the civil service, in documentation, and in teaching, and programme descriptions give increased attention to outlining job perspectives.


History education is often part of large faculties of social sciences and humanities. The LMD reform has often led to broader introductory phases where students get a broad education in these fields, before they specialise on history.

Recognition See general description. Mobility See general description.

IMPACT

Access Entry rates in medical studies increase as the numerus clausus has been relaxed. Following the recommendations of the Debouzie‐Thuillez‐Commission, a common first year has been established for medical studies and para‐medical professions such as nursing, physiotherapy etc. Following the Commission’s recommendations, it will soon be possible for enter medical studies based on two years of general science studies at universities as well.

Medical studies

graduation High drop‐out rates so far in medical education, but the implementation of the Debouzie‐Thuillez‐Commission’s recommendations is meant to alleviate this.

Employability No employability of first‐cycle graduates. Mobility ‐ Quality of education

The main target of curricular reforms in this area is not medicine, but other health professions.


‐

Access Traditionally possible without high school exam per DAEU (diplôme dʹaccès aux études universitaires) or a special exam for law (capacité en droit) as an alternative to the upper secondary education qualification (bac).

Law

Graduation ‐ Employability The licence professionelle prepares for immediate employment. Mobility ‐ Quality of education

‐


‐

Teacher training

Access Access to professional training is regulated by competitive state exams. Anyone with a relevant university degree can take part in the exams. IUFM offer structured preparation for these exams in a one‐year course. Admission for this training is based on application documents, an entry test and and/or interview depending on the institute. But students can also prepare for the exams independently. For those who pass the exam, IUFM accompany the professional training. They are paid as civil servants already during this training. This system did not change yet.

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Graduation ‐ Employability No university degree qualifying for the teaching profession. Access to the

teaching profession is regulated through exams.


‐


‐

Access Traditionally highly selective according to the traditional grandes écoles system. Efforts to increase fairness of access through partnership with secondary schools, integrated preparatory classes in universities, new specialised tracks (parcours), and grants provided by a national student support body, the CROUS.

Engineering

Graduation No impact to date; too early to judge. Employability No, question does not apply. Mobility ‐ Quality of education

‐


‐

Access Efforts to increase access through new specialised tracks (parcours), and grants provided by a national student support body, the CROUS.

History

Graduation Too early to judge. Employability Yes, the licence professionelle. Mobility Too early to judge. There are indications that mobility between universities

in France (at the level of the first and second degree) might be impeded by the increased diversity of programmes induced by the LMD reforms.


Too early to judge. But strong efforts to restructure and reform programmes at undergraduate level, and to base Masters programmes on real research capacity and link them more strongly to research activity, which is also checked in the state accreditation process (habilitation).


Too early to judge. Studies might become more expensive as so far, many students entered the labour market after 4 years of university education, with the former maîtrise. In the new degree structure, these might continue up to the Masters level (5 years) and thus stay longer at universities than before.

References

AEF (2006) Dépêche AEF des dix points avancés en conclusion du colloque CPU précité par M. Yannick Vallée, press release March 2006.

CEFI website (www.cefi.org) Conseil national des ingénieurs et des scientifiques de France (2006) L’ingénieur dans la société et sa rémunération www.cnisf.fr

Décret no 2002‐482 (2002) Décret du 8 avril portant application au systeme français dʹenseignement supérieur de la construction de lʹEspace européen de lʹenseignement supérieur. Paris: MEN.

Décret no 2002‐529 (2002) Décret du 16 avril pris pour lʹapplication des articles L.613‐3 et L.613‐4 du code de lʹéducation et relatif à la validation dʹétudes supérieures accomplis en France ou à lʹétranger. Paris: MEN.

Décret no 2002‐590 (2002) Décret no 2002‐590 du 24 avril 2002 pris pour lʹapplication du premier alinéa des articles L.613‐3 et de lʹarticle L.613‐4 du code de lʹéducation et relatif à la validation des acquis dʹexpérience par les établissement dʹenseignement supérieur. Paris: MEN.

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http://www.cefi.org/

http://www.cnisf.fr

Harf, M. (2005) Rapport de groupe Saraswati. Etudiants et chercheurs à l’horizon 2020 : enjeux de la mobilité internationale et attractivité de la France.

http://wiki.loria.fr/w/images/e/e3/MobiliteInternationalAttractiviteFrance2005.pdf IGEN/IGAENR (2003) La formation initiale et continue des maîtres. Paris: IGEN/IGAENR. Interview with Nicole Nicolas and P. Richards, Chargés de mission de la CPU, 20 july 2006. Interview with Isam Shahrour, Vice‐Director, EPU, 21 July 2006 IUFM Website (www.iufm.fr) Rapport Lyon‐Caen (2002) on the reform of law education, www.lors.fr Rapport Debouzie (2003) on the reform of medical education, Thuillez, Christian (2006) Rapport de la Commission sur lʹintégration des professions médicales et pharmaceutiques au cursus LMD. www.recherche.gouv.fr/rapport/rapportthuilliez.pdf

Université Grenoble 1 website (www.ujf.fr) Université Lille 2 website (www.univ‐lille2.fr)

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http://www.recherche.gouv.fr/rapport/rapportthuilliez.pdf

http://www.univ-lille2.fr

Curriculum reform in Germany



In the German federal context, responsibility for HE is shared between the national government and the federal states (Länder). In the last years, most decision‐making concerning HE took place on the Länder level – with the recent reform of federalism in 2006, this has become even more marked. Therefore, decisions by the national ministry for education and research (BMBF) and by the standing conference of the ministries of education and science of the Länder (KMK) are referred to whenever “national” decisions are mentioned. There are two main types of HEIs in Germany, universities and Fachhochschulen (a type of polytechnique). A strong focus of the Bologna‐related reforms in Germany has been to decrease drop‐out rates and study duration, resulting in an earlier entry of graduates into the labour market. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

Following amendments of the Federal Framework Law on HE (HRG) in 1998 and 2002, Bachelor and Masters programmes can be offered besides the traditional long first‐cycle degrees (Diplom, Magister, Staatsexamen), but no conversion to the two‐cycle structure has been regulated at national level. In some Länder HE laws, this is already the case. In 2003, the KMK agreed on the policy objective of implementing the two‐cycle system, preferably nation‐wide, by 2010 (KMK 2003a). The structure and curricular design of Bachelor and Masters degrees, with the Bachelor degree as a first degree “qualifying for the labour market”, is also laid down in KMK guidelines (KMK 2003b). The most common structure is 3+2, but 3.5 +1.5 is a common alternative a Fachhochschulen. These apply to all subject areas but with the exemption of law, teacher education, medicine, pharmacy, food chemistry (Staatsexamen programmes in the old system), and higher arts and music education. In higher art and music education as well as teacher training, special guidelines apply (for example 4+2 is allowed in arts and music). In law and medical subjects, a discussion is still going on about if and how the two‐cycle system can apply. The majority of HEIs in Germany is in the process of adapting their programmes and curricula to the new structure. As of March 1st 2006, German HEIs offered 2317 Bachelor and 1777 Masters degrees or 36.3% of all programmes (11283). 8% of students studied in these programmes in Winter semester 2004/05 (HRK 2006). So old and new degree structure currently exist in parallel.


The KMK guidelines (2003b) and KMK decisions on the introduction of ECTS and modularisation outline that all Bachelor and Master programmes need to be modularised and that learning outcomes and competencies have to be defined for each module. However paradigm change is still ongoing particularly in the university sector. A national qualification framework for HE with level descriptors has been adopted in 2005 by the KMK and has additionally been passed by the plenary of the German Rectors’ Conference (HRK).

• Flexible learning paths The introduction of ECTS and modularisation together with the national qualification framework promote the goal of flexible learning paths. Recognition of prior vocational learning and experience is not very developed.

• Recognition:

Germany has signed the Lisbon Recognition Convention. At present a bill ratifying the Convention is pending. Decisions on recognition of study periods abroad and foreign degrees are largely a responsibility of HEIs. The introduction of ECTS and the ECTS tools facilitate recognition issues. A Diploma Supplement (DS) free of charge and automatically issued is expected to be in use for all graduates of the new degrees issued since 2005. Templates for the DS have been issued by the HRK.

• Mobility: Efforts to strengthen mobility of students and teachers have been taken

continually, both by making the national grant/loan scheme (BAföG) portable and also by efforts undertaken by the German Academic Exchange Scheme (DAAD) (see www.daad.de).

Many of the new Bachelor and Masters degrees foresee mandatory mobility periods. Efforts to strengthen the attractiveness of German HEIs for foreign students have been further increased, including marketing initiatives. Concerns have been voiced that mobility might become more short‐termed and generally more difficult within Bachelor and Master programmes due to a high degree of compulsory courses. There is, however, so far no empirical evidence backing this argument.

STATE OF THE ART

General Medical studies (including human medicine, dentistry and veterinary medicine) are regulated by specific laws in Germans, the so called “Approbationsordnungen” (ÄAppO) and end with a state examination (Staatsexamen). So far, they are not included in the curricular reform of the Bologna process. Upon completion of studies of any of the three disciplines, graduates are allowed to enter the regulated profession of medical doctor.

Medical studies


The association of medical faculties as well as the German Medical Association and other professional organisations (doctors’ trade unions) are heavily opposed to a restructuring of medical education along the BA/MA structure1. The main reason given is the impossibility of making a Bachelor degree in medicine professionally qualifying. Medical education is the longest degree in German HE, with a scheduled duration of 6 years and 3 months, including a 12 month practical year. Medical education has the highest percentage of doctorates awarded of any discipline in Germany. These are often begun already before the end of the first medical degree, and questions about the scientific value of medical doctorates are increasingly raised.


In the new ÄAppO (from 2002 for human medicine), compulsory modules of problem‐based learning have been introduced. Many faculties are presently developing catalogues of learning outcomes/ competencies and methods to assess them. Practical and theoretical content and internships shall be more intertwined. This has, however, been largely independent of national or European debates in the Bologna Process but rather been linked with European and international trends in medical education.


There is no exit point out of medical education before the Staatsexamen except for dropping out of the programme. The dropout rates are comparatively low by German standards. A nursing internship is a mandatory part of the curriculum.

Recognition DS are not issued in medical education. Recognition of study abroad periods has to be decided by the state examination bodies in co‐operation with universities. European recognition is regulated/guaranteed by EU directives.

Mobility Compared with other subject areas, mobility figures in medical education are comparatively low.

1 see www.mft-online.de/dokument/bach_med.pdf

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http://www.mft-online.de/dokument/bach_med.pdf

General Law studies in Germany traditionally end with a state examination (Staatsexamen). The first one (after 9 semesters) is followed by a practical period of two years, followed by the second state exam. Law studies have a high number of late drop outs (after more than 2 years of study) and comparatively high failure rates. Law studies in Germany are regulated by national legislation as well as legislation at the Länder level. The last changes of the legislation on law studies (Gesetz zur Reform der Juristenausbildung, 2002) have resulted in a bigger importance continuous assessment and the possibility of stronger specialisation (Vertiefungsfächer). Some universities and Fachhochschulen offer specialised degrees in economic law and other disciplines. Graduates of these degrees do however not qualify for employment in a traditional legal profession (lawyers, judges, etc.)

Law


There is a lot of opposition to the adoption of a two‐cycle structure in law, both from the association of faculties of law as well as professional organisations. The conference of Länder ministers of justice has taken a decision against a Bachelor‐Master structure in law studies in November 2005, based on a thorough report on the possible impact of the Bologna Process.2Masters programmes are however increasingly introduced for lifelong learning purposes (LL.M. courses with specialised content) besides the traditional structure (see “General”).


There have been no major changes recently.


As opposed to the old curriculum, an increasing number of exams (up top 30%) is now taken in the universities in the form of continuous assessment. However, the large final exam is still the major stepping stone in law studies. With the introduction of specialisation possibilities an increase of variety according to individual preference has taken place.

Recognition DS and ECTS are not widely used in law studies at present. Apart from that the general remarks (see above) apply.

Mobility Mobility figures in law studies are comparatively low since the knowledge acquired abroad is of no relevance for the state examination that has to be taken at the end of law studies in Germany. Since knowledge of a foreign language (legal terminology) is now a compulsory element of law studies, mobility might increase to this end.

General Teacher training has traditionally ended with a Staatsexamen degree in Germany and is the responsibility of the individual Länder, leading to diversity within Germany.

Teacher training


The majority of the Länder (13 out of 16) have decided to adapt teacher training to the two‐cycle structure on an experimental basis (until September 2006), the remaining are planning to introduce modules and ECTS within the traditional Staatsexamen programmes. The regulations for the Bachelor‐Masters‐structure vary (significantly) between different Länder. Guidelines for the recognition of teacher studies of the 16 Länder have been adopted by the KMK . 3

2 see www.neue-juristenausbildung.de/dokumente/ABJuMiKo05.pdf 3 see www.kmk.org/doc/beschl/BS_050602_Eckpunkte_Lehramt.pdf

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http://www.neue-juristenausbildung.de/dokumente/ABJuMiKo05.pdf

http://www.kmk.org/doc/beschl/BS_050602_Eckpunkte_Lehramt.pdf


The Länder define more or less strict frameworks for curricula in teacher training, in some cases concomitantly with representatives of the respective academic discipline. These are competence‐based only in some cases. The KMK has defined a framework of competencies in education. A comparable set regarding the school subjects and didactics is to be developed. Universities started redefining curricula and are supposed to base them on competencies. Generally, a debate on skills and knowledge in curricula development has come up but needs to be deepened and wider spread into practise. A comprehensive view cannot yet be offered. This coincides with a debate in Germany on competencies required for the teaching profession in general. A common set of competencies is still missing.


As to flexibility of courses chosen, a wide range from strict curricula with mostly obligatory modules to flexible structures allowing for specialisation can be observed. Generally, Bachelor programmes in German teacher training must be polyvalent, i.e. allowing for several professional objectives, also other than the teaching profession. However, this proves difficult to implement. Possibilities for the recognition of prior learning, including professional education and/or professional experiences already existed before the introduction of the two‐cycle structure. However, the respective procedures are being criticised for their restrictive practise. Curricula in German teacher training are traditionally differentiated by school type and type of teacher. Some Länder provide curricula that differ little in this context and thus allow for flexibility in choosing the school type a student wants to qualify for at a later stage.

Recognition The general remarks apply. In the Bachelor‐Masters programmes, DS and ECTS are used.

Mobility Graduate mobility in teacher training is likely to be small as the Länder requirements for their future teachers are rather specific to Germany and, in some regards, even to the curricula of their own Land. International mobility is not discussed so far (except perhaps for language teachers).

General Engineering is taught at both universities and Fachhochschulen. The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Engineering education is covered by the general decisions of the KMK, therefore, the introduction of Bachelor and Master degrees is in most Länder mandatory. Engineering disciplines are at the same time among the most sceptical (especially at universities) and the most advanced disciplines (especially at the Fachhochschulen) as far as the introduction of the two‐cycle structure is concerned.

Engineering


Traditionally, engineering training is quite competence‐based, but efforts have to be made to expose this focus on competencies more explicitly. A common set of competencies is missing. The national qualifications framework can serve as a reference point in formulating these competencies. There is a strong debate within the disciplines and especially with the German technical universities on in how far a Bachelor degree in engineering gives access to the profession. This is partly due to laws and European regulations protecting the professional status of engineers. The sceptics about the professional status of the Bachelor degree tend to put little emphasis on a professional profile of the respective curricula. Fachhochschulen have traditionally a stronger focus on competence‐based learning than universities.

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Traditionally, curricula in engineering are based on a set of modules in natural sciences and technical disciplines common to all students. Later on, they allow for various specialisations. Numerous engineering faculties used the study reform to strengthen key competencies and respective modules and/or teaching methods like project‐oriented team work. This is a response to employersʹ demands. In terms of excellence tracks, an excellent graduate with a Bachelor degree can be admitted directly to doctoral studies (a general regulation that also applied to Engineering). Possibilities for the recognition of prior learning, including professional education and/or professional experiences already existed before the introduction of the two‐cycle structure. However, the respective procedures are being criticised for their restrictive practise.

Recognition General remarks (see above) apply. Please note the problems related with recognition of the degrees on the labour market in some of the regulated engineering professions.

Mobility General remarks apply. General The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

History is covered by the general decisions by the KMK at national level. The majority of faculties are currently in the process of adapting their programmes to the two‐cycle structure. In some faculties, problems with the demanding language requirements (especially Latin and Ancient Greek) have been reported. If students cannot prove those requirements upon entry to the programme and need to take extra courses, it is difficult to fit them into a 3‐year curriculum.

History


Where Bachelor‐Masters programmes are introduced, modules need to be devised. These need to have defined competencies and learning outcomes. A general national consensus on certain modules does not exist. The national qualification framework can serve as a reference point.


Generally, the diversity of teaching modes in Bachelor‐Masters programmes in history has been increased. This trend is, however, not confined to history. For excellent students, a possibility to progress immediately from Bachelor degree into a doctoral programme legally exists (as for all subjects). University‐specific regulations detail the criteria for these tracks. In terms of variety of curricular options, there is usually a possibility of specialisation in both Bachelor and Masters programmes. However, concerns have been voiced that options are more limited than in the traditional German degrees and that the number of compulsory courses has increased significantly.

Recognition The general remarks apply. Mobility The general remarks apply.

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IMPACT

With regards to study times and graduation rates, first impressions point to a positive development, however, no hard statistical evidence is yet available. In terms of labour market acceptance, first studies show that Bachelor graduates have more or less equal chances as graduates of the traditional one‐tier German degrees (HRK 2005). Overall, Fachhochschulen are quicker in introducing the two‐cycle‐structure than universities and have traditionally a strong focus on competence‐based learning.

Access Entry rates in medical education have not been affected by curricular reforms. Entry rates, as well as graduation and drop‐out rates are stable, which might also be linked to the fact that medical education is one of the fields where a national numerus clausus exists.

Medical studies

Graduation Graduation rates are stable. The percentage of students staying within the foreseen study time is comparatively high in medical education. The flexibility on the international labour market is guaranteed by EU directives, therefore, no changes are expected. It is not possible yet to assess the impact of the last curriculum reform (from 2002, but not Bolonga‐related!), since no students have graduated yet under those regulations.

Employability Employment prospects for medical doctors are good. Due to payment regimes, however, there is a high proportion of graduates leaving for other countries with higher salaries (e.g. Switzerland, Norway, etc.).

Mobility Compared with other subject areas, mobility figures in medical education are still comparatively low.


There is no data, since medical education programmes do not need to be accredited. It is assumed that the fact that the curriculum is highly standardised by national legislation guarantees equal quality of the programmes in the different institutions. National QA mechanisms do not exist.


Medical education is one of the most expensive educational programme in German HE. No changes have been observed in recent times.

Access Entry rates in law studies are high. In many universities local numerus clausus regulations exist. Since only a limited number of Bachelor‐Masters programmes exist and those do not lead to traditional professions, no major changes have occurred in admission procedures. Where those programmes exist, it is in the majority of cases not possible for students from other disciplinary programmes to enrol into a Masters course in law.

Law

Graduation Graduation differs strongly between the different Länder. Generally, drop out rates are high in law studies. It is not possible yet to assess the impact of the last curriculum reform (from 2002, but not Bologna‐related!) on graduation since no students have graduated yet under those regulations.

Employability Law students with the traditional German degrees are qualified for traditional legal professions as well as employment in industry and the public sector. Especially the industry and the economy seem to also offer employment options for the very few Bachelor graduates in law.

Mobility Mobility is generally low, as law is a very nationally focused subject. As stated above, changes might arise from the fact that foreign language knowledge is now a mandatory part of the curriculum.


Law studies are exempt from the national accreditation system. It is assumed that the fact that the curriculum is highly standardised by the national legislation guarantees equal quality of the programmes in the different institutions. National QA mechanisms do not exist.


No changes.

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Access Entry rates have not changed. In a number of universities, local numerus clausus regulations apply. In some universities it is possible for students with a subject (non‐ teaching degree) to study a Masters degree which qualifies for the teaching profession. The models implemented by institutions vary significantly (see above).

Teacher training

Graduation No hard empirical evidence exists yet. First impressions of the “pilot” institutions implementing a Bachelor‐Masters‐structure might give rise to the hope that graduation rates have increased and drop‐outs decreased. Time to degree has increased in some Länder since a Masters degree is usually the prerequisite to enter the teaching profession and Masters degrees have a minimum duration of 5 years in Germany, whereas some of the old Staatsexamen degrees for teachers have only been 3.5 ‐4 years (!).

Employability Time to employment has not been effected by the changes in the degree structure. Generally, employment prospects for teachers have improved in Germany in recent years. However, they vary significantly depending on subject combinations. A rather drastic shortage exists for teachers in disciplines such as Physics, Maths, Religion (roman‐catholic, protestant), Arts and Music, Latin.

Mobility Graduate mobility in teacher training is likely to be small as the Länder requirements for their future teachers are rather specific to German Curricula and, in some regards, even to the curricula of their own Land. International mobility is not discussed so far (except perhaps for language teachers).


All Bachelor‐Masters programmes need to be accredited. A comparison with the old degrees is difficult, since accreditation procedures were not used for those degrees.


Answer not yet possible.

Access Entry rates have not changed drastically. Generally, a recruitment problem in engineering disciplines exists in Germany, except for architecture. At the same time, unemployment in Engineering is not really low, especially not among women. The impact of recent changes on admission criteria, especially between the Bachelor and Master programme is not yet clear.

Engineering

Graduation Since the number of graduates of the new programmes is still very low, it is difficult to make any detailed judgement on whether curricula reforms have resulted in changes in this area.

Employability The number of graduates is still low. Generally, the employment prospects for engineers are good, since a shortage of highly qualified engineering graduates exists in Germany.

Mobility See general remarks above. Quality of education




Access Entry rates have not changed drastically. The impact of recent changes on admission criteria, especially between the Bachelor and Master programme is not yet clear.

History

Graduation Since the number of graduates of the new programmes is still very low, it is difficult to make any detailed judgement on whether curricula reforms have resulted in changes in this area.

Employability The number of graduates is still low. Therefore it is difficult to assess at this point. More attention is paid to qualifying for employment in the new Bachelor degrees than in the previous Magister degrees.

Mobility See general remarks above.

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References

BMBF (2005) Hochschulrahmengesetz. www.bmbf.bund.de/pub/HRG_20050126.pdfHRK (2005) www.hrk‐

bologna.de/bologna/de/download/dateien/KMK_Laenderumfrage_sept2005.pdf For more information and some initial empirical studies on chances of Bachelor graduates on

the labour market, see www.hrk‐bologna.de/bologna/de/home/2018.phpHRK (2006): Statistische Daten zur Einführung von Bachelor‐ und Masterstudiengängen, Sommersemester

2006 http://www.hrk‐bologna.de/bologna/de/download/dateien/HRK_Doku1_2006_SoSe2006.pdfKMK (2003a) 10 Thesen zur Bachelor‐ und Masterstruktur in Deutschland http://www.kmk.org/doc/beschl/BMThesen.pdf. KMK (2003b) Common strucutral guidelines of the Länder as set out in Article 9 clause 2 of the Framework

Act for Higher Education (HRG) for the accreditation of Bachelor’s and Master’s study courses www.kmk.org/doc/beschl/BMThesen.pdf.

KMK (2004) Rahmenvorgaben für die Einführung von Leistungspunktsystemen und die Modularisierung von Studiengängen. www.kmk.org/doc/beschl/leistungspunktsysteme.pdf

KMK (2005) Qualifikationsrahmen für deutsche Hochschulabschlüsse www.kmk.org/doc/beschl/BS_050421_Qualifikationsrahmen_AS_Ka.pdf, www.hrk‐bologna.de/bologna/de/home/1997_2224.php.

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http://www.bmbf.bund.de/pub/HRG_20050126.pdf

http://www.hrk-bologna.de/bologna/de/download/dateien/KMK_Laenderumfrage_sept2005.pdf

http://www.hrk-bologna.de/bologna/de/download/dateien/KMK_Laenderumfrage_sept2005.pdf

http://www.hrk-bologna.de/bologna/de/home/2018.php

http://www.hrk-bologna.de/bologna/de/download/dateien/HRK_Doku1_2006_SoSe2006.pdf

http://www.kmk.org/doc/beschl/BMThesen.pdf

http://www.kmk.org/doc/beschl/BMThesen.pdf

http://www.kmk.org/doc/beschl/leistungspunktsysteme.pdf

http://www.kmk.org/doc/beschl/BS_050421_Qualifikationsrahmen_AS_Ka.pdf

http://www.hrk-bologna.de/bologna/de/home/1997_2224.php

http://www.hrk-bologna.de/bologna/de/home/1997_2224.php

Curriculum reform in Greece



The Greek higher education system comprises two sectors (Law 2916/2001): The university sector, which consists of 23 universities (including the Open University and the Hellenic International University) and the technological sector, which consists of 16 Technological Education Institutions. Higher Education Institutions are fully self‐administered legal entities under public law, and are funded and supervised by the Hellenic Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs in accordance with Provision 16 of the Constitution. There are also other higher education institutions mainly supervised by other Ministries (for example the Merchant Marine Academies that are under the supervision of the Ministry of Mercantile Marine, the Higher Schools of Dance and Drama that are under the supervision of the Ministry of Culture, and the Higher Schools of Tourist Professions that are under the supervision of the Ministry of Development). Almost all of them fall under the competence of the Ministry of Education only for particular issues. The legal base for the operation of Higher Education is the Provision 16 of the Greek Constitution and the Law 1268/1982 as amended. Private universities cannot be established because the Constitution forbids so. At the moment there are several discussions in the Greek Parliament for the amendment of this Provision which will allow the activation of the private sector in Higher Education. At the same time the draft Law‐Framework for Higher Education has been introduced in front of the Parliament from June 2006 and is currently under national consultation. Several reforms have been made in the Greek higher education system due to the Bologna Process like:

The Law 3328/2005 for the establishment of a new Agency for Degree Recognition (DOATAP). The Law 3374/2005 for Quality Assurance in Higher Education, for the establishment of the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System and the Diploma Supplement. The Law 3369/2005 for Life Long Learning. The Law 3404/2005 (Article 23) for Joint Postgraduate Study Programmes and Joint PhDs, which allows the use of a language other than Hellenic in the post‐ graduate study programmes. The Law 3391/2005 for the establishment of the Hellenic International University. The Law 3404/2005 for the improvement of TEIs.

At the moment the complete revision of the Framework Law concerning Higher Education since 1982, the revision of the Hellenic Constitution and the article concerning Higher Education (Article 16) and the revision of the research policy concerning Universities are under discussion and planning. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

The Greek higher education system is organised in two‐tier levels, undergraduate and post‐graduate since 1982. So the implementation of the Bologna degree structure was never the problem. Most of the under graduate programmes are structured in 8 semesters (4 years‐ 240 ECTS credits) fully compatible with the European Qualification Framework as was adopted in the Bergen Ministerial Conference. The exception of this rule applies to the studies for the so called regulated professions, like Medicine where the first cycle lasts six academic years (12 semesters), and Engineering, Architecture, Agriculture, the Arts etc were the first cycle lasts five academic years (10 semesters‐300 ECTS credits). The post‐graduate studies include Master programmes and doctorate programmes. The Master Programmes last one to two years (2‐4 semesters) and lead to MA or Msc. The doctorate programmes last minimum three years as defined by law. Some doctorate programmes are structured and others are based only on research. The law gives the possibility to the students to start directly a doctorate programme only in those Faculties that do not run Post Graduate Study Programmes. All doctorate programmes include a written thesis

that is publicly supported in front of a committee that consists of seven academic professors. Length of University degrees: Under‐graduate level: 4 years, 8 semesters‐240 ECTS credits with the exception of Medicine, Engineering etc Post‐graduate: 1‐1 ½ , 2 years, 2 or three or four semesters, 60 or 90 or 120 ECTS credits Doctorates Programmes: minimum three years TEIs also run four‐year under‐graduate programmes (8 semesters‐240 ECTS credits). They can participate in consortia with Greek and foreign universities and organise post –graduate programmes but the degrees are awarded by the universities. This will be no longer the case after the evaluation of TEIs by the newly established Hellenic Quality Assurance Agency. After their evaluation TEIs that have all the prerequisites will have the opportunity to run post‐graduate programmes. TEI graduates can also apply for any relevant postgraduate study programme within the universities.


Focusing in competence‐based learning is a new practice for some countries, a practice which has been introduced within the European training framework (VET). During the talks about the Qualification Framework of the Bologna Process and the employability of the graduates there were various discussions on competence building according to qualification. However, the Greek study programmes almost always mention the general academic goals, the learning outcomes and the competences that the graduates will obtain. In order for all these references to be organised in a systematic way after the Bergen mandate for the National Qualification Frameworks a committee has been established in the Greek Ministry of Education were all the relevant stakeholders are represented. This committee will draw the general framework and will cooperate with the HEIs in order to establish the National Qualification Framework where learning outcomes and competences will be described according to the level of study. This will give the motivation to HEIs to take a closer look to recent developments about competence‐based learning that is already the case for the TEIs that are more professionally oriented.


There are several discussions concerning the reform of the entry exams in the HEIs. One of them concerns the possibility for students of the Institutes of Vocational Training (post‐secondary education) to be able to enter in HEIs and especially in TEIs at various semesters under certain prerequisites. The first step is that until 2007 all the study programmes of these institutes will correspond to ECTS (VET) credits. For the time being there are some special provisions for the entrance of the students of the secondary vocational schools in TEIs. There is also the possibility for HEIs graduate students to enter in various semesters in another Department or Faculty after taking special entry exam.

• Recognition: All the degrees that are awarded by Greek (public) HEIs are automatically recognised. A new Law (3328/2005) for the establishment of a new Agency for Degree Recognition (DOATAP) is trying to make the recognition procedures of foreign degrees simpler.

The Diploma Supplement and ECTS are obligatory at universities and TEIs from 2006 by Law (3374/2005 for Quality Assurance in Higher Education, for the establishment of the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System and the Diploma Supplement). All Greek HEIs are currently working towards the implementation of ECTS and DS. TEIs have already fully implemented ECTS.

• Mobility: Mobility is enhanced through scholarships provided by the Ministry of Education, the National Foundation of Scholarships (www.iky.gr) other ministries and several foundations. In the European level mobility is promoted by Erasmus programme. After the introduction of the ECTS and the new law for the joint degrees, universities and TEIs work towards the development of joint interdepartmental or inter‐university programmes with Greek and foreign institutions. Several Greek institutions participate in intergovernmental study programmes and in Erasmus Mundus Programmes as well. This gives impetus to mobility and enhances the quality of education.

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http://www.iky.gr/

STATE OF THE ART

General Medical studies are offered in the Medicine Schools of several universities (Athens, Thessaloniki, Thessaly, Ioannina, Thrace, Crete, and Patras). In order to be admitted in the Medical Schools the graduates from the Lyceum must achieve excellent grades in the annual national entry exams.

Medical studies


Medical studies (including other health sciences like Dental, and Veterinary Medicine, Pharmacy and Nursing) are structured in the two‐tier, three cycle structure but their study programmes have a longer duration than the usual university programmes. So the duration of the bachelor degree in the Medicine Schools is 12 semesters, 6 years, the Msc usually two or three years and the PhD depends on the discipline. Most of post‐graduate studies are interdisciplinary and co‐organised by different departments of the same or other university, university clinics, laboratories and research institutions. Many new postgraduate study programmes have been established recently from consortia between Medical Schools and TEIs.


Competence‐based learning is an issue of great importance for medical students. For this reason the study programme includes several hours of practical training and study within the laboratories and the clinics were the competences of the candidate doctors are evaluated continuously.


Graduates from certain TEIs can after special exams continue their studies in the Medical Schools. There are also many co‐organised post‐graduate study programmes between medical Schools and TEIs as mentioned above.

Recognition The entrance exams for the Medical Schools require outstanding grades and the profession of the doctor is a prestigious one. This was the main reason that led several Greek students mainly to Italy for medical studies during the seventies and the eighties. The recent years most of the Greek students select the Medical Schools of Romania and Bulgaria or of Hungary and the Czech Republic because the life expenses there are less. The large number of these students created many problems to the recognition procedures carried out through the national agency for recognition (DOATAP).

Mobility Student’s mobility in under graduate level is materialised through Erasmus programmes for a certain period of study that lasts from three months to one year. Student mobility within Greece is possible, in the inter‐university post graduate programmes. Students can go to National and International medical centres in which they undertake their postgraduate training. PhD graduates can also go to highly acclaimed international institutions for postdoctoral training, many of whom return to leading positions in Greek Universities and Research Institutes.

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General Law is offered at three Faculties of Law in the University of Athens, the Aristotle’s University of Thessaloniki and the University of Thrace.

Law


The normal duration of programmes is four years leading to a Bachelor degree. The Master programmes last one to two years. The doctorate programmes last minimum three years. There is also the possibility for a student who has a bachelor degree to proceed directly to a PhD programme but this is not usually the case and happens only in those Faculties that do not run official Postgraduate Study Programmes. In order to practice Law a graduate (with a bachelor) from the Law Faculty has to spend a 18 month period of legal practice and then to take a special exam organised by the Ministry of Justice.

The studies in the Law Faculties are very prestigious and extremely demanding. This is the case especially for the post‐graduate programmes which consists of two levels: the Master and the PhD. Usually the Faculties of Law consists of different sections. For example the Faculty of Law in the University of Athens consists of six sections: Private Law, Public Law, Civil Law, Penal Sciences, History, Philosophy and Sociology of Law and International studies. Each section usually organises relevant Master and PhD Programmes.

In order to be accepted at the Master Programme, graduates from the Law Faculties must successfully take written preliminary exams. Additionally, the students must successfully pass the foreign language exams (in English, German, French or Italian) or prove their language competences with certificates.

Law graduates with recognized and protracted experience in the exercise of a legal profession or public office/tenure or diplomats or other civil servants can be enrolled without having to pass the Preliminary Exams to the first level of Postgraduate Studies which leads to the Master Degree. This decision is taken by the competent bodies of the university according to its internal regulation.

In order to obtain the Master degree it is usually compulsory for the student to attend four (4) academic semesters of systematic, specialized studies. Researching and writing of a thesis takes place in the fourth semester.The second level Programme of Postgraduate Studies leads to the PhD degree and constitutes the next academic step after one obtains the Master Degree of specialization. It includes a series of lessons relevant to the PhD topic organized in two semesters and parallel research work for the writing of the PhD. Then the thesis must be supported in public, and examined by a seven‐member academic board.

(Usually the PhD candidates must complete the writing of their thesis within three years after the end of the second‐level, s cycle of studies, starting from the 31st December of the current year. Extensions are only granted for special reasons, following a recommendation by the candidate’s three‐member advisory board, a proposal by the Coordinating Committee and finally a justified decision by the Departmentʹs General Assembly. If an extension is not eventually granted then the PhD topic of research can be taken off the PhD candidate).

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Every year graduate students from other departments of the Law Faculty or from other universities or Technological Education Institutions can give special exams in order to be accepted in a Law study programme. In special cases some students can enter the third semester directly.

Recognition Degrees from Greek Law Faculties are automatically recognised. Degrees from foreign HEIs are recognised through DOATAP after the completion of a certain procedure which includes the attending of certain courses concerning the national legal framework.

Mobility Mobility is realized through Erasmus programmes, though there are some problems with the recognition of the courses taken abroad because of the particularity of the national legal system.

General At the early eighties the Pedagogical Academies that educated the teachers for primary education with a two‐year study programme were abolished and Pedagogical Departments for Primary Education have been gradually established in several universities. Today Pedagogical Departments function in the universities of Athens, Thessaloniki, Western Macedonia (located in Florina), Patras, Ioannina, Thessaly, Aegean, and Crete. The under‐graduate study programmes last 8 semesters (4 years‐240 ECTS credits). The post‐graduate studies last 1‐2 years and the doctorate studies last minimum three years.

The high level of employability of the teachers of primary schools is the main reason for the increasing demand for teacher training which classified the Pedagogical Departments among the most popular Departments of the universities in 2006.

Teacher training


Teachers for secondary education graduate at universities in their respective subjects. The duration of the study programmes are similar to those of the teachers of the primary education except from some fields of studies like Arts, engineering, etc taught only in Vocational Secondary Schools.


All the curricula of the Pedagogical Department include lectures, practice in the laboratories, teaching in Schools, seminar attendance etc. They also aim at providing teaching at pedagogical competences to the future teachers.

Some categories of the teachers of secondary schools, especially those who teach in vocational secondary schools, must also study for a period of time in the Higher School of Pedagogical and Technological Education in order to gain teaching and pedagogical competences.

After primary and secondary teachers’ are appointed to public schools they have to follow initial training in three phases.


The graduates from the Pedagogical Academies have the opportunity to be integrated in the study programmes of the universities in order to acquire a university degree. The programmes that they follow are according to their prior teaching experience (years of teaching in primary schools)

Recognition All the degrees awarded by the Greek Universities and TEIs are automatically recognised.

Mobility Students’ mobility has been enhanced through Erasmus Programme and through joint post‐graduate programmes. Appointed teachers after taking part in special exams can follow a two‐year training in Training Schools (Didaskaleia) in Athens, Thessaloniki, Patras, Ioannina, Aegean (Rodos), Crete (Rethymno),

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General Engineering is offered by the Technical Universities of Athens and of Crete,

and by the Polytechnic Faculties of the universities of Thessaloniki, Thessaly, Patras and Thrace TEIs also offer engineering courses at a higher level and the recognition of the qualification of the graduate of TEIs was a controversial issue for several years. This issue was also discussed at the Supreme (Administrative) Court which decreed that higher education institutions of different type and duration lead to different professional rights and invalidating a previous Presidential degree.

Engineering


The first cycle study programmes in the universities last 10 semesters, 5 academic years, 300 ECTS credits. For example in the National Technical University of Athens, the 1st to 9th semesters are devoted to the courses, tutorials, laboratory exercises etc, while the 10th to the writing of the Diploma Thesis. In order to complete their studies the students must pass successively the oral examination of the Diploma Thesis. The first cycle study programmes offered by TEIs last 8 semesters, 4 academic years, 240 ECTS credits Some Faculties or Departments of the universities do not run Master programmes. However they support graduate studies leading to a Doctorate. This is regulated by Law 2083/92, article 13. The minimum duration of the PhD studies is three years and the maximum is usually six years.

Other Faculties or Departments ask for a Msc as a prerequisite for admission of a PhD candidate (see http://www.dpem.tuc.gr/Odigos/post_en.htm)

There are also many Inter‐departmental or inter‐university post graduate study programmes and joint post‐graduate study programmes with foreign technical universities .


There are several variations according to the HEIs profile. Of course all the engineering courses give emphasis in competence‐based learning. For example visit http://www.mech.ntua.gr/en/ugrads/studyguide/study_programme


The TEIs graduate can take special exams and continue their studies in the Technical Universities and the Polytechnic Schools

Recognition Degrees offered by Greek HEIs are automatically recognised. There are several problems with the recognition of the three years bachelors from foreign institutions.

Mobility General History is offered at the Universities of Athens, Peloponnesus, Thessaloniki,

Ioannina, Crete, Thessaly etc usually as a Section of the School of Philosophy. The only department solely dedicated to history in any Greek university is the department of History of the Ionian university. (http://www.ionio.gr/history)

History


Universities offer history according to the three‐cycle structure.


The programmes of history have different concentration on various scientific subjects (ancient history, Byzantine history, contemporary history etc)

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http://www.dpem.tuc.gr/Odigos/post_en.htm


No information available

Recognition Degrees awarded by Greek HEIs are automatically recognised Mobility

IMPACT

As far as access is concerned there is a general national system of entry exams which determines the faculty or the Department that Lyceum graduates have access to. The under graduate studies and some postgraduate programmes are free of charge in all universities and TEIs except the Open University. At the moment there are discussions concerning HE access and the HEIs request to be able to define and set the entry criteria themselves. With regards to the above mentioned disciplines access is determined by the students’ state exam results and by the popularity of each discipline. Graduation is easier for the students of history and teaching than for those of medicine, engineering and Law because of the heavy and demanding study programmes. Employability becomes more and more the main criterion for the students’ choice of under graduate and post‐graduate studies. Currently teachers are in an advantageous position while doctors have to wait for a long period in order to find a place in a hospital for the specialization period that lasts several years. Graduates from the Dentist and Pharmaceutical Schools and young Lawyers seem to be facing employability problems according to the available data of Greek Manpower Employment Organization for 2005. However the new interdepartmental, or interuniversity post‐graduate study programmes give new opportunities for the graduates of TEIs and HEIs for employment. Mobility has been enhanced due to the Bologna process and specially due to the implementation of the ECTS, the establishment of Joint Study Programmes and the development of partnerships and consortia between Greek and foreign institutions Quality of education will be enhanced through the newly established evaluation system for higher education based on the European standards and guidelines adopted in Bergen. TEIs in the recent years have been continuously upgrading the quality of their provided education. There are non official available data for the cost‐effectiveness of the above disciplines.

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Curriculum reform in Hungary



Introduction The key elements of the Hungarian Higher Education reform were defined along the objectives of the Bologna Process and are embodied in the Hungarian Universitas Programme (2004). Its objectives are to reorganise the education and training structure, to improve its management at national level as well as to increase self‐government and financial independence of individual HEIs. A great number of these objectives has already been achieved (credit system, diploma supplement), and the complete shift to a multi‐cycle system made possible by the new Act on Higher Education (2005) and related governmental decrees started on 1 September 2006. Colleges and universities are both allowed to launch bachelors, masters and PhD trainings provided that they fulfill the necessary requirements. The bachelor comprises 6 to 8 semesters (180‐240 credits) and leads to a Bachelor’s degree. It has one semester of professional practice. At the end of this first cycle, students obtain professional skills (qualification) for the labour market and the adequate basis to continue their studies at the master level, either immediately or later on (i.e. after a few years of employment), in the same or in a different field. Masters last for 2 to 4 semesters (60‐120 credits, except for teachers’ training which has 5 semesters and 150 credits). Masters may lead either to the labour market or to PhD training.PhD training consists of 6 semesters (180 credits) and is only open to master students. The 413 formerly available training programmes will gradually be replaced by 133 new bachelor programmes. Master programmes will be shaped around the bachelor’ programmes. The multi‐cycle system has not been adopted for seventeen programmes which remain undivided (i.e. not following Bologna) leading to a master degree in medicine, veterinary studies, pharmacology, dentistry, law, architecture and eleven arts programmes) Bachelor and master programmes may be launched in Institutions of Higher Education only on the recommendation of the Hungarian Accreditation Committee of Higher Education (HAC) for aspects linked to the curriculum/graduation requirements, of professional committees of the Hungarian Rectors’Conference and requests of professional or employers’organisations or sectoral ministries concerned. Nevertheless, HEIs can freely develop new curricula as well as their educational and assessment methods. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

All remarks refer to bachelor programmes, only. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

- First degrees have been created which can be completed in three years, with a few exceptions (see above); All are relevant to the labour market and can lead to master programmes.

- According to the new Act, 35% of first degree earners can enter State funded master programmes with partial tuition fee. Others can enter master’s programmes paying the full fees. Entrance criteria have not yet been elaborated.

- Curricula have been reorganised to account for the new multi‐cycle system, but in many cases a kind of concentration of earlier five year programmes into the three years bachelor curricula can be observed.

- Curricula have been redefined in terms of competencies, wherever possible in line with national qualifications frameworks and the European qualification framework.


- Transparency of skills and knowledge has been increased to different degrees in different programme

- It is too early to evaluate the diversity of teaching modes. The number of entry points decreased, that of exit points increased, owing to specialisations inside bachelor’s programmes.


- Excellence tracks are supported, but have not yet taken a concrete shape. - All accredited post‐secondary vocational programmes lead to the validation of at least 30 credits for bachelor programmes. Prior professional experience is not taken into account.

- Many bachelor programmes offer curricular options. - The diploma supplement is now completely compulsory. • Recognition: - ECTS has been introduced but modularisation has only been implemented in some cases, very far from in all programmes.

- Consumer information and communication on studying in higher education has been improved.

- Efforts to increase international student mobility (based mainly on EU sources) have been made; Hungarian students are allowed to use their State support to study abroad.

• Mobility:

- The Hungarian tradition in Higher Education to support the mobility of teaching staff has helped the internationalization of the teaching experience.

STATE OF THE ART

General Fields of study considered : General Medicine (MD), Dentistry (DMD), Pharmacology, Veterinary medicine (VMD). For MD: physicians are trained in one of the four medical faculties (Budapest, Debrecen, Pécs, Szeged), with the same curriculum of the “Vienna school” type of medical training. Medical studies take six years (twelve semesters). During the first two years, the curriculum focuses on theoretical aspects of medicine. In the third year, disciplines exploring the theoretical foundations of diseases are offered together with preliminaries of internal medicine and surgery. Pharmacology and other clinical subjects start in the fourth and fifth. During the sixth year, students have a two‐or three‐month internship, then take their final examinations in internal medicine, surgery, gynecology, neurology and paediatrics and submit their thesis. Hungarian medical degrees are recognized by the WHO and automa‐tically accepted in the EU. Tuition fees in Hungary for foreign students combined with reasonable living costs are competitive on international scale.

Medical studies


The Bologna Process has not been applied to medical studies in Hungary.


Competence‐based learning is a general aim of these trainings.

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Flexible learning paths are fairly restricted owing to conceptual limitations.

Recognition Recognition of prior learning occurs on an individual basis yes, but is rare. The diploma supplement is provided by law. Semesters and credits earned abroad are considered based on ECTS principles.

Mobility Mobility is a common practice for medical students. General Lawyers are educated at 8 law faculties in a ten semester programme. The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Like for medical fields, these faculties were similarly “successful” keeping their original programme without separating into two‐cycle programmes. The advantage of these one‐cycle programme is clearly to maintain State funded places for five years, ignoring the fight for the 35% contingent.

Law


There is no change towards competence‐based learning and flexible learning paths, recognition and mobility.


See general context

Recognition See general context Mobility See general context General Traditionally the Hungarian public education and teacher training was

structured as follows, Kindergarten (3‐6 years old) used to require 3 years of teacher training; Elementary school lower grades (6‐10 years old) and Elementary school upper grades (10‐14 years old) 4 years of training,) and Secondary school (14‐18 years old) 5 years of teacher training. Colleges were responsible for the first three programmes; universities for secondary school teacher training. With the new multi‐cycle system, fresh students are admitted in broad training fields (see History below) and not immediately as teacher candidates. Teacher degrees can be obtained only in two subjects. The employability of bachelors on the labour market is not yet clear. The distribution of programme components for the two specialization fields (e.g. history and French language) and pedagogy/psychology over the first and second cycles is partly artificial and less sound. The future of the four teacher training colleges (Eger, Nyíregyháza, Szeged, Szombathely) has become less clear in the new system. The newly introduced 11th semester devoted specifically to in‐field practice for teacher students will make a major improvement to the programme. The main problem is the value of the bachelor degree in these fields for the labour market. Teaching right is provided with Master degree, only.

Teacher training


See general context


Competence‐based learning and flexible learning paths are general trends but still difficult to evaluate for the time being.


See general context

Recognition Recognition and mobility at present are not the crucial elements of the new system.

Mobility See general context

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General The field of engineering education was the pioneer of the Bologna process in Hungary. This sector realized that Hungarian industry required less theoretically educated engineers but more practice oriented ones with other skills such as team‐working, communication, etc… Bachelor programmes provide the scientific basis and a thorough knowledge of practical engineering and can be used on the labour market (for engineering production work); they offer opportunities for specialisation. In the planned masters, students will generally follow an approved curriculum, with elective subjects allowed for personal interests. Courses are in small groups, with students expected to work individually under the direction of a personal tutor. M.Sc. programmes are generally 4 semesters (i.e. 2 years)

Engineering


See general context


Competence‐based learning is a commonly accepted concept and first experiences indicate good progress with implementation.


Flexible learning paths are provided thorough a relatively high number of specialisations is provided. ECTS has a long tradition in Hungarian engineering education which enables reasonable mobility based and broad international co‐operations with many institutions.

Recognition Recognition of Hungarian engineering degrees is common in Europe. A good example is the “Euro‐engineer” diploma of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics This University offers degree programs in both Hungarian and English.

Mobility See above under flexible learning paths. General According to the new Bologna system, bachelor students are enrolled in a

broader History programme than before and later on decide about their specialisation. The following specialities are available (depending on the institution): a) Philologist in History Studies b) Philologist in History, Archaeology c) Philologist in History, Specialized in Museology d) Philologist in History, Specialized in Archives.

History


The content and qualification frameworks of Master programmes in the Humanities are not yet elaborated. The governmental decree on the qualification framework of master teacher training determines the main credit groups: 2 subjects (2×90 credits, including bachelor’s credits), pedagogy/ psychology (40 credits), free choice (10), thesis (5), in field practice (30). The credit system is fairly complicated.


Teacher training in principle strongly stresses competence‐based learning. Methods and processes to reach this aim are to develop in the near future.


Flexible learning paths are, as mentioned, available, but future teachers have too many duties to enjoy flexibility.

Recognition Recognition and mobility owing to strong Hungarian character of these studies are less common in field of History. There are positive exceptions in international history.

Mobility

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IMPACT GENERAL

Although Hungary signed the Bologna Declaration in 1999, the Process has only accelerated in the last three years. All the necessary documents (Government decree on learning and outcome requirements of all bachelor degrees) of the first cycle are now elaborated and for 2006/2007.To formulate a view on the impact of curriculum reforms is at present premature. The 413 training programmes formerly available will be replaced by 133 new bachelor programmes in 11 “training fields” (i.e. humanities, social sciences, agriculture, medicine, engineering, informatics, law, economics etc.). Training fields are divided in “training branches” (e.g. humanities cover Hungarian language and literature, History, Modern philology, …).Training branches sum up the “degree programmes” (e.g. in liberal arts philosophy, aesthetics, ethics, religious studies, …). Students are enrolled in training branches and later on choose a degree programme.

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Curriculum reform in Iceland




• A legal statute on the universities from 2006 definitely reflects the general ideas of the Bologna ideology.

• The Icelandic university system has for a long time largely been in line with the Bologna structure.

• Many of those degrees that were not organised according to the 3+2 (4+1) structure have been changed in that direction (Divinity and Law, but also to some extent Business and Engineering even though those were previously not out of line with the Bologna structure).

• The selectivity to the Masters level is normally based on performance on the first degree (quite often the reference mark 7,25 out of 10 point maximum is used). The competence base used varies greatly according to discipline. This has not been controlled by any national rules.


National policy on competence‐based learning is being made more transparent than before. All learning objectives within the university curriculum shall be described with reference to clear learning outcomes.


National policy on flexible learning paths has mainly manifested itself in a substantial effort to enhance distance learning. This has gone hand in hand with considerable government emphasis on the build‐up of ICT infrastructures and competence. In recent years the policy of distance learning has been further supported by strengthening centres of continuing education in the rural areas.

• Recognition:

Diploma supplements have now been introduced as the universities are now required to describe their curriculum using inter alia the Diploma Supplement format. ECTS has previously been introduced as a part of institutional policy

• Mobility:

• The government contributes specifically to the financing of the administration of student exchange programmes at the university level.

• The new framework law stipulates that the universities shall actively come to agreements about mutual recognition of courses.

• The very clear and explicit endorsement of most aspects of the Bologna process underlines the policy to encourage mobility

• The new framework law explicitly allows joint degrees, which can be applied to domestic and international universities and is meant to encourage cooperation and mobility.

• The intended use of Diploma Supplements has the express purpose of facilitating mobility. The DS shall be published both in English and Icelandic.

STATE OF THE ART

General The only medical programme in Iceland is the programme at the University of Iceland


The programme for medical doctors is a six year programme, one of the very few programmes in Iceland that retains the traditional cycle structure. The adoption of a 3 x 3 structure is discussed, with the first three years with basic biomedical science (BS), and the last three years as clinical studies.

Medical studies


There is increased attention to competence, which is reflected in a new course which emphasises communication, interaction and professionalism in general


The medical programme has largely been organised as a unit, with very limited flexibility.

Recognition Traditionally Icelandic students from the medical faculty have been well received by high standing western medical schools.

Mobility An increasing number of students take credits abroad, but this applies to a very confined part of the study programme. Academic faculty has considerable foreign contacts within research.

General Law is taught at four universities in Iceland. The present description is derived from the programme at the University of Iceland with some general references to the other programmes.

Law


In 2000, the formerly 5 year programme was changed into 3 + 2 structure.


The content of the programme has only been defined in terms of the content necessary that makes a good lawyer. More use of practical assignments, especially at the master’s level, rather than only traditional examinations has in some sense made the curriculum more competence oriented.


The BA programme is somewhat rigid, with a multitude of electives at the master stage

Recognition Like all other courses at the university level in Iceland, these will be described using the learning outcome criteria and Diploma Supplements.

Mobility At the BA level all the courses are taught in Icelandic. At the MA level a considerable number of courses are taught in English. Student mobility, in both directions is considerable and even if it is not required, all Icelandic students are encouraged to take some parts of their studies abroad.


The basic requirement for being a primary school teacher is three years. Master programmes are being established.

Teacher training


In all the institutions the curriculum is being rewritten to reflect the notion of learning outcomes.


Distance learning is an integral part of the teacher training programmes. The strategy has been to integrate gradually the two approaches in order to harness the strengths of both and in addition to provide flexibility in terms of place of study and study tempo.

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Recognition All the teacher education programmes have or are in the process of

adopting the Diploma supplement, and they use the ECTS unit system. Mobility No clear changes are visible


The engineering programme was until recently four years, but is now 3+2, i.e. 3 years BS and a 2 years MS. The BS is still not a professional degree and the MS is needed to obtain a licence to be called an engineer. Still, the 3 year BS has been well received by industry.

Engineering


The Icelandic engineering degree has traditionally been closely aligned with degrees in other (foreign) universities, and has thus been defined by tradition rather than by any formal frameworks. On the basis of the new 2006 law on universities, all programmes will be defined with reference to learning outcomes. For engineering this has to be completed before March 1st 2007.


Out of the 180 ECTS units for the 3 year BS programmes, typically 150 ECTS units are fixed, and thus 30 ECTS units (i.e. one semester) give the students some choice, but this varies slightly between different programmes. At the MS level the students can choose between a multitude of paths.

Recognition Even though the programmes have not been described with reference to any standardised “diploma supplement’ type of system, Icelandic students have experienced no problems whatsoever in entering the highest ranking European and US programmes.

Mobility Students may take only 60 ECTS of the 180 ECTS units they need for their BS in Iceland. They are encouraged to take at least a semester at a foreign university and some of them do. Every year 20‐30 foreign students participate in the programme.


The 3‐2‐3 framework has been operative since 1965. Thus this has not been changed but nevertheless considerable curricular changes have been implemented recently. Courses have been made more rigid to improve progressions, but at the same time, fewer obligatory courses are set, such as to increase the flexibility in the programme. Better defined tracks have been at MA level.

History


Ideas from the Tuning Bologna project have influenced the changes that are taken place, e.g. the implementation of the learning‐outcome objectives.


The flexibility is practically only to be defined with reference to course paths students can take. The MA programme is open to students with Bas from other subjects than History, even though they have to complete a number of units in History within their MA course.

Recognition There seem to be no problem of having the Icelandic degree accepted at high ranking universities

Mobility Students in History are quite mobile But the department does not receive many foreign students.

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IMPACT

Medical studies

General The impact of the changes that have already taken place is somewhat difficult to assess. It is fair to assume that the considerable critical reflection that has taken place, the discussion about intended changes and those that have already been implemented have led to real changes in the programme, even though, because of the relatively short time since this dynamic became effective, the effects are difficult to measure in real terms.

Employability In recent years the number of graduations has increased and the students seem to have an easy access to appropriate jobs within their field.

Mobility Quality of education

It is generally felt within the faculty that the recent changes have improved the quality of the programme.

Teacher training

General It is too early to say what are the beneficial consequences of the recent changes

Employability The curriculum has bee changed in line with these changes, but not really with reference to the “needs of industry”. It is clear that engineers are widely sought after, e.g. by the financial sector, but this has had some minimal (but positive) effects on the curriculum.

History General The effects of changes are somewhat difficult to asses

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Curriculum reform in Ireland



The Irish higher education system is a binary system, comprising universities and institutes of technology (IoT). The Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT) is a cross‐sector multi‐level institution, with its own legislation. It has the legislative authority to award its own degrees, including doctorates and honorary doctorates. The most significant changes that have affected curriculum in Ireland have arisen since 1999 with the Bologna Declaration, the passing of the Qualifications (Education and Training) Act, 1999, and the subsequent establishment of the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI). This body, working with existing awarding bodies and others established by the Act, has led to considerable changes in terms of academic award structures and related matters. In particular, the National Framework of Qualifications is the primary Irish government policy instrument that has influenced curricular change in Ireland. It has established a qualifications framework with an emphasis on award descriptors and learning outcomes – with eight sub‐strands of knowledge, skill and competence that must be acquired by a learner in order to achieve an award at a particular level. Other key elements of the Irish national framework of qualifications are the principles and guidelines in relation to the recognition of prior learning and the use of credits (European Credit Transfer Scheme – 60 credits equates to one year of study) to facilitate student mobility and wider issues of access, transfer and progression. This process is overseen by the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI) (http://www.nqai.ie/en/) which was established in February 2001. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

Yes, as before: Undergraduate degrees are three or four year duration (ordinary versus honours degree), depending upon institution and discipline, Master degrees of one or two year duration (most one year). Pressure from Bologna perceived to move to 3+2‐structure. Curriculum developments and reform are influenced and constrained by a combination of forces, including government oversight, professional organisations, and the quality assurance agencies.


Ongoing process: The National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI) has determined that there are three general strands of learning outcomes that will be used in setting standards (knowledge, know‐how and skill, and competence).


Ongoing process: The NQAI Framework is seeking to facilitate modular approaches and structures, and multiple access points to programmes. There are also initiatives at the institutional level.

• Recognition:

The recognition of prior learning achievements is an increasingly important part of the NQAI Framework. The Diploma supplement was introduced by the Irish government. There is virtual universal adaptation of the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS).

• Mobility:

The Higher Education Authority is seeking to substantially increase mobility under the Erasmus/Socrates programmes, and to utilise other EU dimensions to encourage the international agreements.

http://www.nqai.ie/en/

STATE OF THE ART

General Fottrell Report (2006) on Undergraduate and Buttimer Report (2006) on Postgraduate Medical Education and Training have prepared 200€ million Government initiative to reform and transform medical education and training.

Medical studies


The approved programmes of study for the conjoint degrees of MB (Medicine), BCh (Surgery), BAO (Obstetrics) extend over a period of not less than five academic years from the date of registration for First Medicine. Following successful completion of the Final Medical Examination, and subsequent graduation, Medical students are required to complete one year of Internship training in order to achieve registration with the Irish Medical Council. In other words, the MB, BCh, BAO are only awarded simultaneously together after five years of study and graduation and all together form a medical qualification. Following on from graduation, one year of Internship training is required in order to register with the Irish Medical Council.


The Fottrell Report recommended that students should have opportunities to develop and improve their clinical and practical skills while Medical schools should explore and, where appropriate, provide opportunities for students to work and learn with other health and social care professionals.


A new aptitude test for selection for graduate entry to medicine from 2008 at the earliest, new graduate entry program for medicine from 2007 as part of the overall expansion of places involving an increasing of the number of medical places for Irish and EU students.

Recognition No special measures other than general national policies. Mobility Only little mobility to date; mobility of graduates to gather experience

aimed for. General (Involved in the EU Tuning project.)

Law is taught at both universities and institutes of technology. It is important to note that these programmes (both at university and IT level) are academic programmes and do not qualify graduates to practice law. In principle there is no difference between a law degree awarded by a university and a law degree awarded by an institute of technology.

Law


3 years or 4 years (at Trinity College only) to an honours degree: BCL or LLB, followed by pursuance of particular professional qualification (barrister or solicitor). Masters degree (LLM) generally one year. In universities the standard degree awarded is either an LL.B. (Bachelor of Laws) or a B.C.L. (Bachelor of Civil Law). There are some variations, including LL.B. with a language, Law and Business, Law and Accounting, Corporate law or Law as part of a general arts degree. LL.M.s (Masters in Law) are also offered by most universities. In addition, one may take Masters and Doctorates by research specializing in Law. The Institutes of Technology also award law degrees, though usually as Bachelor of Arts programmes in Law. Some also offer mixed programmes, such as the BA in Law and Taxation In Letterkenny IT. Law is taught as a BA degree in: DIT, Waterford IT, Letterkenny IT and Carlow IT. DIT also offers a level 9 Postgraduate Diploma in Law, and a level 9 Master of Arts in Law. In addition, one may (in theory) take Masters and Doctorates by research specializing in Law in any of the IoTs.

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The curriculum for all programmes is defined in terms of competencies, but not necessarily in response to Bologna or EU frameworks (response to public concern).


Not much at university level, but in Institutes of Technology. Some institutions offer part‐time options and access programmes. Modularisation is a main influence to offer greater flexibility. Some interdisciplinary programmes.

Recognition see context. Use of transcripts. Mobility Socrates/Erasmus is fairly popular. Academic staff have also become

more mobile. General Implementation of the “Teaching Council Act 2000” ongoing. When fully

established, the Teaching Council will take over the function of the registration of teachers. There have been two major reviews of initial teacher education programmes over the past five years – one on primary teacher education (Working Group on Primary Preservice Teacher Education, 2002) and the other on second level teacher education (Advisory Group on Post‐primary Teacher Education, 2002). The primary review body made 61 recommendations which included: the extension of the concurrent programmes for primary teachers from three years to four; the institutionalisation of the consecutive model for primary teaching as a permanent feature rather than to address shortfalls in supply; increasing the mathematics requirement at entry; the establishment of middle management structures in the primary colleges (Working Group on Primary Pre service Teacher Education, 2002; Kelleghan, 2004). The post‐primary review body made over 65 recommendations including: an emphasis on the value of enquiry‐based models of teacher education; the establishment of partnership boards between universities and stakeholders; a minimum of two different school sites for teaching practice (not yet universal); retention of both the consecutive and concurrent models; flexible pathways of accreditation; diversity education on all courses; structured induction for all newly qualified teachers; increasing full‐time staff levels in education departments (Advisory Group on Post‐primary Teacher Education, 2002). Some of the recommendations of these two bodies have already been incorporated in many of the teacher education programmes. Other recommendations require considerable state exchequer funding and that has not, as yet, been forthcoming.

Teacher training


For primary education: Concurrent education courses of three years duration (180 ECTS), with a minority undertaking a four‐year programme or consecutive courses (but move to four‐year programmes and consecutive model recommended by review). For secondary level: Bachelors degree level for a period of three or four years in the chosen area of study (programmes of 180‐240 ECTS), followed by a one‐year, post‐graduate teacher education programme (60 ECTS, the “Higher Diploma in Education”).


Teaching Council will review the standards of knowledge, skill and competence required for the practice of teaching.


There is an increase in the diversity of teaching modes, the flexibility of courses chosen and pathways of accreditation as recommended in the above reviews. There has also been change to entry and exit points.

Recognition No special measures different from general national policies. Mobility No special measures different from general national policies.

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General Important influence of “Engineers Ireland”, the accrediting body for chartered engineer status in Ireland.

Engineering


First cycle in engineering is traditionally 4 years in duration, leading to Honours degrees. DIT and other Institutes of Technology offer 3‐year programmes in engineering technology (seen as “level 7” in the national qualifications framework or “Bachelor”), but access to a Masters programme from these is only through approved bridging studies. Engineers Ireland has long argued that a professional engineering programme should be five years leading to a Master degree. It recently approved accreditation criteria for that (allowing for 3+2, 4+1 and integrated 5 years programmes).


Since November 2003 there are approved accreditation criteria for engineering education based on learning outcomes and competencies. Curricula have been revised. French and Italian engineering schools served as a role model.


HEIs are encouraged by Engineers Ireland to increase the diversity in teaching and learning modes and facilitate student access, transfer and progression, according to the “Principles of Access, Transfer and Progression” published by the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland. The new attention to “learning outcomes” supports these developments. DIT are traditionally better at creating flexible learning paths and entry and exit points than universities, and also offer part‐time programmes in engineering.

Recognition The content and format of the standardised diploma supplement in Ireland has been agreed among the colleges.

Mobility Active participation in ERASMUS, particularly as inbound destination. General Involved in the EU Tuning project, but the recommendations have not

yet been implemented. Little Bologna‐related reform is ongoing in this subject in Ireland today.

History


Three cycle‐structure with Bachelor, Master and PhD.


Not yet, but Irish universities are likely to adapt competences identified in the Tuning Project.


No special efforts yet.

Recognition No special efforts yet. Mobility No special efforts yet.

IMPACT

Access Expected to increase from 2007 over the following four years from 305 to 752 following the €200 million Government initiative to reform and transform medical education and training based on the recommendations of the Fottrell and Buttimer Reports..

Medical studies

Graduation None. Reforms are in degree content rather than length. Employability First‐cycle degrees do not qualify for employment. After Final Medical

Examination and subsequent graduation, Medical students are required to complete one year of Internship training (after graduation) in order to achieve registration with the Irish Medical Council.

Mobility No impacts yet. Both the Buttimer and the Fottrell reports emphasize the need to encourage mobility and the internationalisation of Irish medical education. Graduate mobility is desired, but only if graduates return after having gathered experience.

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Reforms have not yet been fully implemented.


Reforms have not yet been fully implemented.

Access Curricular reforms have been more a reaction to developments in the economy and society than Bologna. There is a strive to improve opportunities for mature and non‐traditional students. Also, exceptions can be made to allow graduates with non‐law degrees to an LLM.

Law

Graduation More people are graduating with law degrees as a result of an increase in access and flexibility.

Employability No, the first‐cycle degree will not allow you to practice. Mobility Interdisciplinary studies and specialisations (like European law) increased the

students’ and staff mobility. Quality of education

There are changes in response to an increasing emphasis on quality assurance mechanisms across higher education.


Law remains exceptionally popular and requires comparatively little resources, and thus is very cost effective. Modularisation may increase this cost effectiveness.

Access For primary teacher training, the mathematics requirement at entry has been increased. Access to the second cycle requires successful completion of first cycle studies (plus in some cases 2 years of professional experience). There has been some concern about fluctuation in the number of people interested in pursuance of teaching as a career, especially men. Attention has focused therefore on salary and career/promotional issues.

Teacher training

Graduation For primary teachers, the extension of the concurrent programmes from three years to four has been recommended by the recent review. For post primary education, both the consecutive and concurrent models will be retained. There will be structured induction for all newly qualified teachers.

Employability In primary education, first‐cycle degrees in the concurrent model qualify for immediate employment (but consecutive programmes also exist). In secondary education, the post‐graduate Diploma is a necessary condition for employment.

Mobility Too early to say. Quality of education

Too early to say.


Too early to say.

Access Impact on access unlikely, as proposed structural reforms are not targeted at front end of programmes.

Engineering

Graduation Too early to say. Engineers Ireland is by definition adding one year minimum to the graduating time of engineering students who will qualify as professional engineers!

Employability A student who exits after three years with a bachelor will have a qualification for general employment but not have a recognised engineering qualification, for that a Master and a minimum of 5 years of higher education is necessary.

Mobility To early to say, but with new 3+2‐structure increased mobility after 3 years envisaged.


This issue has not been addressed within an Irish context. But individual colleges have their own quality assurance procedures.


Too early to say. The implementation of a two‐cycle system for professional engineering may be problematic if the government continues to only support first cycle studies.

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References

Buttimer Report (2006) Preparing Irelandʹs Doctors to meet the Health Needs of the 21st Century. Postgraduate Medical Education and Training Group.

Drudy,S. (2006) Change and Reform in Teacher Education in Ireland: a Case Study of the Reform of Higher Education. http://www.pef.uni‐lj.si/strani/bologna/dokumenti/posvet‐drudy.pdf

Fottrell Report (2006) Medical Education in Ireland: A New Direction. Working Group on Undergraduate Medical Education and Training.

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http://www.pef.uni-lj.si/strani/bologna/dokumenti/posvet-drudy.pdf

Curriculum reform in Italy



In the last seven years the Italian University system has gone through three successive stages : • (1) According to the old system, the student used to get a degree after 4/5/6 years of study,

depending on the course. Then he/she could take a PhD. • (2) Since 1999 the student’s path has changed (DM 509/99). The student takes first a three‐year cycle,

Laurea (equivalent to a B.A./B. Sc.); then can take a two‐year cycle, Laurea Specialistica (equivalent to a M.A./M. Sc.), or a single cycle degree (Medicine 6 years, Dentistry, Veterinary and Architecture 5 years) and finally the PhD.

• (3) The new system (DM 270/2004) which will start in the academic year 2006/2007 will broadly follow the system described under (2) above, with the exception that the Laurea Specialistica will be renamed Laurea Magistrale.

After the Laurea, the student can choose to continue with a two‐year “Laurea Magistrale” as described above or with a one‐year Master, which can have an academic or a professional nature. It is not the same as the M.A. or the M. Sc; After the “Laurea Magistrale”, the student can choose to continue with a 1 – 2 year Master degree (not equivalent to the M.A. or the M. Sc.) or with the PhD. There are currently still students enrolled (not yet graduated) in the first old system. Italy has had two significant legislative reforms: DM 509/99 which started from academic year 2000/2001 and DM 270/04 which, at the moment, only involves the degree in Law (from the academic year 2006/2007, regulated by DM 25 November 2005). Moreover, Law 230/05 and DM 164/06 regulates procedures for the recruitment of university professors.Curricula reforms have been received differently by different student target groups, i.e. students/students, students/workers and workers/students. The Italian Higher Education system is characterised by two different academic approaches, i.e.:

• academic theoretically based programmes, giving access to PhD programmes and masters; • practically‐oriented professional programmes, which provide direct access to the labour market

(e.g. Health Care, Social Services, Oenology). • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

In Italy, there are at the moment 42 degree classes for Laurea (L), 104 degree classes for Magistral Laurea (LM), 8 degree classes for Laurea (L) and Magistral Laurea (LM) for health care professions (see also above in the general section).


Italian universities have full autonomy in defining the content of the degree courses by making their own curricula, according to national guidelines approved by ministerial decrees. Before making their own courses, Italian universities must consult representative organisations, services and professions. Italian curricula have been generally redefined in terms of competencies in line with national qualification frameworks, while Medicine, Engineering, Architecture and Pharmacy have been redefined in terms of competencies in line with European ones. In the same way, transparency of skills and knowledge acquired has also increased.


The diversity of teaching methods, the number of entry and exit points, and the flexibility of courses chosen has increased.New excellence tracks for those qualified have been introduced both in new/recent higher education institutions and in old/traditional universities. Validation of prior learning is possible; the validation of professional skills is the responsibility of each faculty.

• Recognition: A decree of 2005 has introduced the Diploma Supplement but only 2 or 3 Italian

universities have been testing it so far. ECTS has been introduced in Italian universities as a facilitator for recognition.

Consumer information and communication on higher education studies has increased both at local and regional level, thanks to media and “open days” organised within universities throughout the year.

• Mobility: Efforts are being made to increase international student mobility, graduate mobility and teaching staff mobility.

STATE OF THE ART

The teaching programmes define the framework of training activities which have to be included in the curricula (D.M. 270/04) and the teaching rules of the study courses specify the organisation of the curricula offered to the students.

General The offer of training in Italian medical faculties has been completely revised. The current teaching methodology focuses on integration, problem oriented learning, early contact with the patient, good acquisition of clinical and practical skills. These principles are in line with those elaborated by European medical faculties and ensure that doctors and healthcare professionals are able to acquire new experience within an interdisciplinary job. All medical courses foresee an updated and effective technical‐scientific programme, a basic programme based on scientific research, a solid clinical practice and a strong focus on methodology. It implies specialisation of medical knowledge and the necessity of mono‐disciplinary and multi‐teachers courses. The curriculum reform started in 1990 allowed first cycle degrees in all medical faculties. The main innovation consists in the introduction of one year internship, which corresponds to 60 university training credits. The selected access (in relation to the needs of the National Healthcare System) allows to reduce student placement problems.

Medical studies


The degree in Medicine and Surgery is a single cycle of 6 years of studies. The degree in Dentistry is a single cycle of 5 years of studies. The degree in Healthcare Professions (e.g. Nursing, Assistant dentistry, etc…) lasts 3 years followed by 2 years to obtain the Laurea Magistrale.


All medical studies’ courses provide a high level of competencies. In particular, degree courses of Medicine and Surgery, in agreement with the Ministerial Decree, aim at conferring graduates both with theoretical and technical knowledge useful for the medical practice, based on European standards.


All graduates receive an appropriate education for a high level of General Practice and, on the basis of individual options, have the possibility to specialise. In terms of flexible learning paths, the reform did not bring any relevant changes. Excellence tracks are provided by specialised institutions such as the University of San Raffaele which, with a limited number of students, a location within an hospital and a research centre, provide higher quality studies, but the same qualification as other universities. One year after graduation from the first degree, 87.2% of graduates are working.

Recognition A decree of 2005 has introduced the Diploma Supplement but only 2 or 3 Italian universities have been testing it so far. ECTS has been introduced in Italian universities as a facilitator for recognition.

Mobility

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General The degree in Law aims at providing the essential knowledge related the juridical issues leading to the second level degree and, at the same time preparing for the world of work.

Law


The Degree in Law consists of one single cycle of five years (Ministerial Degree 293/2005) starting from the academic year 2006/2007, instead of the previous 3+2 structure.


The Laurea Magistrale in Law aims at providing a deep and methodological training in the juridical institutions environment, taking into account national and international dimensions. Students go both to classical professions (lawyer, magistrate and notary practice), access schools of specialisation (for forensic professions) or join other professional activities which require a deep knowledge of law.


Since the degree in Law is composed of only one cycle, it is less flexible than other courses. The Laurea Magistrale in Law aims ensures a high level of education; it requires more mandatory traineeships and practices than other disciplines, which delays entrance on the labour market.


Mobility General The almost 300 first and second degree courses and over 100 university

masters offered by the Teaching Training Faculty, represent a huge network of graduate studies for education professions.Graduates develop an educator activity, instructor or tutor within enterprises, services, public administrations, in programs of continuous education. The time reserved to personal study or other individual training activity amounts at least 60% of the total effort. 13.4 % of graduate students takes the degree by the prescribed time; 26.9% one year later and 18.4% within two years (CNVSU, 2004).

Teacher training


Since the reform, all courses are 3+2 except the course of primary education which is only one single course of four years of study.


The two‐cycle course assures a greater attention to operativeness, exemplification, testing. It foresees compulsory educational labs and traineeships in enterprises, institutions, public administrations which improves skills to deal with real life situations. There is also the opportunity to perform traineeships abroad at a foreign university (for example with EU programmes).


The reform increased the diversity of teaching modes, as well as the number of entry and exit points of the programmes and flexibility for the course selection.


Mobility

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General Engineering Faculties, starting from the old five cycle structure, found the road to diversification of training profiles and higher educational levels, in line with the Bologna process: the first cycle provides technical training for the labour market; the second cycle is targeted to students who want to achieve planning capabilities; the third cycle (postgraduate level) aims at generating profiles mainly oriented to research in universities and enterprises.

Considering positive job trends (i.e. new employment opportunities in the service and health sectors for graduates in engineering), pre‐reform, 45.5% of graduate students did not continue with postgraduate studies. This percentage increased to 70% post‐reform. Among 1st‐cycle students, only 20 % does not continue; 55% takes a second degree; 16% attends a specialisation school and the remainder a Master.

Engineering


Since the reform, all courses are characterised by the 3+ 2 structure, with a first three‐year degree course (undergraduate, first cycle) and a second tow‐year course.


Graduate students benefit from placements in industries as they gain experience in developing technical and managerial activities. One year after graduation, 76% of students find employment.


The number of students taking a degree in engineering is lower in Italy compared to other industrialised countries. Engineering faculties place a strong focus on quality issues and want certification and accreditation from independent third party bodies. One important experience is represented by “Alta Scuola Politecnica” (ASP), a school for young talents willing to develop their interdisciplinary capabilities to lead innovation. Founded by “Politecnico di Milano” and “Politecnico di Torino”, ASP offers Masters of Science, either in Engineering, Architecture or Design. Through a highly selective process 150 promising students participate in an additional advanced programme which runs in parallel to Masters of Science. ASP students complement the knowledge achieved in specific courses with a multifaceted and enriched understanding of innovation processes and contexts. They develop an interdisciplinary attitude to conceive, plan, implement and promote complex innovation projects. ASP is characterised by a multidisciplinary and multicultural community, advanced seminars and study projects in close cooperation with enterprises and governmental institutions. ASP students receive an ASP diploma and the Master Science from both founding universities.


Mobility

110

General In Italy there are not History Faculties, but only Departments or Degree

Courses of History Science (as a part of the Humanities Studies Faculty). The curriculum reform modified the old structure of the training and cultural programme of the Humanities Studies Faculty. Up to a few years ago, it organised few and ʺtraditionalʺ degree courses (Humanities and Classical Studies, History, Philosophy, and sometimes Languages and Cultural Assets). The first and second degree courses have now increased considerably.

History


After the reform introduction, all courses are characterised by the 3+ 2 structure (a degree course of first level for 3 years and another one of second level for 2 years).


The specific capability assures an appropriate qualification to access to publishing sectors, journalism, school teaching, public administration, in addition to the advanced services. The flexibility of the training and the richness of the contents aim to make the graduates in History people employable in different professional areas where critical analysis, problem‐solving and work with cultural matters is essential.


The reform increased the level of specialisation of the history degree, even if the current market requirements are not perfectly in line with the high level of specialisation in this kind of degree.


Mobility

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IMPACT

There is a real increase in student enrolments from the 19‐24 year age group. Participation has been widened to include underrepresented groups and foreign students. It is still rare in Italy to switch from one area to another and the only few cases are limited to similar areas (e.g. teacher training and history). It is the decision of each faculty to grant credit transfer or facilitate transition to other courses. The concept of transferable skills has been implemented by a period of training compulsory in many faculties. Italian mobility has increased. Students from middle‐class backgrounds move more those from working class backgrounds. Students enrolled in the second cycle are more mobile than first cycle students. The reform has led to better results in terms of cost‐effectiveness with for example the decrease of the average length of the study period. This aspect leads to two important financial effects, i.e. lower costs (both for universities and families/students) and earlier entrance on the labour market. Regarding the quality of education (in general) The Decree n.781/1999 determined the “minimum requirements” (i.e. a minimum number of teachers and facilities) for courses offered by universities. This is a first step towards accreditation. Otherwise, each university is autonomous to offer courses without minimum standards (lower numbers of teachers, etc.), but the students enrolled in those courses are not taken into consideration for the amount of public funding. The Law n. 370/99 forced each university to set up an Internal Evaluation Committees (NUV), making teaching evaluation mandatory for universities. At the same time, the National Committee for the Assessment of the University System (CNVSU) has been established. It defines general criteria for the evaluation of university activities, assesses the university system (publication of an annual report), promotes the application and dissemination of evaluation methodology and best practices, runs an annual programme of external evaluations of universities and makes technical evaluations of proposals to set up new public and private universities seeking the right to issue legal qualifications. Regarding cost‐effectiveness (in general) The assignment of FFO (Fondo di Finanziamento Ordinario) to universities is based mainly on assignments received in previous years, but since 1998, a percentage of the total budget is distributed according to a new formula based on parameters of effectiveness.

Access Access is still restricted according to the needs of the National Healthcare system.

Graduation Graduation rates have improved. For single cycle courses, 52.5% of students obtain the degree in regular time, 22.6% one year later and 10.5% after two years. As regards the 3+2 structure course, 79.3% of students obtains the first level degree in regular time, 12.2% one year later and 3.4% after two years.

Medical studies

Employability 77.1% of students obtain employment one year after the degree (Alma Laurea source).

Mobility Considering all enrolled students, the higher internal mobility in Italy comes from Lazio (12.5%), Lombardy (11.1%), Campania (9.2%), Puglia and Sicilia (8.6%).In relation to international mobility, less than 5% of enrolled students comes from abroad, while about 0.8% of Italian students go abroad. (CNVSU, 2005).


See above


See above

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Access There is no selection procedure. Enrollments have generally increased. Law Graduation Since single cycle courses will start with the academic year 2006/2007, the

only available data are related to the 3+2 structure. 55.4% of students obtains the first level degree in regular time, 35.4% one year later and 3.7% after two years. Almost all students who are admitted to the second level obtain the degree in two years (AlmaLaurea).

Employability 23.7% of students obtain employment one year after the degree (AlmaLaurea source).The percentage increases after three years and after five years all graduates find employment.

Mobility The higher internal mobility in Italy comes from Campania (17.0%), Sicilia (11.4%), Lazio (10.8%), Puglia (10.6%) and Lombardy (8.9%). In relation to international mobility, about 1.3% of enrolled students comes from abroad, while about 0.5% of Italian students perform a period of their juridical studies at foreign universities. (CNVSU, 2005 source).


See above

Gost‐effectiveness

See above

Access In general selected access Graduation 40.6% of the students obtains the first level degree in regular time, 34.3% one

year later and 10.8% after two years. Almost all students who are admitted to the second level obtain the degree in two years (AlmaLaurea source).

Teacher training

Employability 47.6% of students obtain employment one year after the degree (AlmaLaurea source).

Mobility The spread of traineeships favoured student mobility abroad, increasing by 0.21% the number of Italian students going abroad. Higher internal mobility in Italy comes from Sicilia (18.9%), Puglia (13.4%), Campania (10.3%), Lombardy (9.4%), Lazio (6.7%%).As regards foreign students, about the 0.8% of the registered students comes from abroad. (CNVSU, 2005 source).


See above


See above

Access No selected access Graduation 43.5% of students obtains the first degree in regular time, 27.2% one year later

and 13.7% after two years. Almost all students who are admitted to the second level obtain the degree in two years (AlmaLaurea source).

Engineering

Employability 25.6% of students obtain employment one year after the first level degree (AlmaLaurea source). After the second level degree, almost all students have a full job.

Mobility The higher internal mobility in Italy comes from Lombardy (12.8%), Campania (11.1%), Lazio (10.9%), Puglia (8.2%) and Sicilia (8.0%). In relation to the international mobility, about 1.6% of the enrolled students comes from abroad, while about 0.8% of the Italian students perform a period of their engineering studies at foreign universities (CNVSU, 2005 source).


See above


See above

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Access No selected access

History

Graduation 44.5% of the students obtains the first level degree in regular time, the 26.5% one year later and the 13.5% after two years. Almost all students who are admitted to the second level obtain the degree in two years (AlmaLaurea source).

Employability 61% of students find employment one year after the degree (AlmaLaurea source).

Mobility The higher internal mobility in Italy comes from Lazio (16.1%), Lombardy (13.5%), Campania (10.7%), Sicilia (8.6%), Puglia (6.8%). In relation to international mobility, about 1.9% of enrolled students comes from abroad, while about 0.4% of Italian students perform a period of their humanities and classical studies at foreign universities (CNVSU, 2005 source).


See above


See above

References

Cammelli, A. (2005) La qualità del capitale umano dellʹuniversità in Europa e in Italia. Bologna: Il Mulino.

Cammelli, A. (2005) La transizione dallʹuniversità al lavoro in Europa e in Italia. Bologna: Il Mulino. Consorzio Interuniversitario AlmaLaurea (2006) VIII Rapporto sulla condizione occupazionale dei

laureati: i laureati di primo livello alla prova del lavoro. Bologna: Il Mulino. Consorzio Interuniversitario AlmaLaurea (2006) Profilo dei Laureati 2005: pre e post riforma. Bologna.

Il Mulino. http://www.almalaurea.itUfficio Centrale Studenti Esteri in Italia (2004) Studiare da stranieri nelle università italiane. Roma:

UCSE. Websites: http://nuclei.cnvsu.it/provenienze.htmlhttp://offf.miur.it/http://www.study‐in‐italy.it/http://www.cimea.it/http://www.study‐in‐italy.it/study/index.html

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http://www.almalaurea.it/

http://nuclei.cnvsu.it/provenienze.html

http://offf.miur.it/

http://www.study-in-italy.it/

http://www.cimea.it/

http://www.study-in-italy.it/study/index.html

Curriculum reform in Latvia



The system of higher education in Latvia is binary. Since the Law on Education of 1991 there is established a difference between academic and professional study programmes and the December 2000 amendments to the Law on Higher Education Establishments set also a difference between university type and non‐university type higher education institutions. While the non‐university type institutions run professional programmes, the university type programmes often offer both academic and professional ones. The popularity of professional programmes is growing rapidly ‐ in the academic year 2000/2001 professional programmes attracted 13456 new enrolees compared 9512 new enrolees in Bachelor programmes. Currently in Latvia there is 3‐cycle structure. The study length in the first cycle is 3‐4 years, in the second cycle 1‐2 years, and in the third cycle 3‐4 years. In order to acquire the first degree (bachelor) in Latvia a person has to study at least 3 years. Usually 3‐year bachelor programmes do not contain professional module and internship is not envisaged. It prepares for further academic studies in master level and only gives general skills necessary in the labour market. In recent years in Latvia, following neighbour country experience, there is a tendency to go from 4‐year to 3‐year bachelor programmes, if precise professional qualification is not awarded. Founding of study programmes in Latvia is regulated by law on Higher Education establishments, law on professional education, regulations on state academic education standards and regulations on second level professional higher education state standard. Founding of study programs is regulated by: • Law on HE, law on professional education, • regulations on state academic education standards, • regulations on second level professional higher education state standard. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

3‐cycle structure: First cycle (bachelor): 3‐4 years, Binary system: academic, professional, relevant to market. Second cycle: 1‐2 years Third cycle: 3‐4 years No general rule to enter the second cycle, each case is analysed separately.


Ministry of Education and Science has developed national qualifications framework, but it is not a binding document. Study programs itself include competencies to be achieved by study courses, modules and program as a whole.


The diversity of teaching modes has increased. The new programme structure foresees three types of courses: mandatory, compulsory elective and free elective courses. Special study programs are established for people with prior professional education and work experiences. Special modules and a large number of programs are offered to satisfy interests of different groups.

• Recognition:

Diploma Supplement is introduced and issued to all graduates since 2004 in Latvian and English. Latvian credit point system has been introduced in 90’s. One Latvian credit point corresponds to 1.5 ECTS. Transition to ECTS is planned.The final decision regarding the recognition of a foreign degree/diploma is taken by that higher education institution, in which the applicant is willing to continue his/her studies. The Law on education stipulates higher education institutions take their decision upon advise of the Latvian Academic Information centre (Latvian member of the European recognition networks ENIC and NARIC).

Academic Information centre assesses the foreign degree/diploma and issues a statement which serves as a recommendation for the higher education institutions and can be also presented to the potential employers in non‐regulated professions. . In all non‐regulated professions it is up to the employer to decide whether to employ holder of foreign qualification or not.

• Mobility: It is increasing. Dissatisfactory number of foreign students. Obstacles: insufficient financial support, language, Latvian universities are not well known internationally, cold climate, strict border crossing regulations. To increase mobility several coursed are offered in English.

Graduates have possibilities to work in EU countries. The teaching staff‐exchange increases.

STATE OF THE ART

General The doctor profession is regulated. There are two universities in Latvia that provide medical study. To obtain doctor qualification, student has to study in a professional higher education study programme for 6 years, which does not yet give the right to work as doctor. It is followed by 3 – 6 years studies in residency, after successful completion of which a doctor certificate can be obtained. When developing study programmes in medicine the respective EU Directive is taken into account, and the students follow compliance with this directive to sustain the possibility to work in various other EU countries.

Medical studies


6 years study program, which does not yet give the right to work as doctor. Additional 3‐6 years studies in residency are necessary to obtain the doctor certificate. There is three‐ cycle structure –it is possible to study PhD.


Regulated by Law on Regulated Professions and Recognition of Professional Qualifications, harmonised with the EU legislation – EU Directives and Latvian Cabinet of Ministers regulations “Minimum requirements of study programs for acquisition of doctor professional qualification”.


Not flexible. There is not the flexibility for entry medical studies programmes from different fields. Student course selection possibilities are defined by Ministry of Education and Science study programme standards and it is more flexible.

Recognition Recognition and mobility is possible only from analogue study programs from other HEIs. Mobility There are special programmes in English to attract foreign full‐time students. Graduates can work in various EU countries. The doctor is regulated profession in Latvia and holders of foreign qualifications need official recognition. The Academic information centre (AIC) checks the documents and sends them to the competent body and competent body takes a decision on recognition, partly recognition and send its decision to AIC. After recognition it is possible to work in Latvia.

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General There are 7 HE institutions that provide law study.

The lawyer profession is regulated. Law


Three‐cycle structure. Reform is in the final stage and simultaneously 2 study organization models are realized: • studies take place in 5‐year study program and 1‐year master program

(these soon will be closed), • 3‐year bachelor and 2‐year professional master study program after

acquisition of which lawyer’s qualification is awarded. The 5‐year program and the 2‐year professional master study program are oriented to give opportunity to enter the labor market. The other programs only give general skills. Master studies can only be started with bachelor in law diploma. It is possible to study PhD.


Regulated by Law on Regulated Professions and Recognition of Professional Qualifications and Latvian Cabinet of Ministers regulations “Minimum requirements of study programs for acquisition of lawyer professional qualification”.


Not flexible. There is not the flexibility for entry law studies programmes from different fields. Student course selection possibilities are defined by Ministry of Education and Science study programme standards and it is more flexible. The programme structure foresees three types of courses: mandatory, compulsory elective and free elective courses. The juridical programmes are not open – master studies can only be started with bachelor in law diploma.

Recognition Diploma Supplement is introduced and issued to all graduates since 2004 in Latvian and English. Latvian credit point system has been introduced in 90’s. One Latvian credit point corresponds to 1.5 ECTS. The lawyer is regulated profession in Latvia and holders of foreign qualifications need official recognition. The Academic information centre (AIC) checks the documents and sends them to the competent body and competent body takes a decision on recognition, partly recognition and send its decision to AIC. After recognition it is possible to work in Latvia.

Mobility It is increasing. Number of foreign exchange students is increasing, but there are no full‐time students, as the programme is mainly connected with national legislation. Graduates have possibilities to work in EU countries. The teaching staff‐exchange increases. The mobility is based on bilateral cooperation agreements, programmes and networks.

Teacher training

General There are 6 HE institutions that provide teacher training study. Programs were reformed in 2000. Two teacher education models are used: 1. the program is realized in higher education establishment department

that only prepare teachers (ex. Faculty of Pedagogy); 2. program is realized in higher education establishment department that

realize study programs in certain science field and it is one of several study programs there. In this case teacher education program is based on bachelor program, supplemented with teacher professional module that satisfies all the specific requirements of the professional program.

Teacher training is only on the first cycle level, but there is also Education sciences programmes on Master and PhD level.

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3‐cycle structure. Before the study programme reform secondary school teachers were taught in 5‐year professional study programmes, after successful acquisition of which graduates were prepared for labour market and received a diploma giving right to work at school as a teacher Year 2000 Cabinet of Ministers Regulations on requirements for pedagogue education and profession qualification establishes that prospective teachers have to acquire professional bachelor study programme with study length 4 years. The programme has to comply with bachelor standard and teacher professional standard requirements. Master study length is 1.5 – 2 years. Entry requirement ‐ bachelor degree in teacher training. Programs ensure graduates to integrate in the labour market as teachers and also as other positions.


Regulated by Law on Regulated Professions and Latvian Cabinet of Ministers regulations “Minimum requirements of study programs for acquisition of teacher professional qualification”. Regulations on requirements for pedagogue education and professional qualifications define 4 years study length.


Flexible. Possible to study bachelor programs from different fields and combine them with the module that gives necessary competencies for a teacher.

Recognition Diploma Supplement is introduced and issued to all graduates since 2004 in Latvian and English. Latvian credit point system has been introduced in 90’s. One Latvian credit point corresponds to 1.5 ECTS. The teacher is regulated profession in Latvia and holders of foreign qualifications need official recognition. The Academic information centre (AIC) checks the documents and sends them to the competent body and competent body takes a decision on recognition, partly recognition and send its decision to AIC. After recognition it is possible to work in Latvia.

Mobility It is increasing. Foreign full‐time students are not registered – difficulty in comparing the programmes because of different professional qualifications. The number of courses taught in English increases. The teaching staff‐exchange increases. The mobility is based on bilateral cooperation agreements, programmes, and networks.

General Engineering studies provide the Technical university of Riga The engineering profession is regulated.

Engineering


Two‐cycle structure is applied in two models: • 3‐year bachelor program and 2‐year master program. In this case the

programs are heavily academically oriented and do not prepare graduates for particular profession, but only give general work skills.

• Professional bachelor study program (4‐4.5 years) and master study program (1‐1.5 years). In this situation the professional bachelor study program is precisely targeted to some engineering professions, it foresees 26 week internship and at graduation grants engineering qualification that provide wide work opportunities.

Transition from bachelor to master level is relatively narrow, usually in the same field. Some master programs exist that allow wider approach in enrolment.


Regulated by Law on Regulated Professions and Recognition of Professional Qualifications and Latvian Cabinet of Ministers regulations “Minimum requirements of study programs for acquisition of engineering professional qualification”.

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Not flexible. There is not the flexibility for entry engineering studies programmes from different fields. Student course selection possibilities are defined by Ministry of Education and Science study programme standards and it is more flexible.

Recognition Diploma Supplement is introduced and issued to all graduates since 2004 in Latvian and English. Latvian credit point system has been introduced in 90’s. One Latvian credit point corresponds to 1.5 ECTS. The engineer is regulated profession in Latvia and holders of foreign qualifications need official recognition. The Academic information centre (AIC) checks the documents and sends them to the competent body and competent body takes a decision on recognition, partly recognition and send its decision to AIC. After recognition it is possible to work in Latvia.

Mobility It is increasing slowly. There is a programme in English offered for full‐time students. This speciality is still not so popular among both national and international students. Graduates have possibilities to work in EU countries. The teaching staff‐exchange increases. The mobility is based on bilateral cooperation agreements, programmes and networks.

General There are two universities and one HE institution, which provide history study in Latvia. The history study is only academic study. Teacher qualification can be acquired after bachelor studies. In this case the length of studies is 1.5 years.

History


Three‐cycle model: 3‐year first cycle 2‐years second cycle, 3‐years doctoral studies as the third cycle. In the master of history study programs all holders of bachelor of humanitarian sciences can be enrolled. History study programs with exception of preparation of history teachers program, are not specifically professionally oriented, but the graduates successfully adapt to the labor market as they have acquired general working skills during the studies.


Study programs itself include competencies to be achieved by study courses, modules and program as a whole.


Flexible. Possible to study master programs from different fields. The history study programmes are sufficiently open – in the master of history study programmes all holders of bachelor of humanitarian sciences can be enrolled.

Recognition Diploma Supplement is introduced and issued to all graduates since 2004 in Latvian and English. Latvian credit point system has been introduced in 90’s. One Latvian credit point corresponds to 1.5 ECTS. The final decision regarding the recognition of a foreign degree/diploma is taken by that higher education institution, in which the applicant is willing to continue his/her studies. This is non‐regulated professions it is up to the employer to decide whether to employ holder of foreign qualification or not.

Mobility It is increasing, especially as for exchange students. More courses are offered in English and students are interested in the archives research. Graduates have possibilities to work in EU countries. The teaching staff‐exchange increases. The mobility is based on bilateral cooperation agreements, programmes and networks.

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IMPACT

Access It has no significant impact. The number of students over 10 years has increased 1.5 times. Students with low results from secondary school can enter HE if they pay fees.

Medical studies

Graduation There is no difference from General. The reform has no significant impact, taking into account that studies are organized in two levels ‐ a professional higher education study programme for 6 years and studies in residency, as a result increasing the total number of students and graduates. Drop‐outs don’t depend of programme reform, because the biggest student drop‐out is on the first course.

Employability In the current the all graduates can enter the labor market. Mobility The programme reform simplifies student, graduate and teaching staff

mobility. The comparison of the programmes in different universities gives the basis for better recognition of the mobility results. For medicine mobility is made difficult because of great difference in distribution of courses within the semesters and obligatory practical training in hospitals.


There is no difference from General It is not evident that the transition to 2‐cycle system has substantially affected the study quality. The quality is more affected by other factors, and the effect on performance indicators is not known. Latvian HEQEC is a member of ENQA, INQAHE and of the Central and Easter European network of quality assurance agencies. As the quality assurance system in Latvia was created after transition to 2 cycle model, it is adjusted to it. Latvian QA system does accreditation – both of programmes and institutions. Latvian QA follows the scheme: • Self‐assessment report by institution/programme; • Peer review visit – no less than 3 peer experts, of which no more than1

can be from Latvia; • Decision upon accreditation of programme/institution (based upon

peer evaluation reports). Decision upon accreditation of a programme is taken by the Accreditation Commission, but in case of accreditation of an institution as a whole, ‐ by the Higher Education Council;

• Publishing of accreditation results: self‐assessment report, peer review report and the decision are published on the Higher Education Quality Assessment Centre website.


A cost of study place for the medical studies is 3.5 times bigger than for the history studies. Transition to 2‐cycle system indeed has reduced costs of study places because the way of study course realisation was changed – the number of contact hours for students was reduced from 36 to 20 hours a week, but the amount of independent work was increased. As a result the amount of teacher work and the number of teachers has decreased. It has significant financial effect.

Access It has no significant impact. The number of students over 10 years has increased 10 times. Students with low results from secondary school can enter HE if they pay fees. Also age restrictions were removed.

Law

Graduation There is no difference from General The reforma has no significant impact, taking into account that studies are organized in two levels – bachelor and master programmes, as a result increasing the total number of students and graduates. Drop‐outs don’t depend of programme reform, because the biggest student drop‐out is on the first course.

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mobility. In law the mobility is only possible within one term, as the programme puts the main emphasis on national legislation.


There is no difference from General Latvian HEQEC is a member of ENQA, INQAHE and of the Central and Easter European network of quality assurance agencies. As the quality assurance system in Latvia was created after transition to 2 cycle model, it is adjusted to it. Latvian QA system does accreditation – both of programmes and institutions. Latvian QA follows the scheme: • Self‐assessment report by institution/programme; • Peer review visit – no less than 3 peer experts, of which no more than1





A cost of study place for law studies is the some as for history studies. Transition to 2‐cycle system indeed has reduced costs of study places because the way of study course realisation was changed – the number of contact hours for students was reduced from 36 to 20 hours a week, but the amount of independent work was increased. As a result the amount of teacher work and the number of teachers has decreased. It has significant financial effect.

Access It has no significant impact. The number of students over 10 years has not changed. Students with low results from secondary school can enter HE if they pay fees. Also age restrictions were removed.

Teacher training

Graduation There is no difference from General. The reform has no significant impact, taking into account that studies are organized in two levels – bachelor and master programmes, as a result increasing the total number of students and graduates. Drop‐outs don’t depend of programme reform, because the biggest student drop‐out is on the first course.


mobility. Working with partner universities within networks it became possible to compare the programmes leading to different qualifications for the further better recognition of the study results.

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There is no difference from General. Latvian HEQEC is a member of ENQA, INQAHE and of the Central and Easter European network of quality assurance agencies. As the quality assurance system in Latvia was created after transition to 2 cycle model, it is adjusted to it. Latvian QA system does accreditation – both of programmes and institutions. Latvian QA follows the scheme: • Self‐assessment report by institution/programme; • Peer review visit – no less than 3 peer experts, of which no more than1





A cost of study place for law studies is the some as for history studies. Transition to 2‐cycle system indeed has reduced costs of study places because the way of study course realisation was changed – the number of contact hours for students was reduced from 36 to 20 hours a week, but the amount of independent work was increased. As a result the amount of teacher work and the number of teachers has decreased. It has significant financial effect.

Access It has no significant impact. The number of students over 10 years has increased 4 times. Students with low results from secondary school can enter HE if they pay fees. Also age restrictions were removed.

Engineering

Graduation There is no difference from General The reform has no significant impact, taking into account that studies are organized in two levels – bachelor and master programmes, as a result increasing the total number of students and graduates. Drop‐outs don’t depend of programme reform, because the biggest student drop‐out is on the first course.


mobility. Programmes and courses available in English, measurement in ECTS makes the recognition of study results easier, mobility more attractive.






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A cost of study places for engineering studies is 3 times bigger than for history studies. Transition to 2‐cycle system indeed has reduced costs of study places because the way of study course realisation was changed – the number of contact hours for students was reduced from 36 to 20 hours a week, but the amount of independent work was increased. As a result the amount of teacher work and the number of teachers has decreased. It has significant financial effect.

Access It has no significant impact, neglecting the fact that there is separate enrolment in bachelor and master programmes, as a result increasing the number of students to be enrolled. The number of students over 10 years has increased 1.2 times.

History

Graduation There is no difference from General. The reform has no significant impact, taking into account that studies are organized in two levels – bachelor and master programmes, as a result increasing the total number of students and graduates. Drop‐outs don’t depend of programme reform, because the biggest student drop‐out is on the first course.

Employability All the bachelor holders can find work without further professional education.

Mobility The programme reform simplifies student, graduate and teaching staff mobility. Available courses in English, individual consultations with professors, comparable programmes make mobility easier and more attractive.







There is no difference from General.

General (not for specific disciplines)

Access Not significant. The number of students over 10 years has increased 4 times, but there is no evidence that the increase in the number is due to transition to the 2‐cycle programs. It was rather because the universities became open to all people who wanted to study by offering pay studies. Students with low results from secondary school can enter HE if they pay fees. Also age restrictions were removed. Attention is put to increase enrolment in masters and PhD programs, and into natural science and engineering programs (demand on the labor market). In master programs students can be enrolled with a bachelor in respective field or related field. In several MBA type programs terms of enrolment are wider.

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Graduation It has no significant impact, taking into account that studies are organized in

two levels – bachelor and master programs, as a result increasing the total number of students and graduates. In comparison to before‐reform period when the length of studies was 5 years, the normative length of studies has increased from 5 to 6 years. The real time that student spends in higher education till acquisition of the degree has increased significantly. 2‐cycle studies increase flexibility. The graduates can enter the labor market after the first cycle. Master level studies offer the possibility to return to higher education and accomplish knowledge, as well as change the profession if necessary. With transition to 2‐cycle system the time to employment in profession has decreased. For the professions where master degree is required the employment time usually has not changed.

Employability It depends on the field if studies and the structure of study program (professional or academic). All the bachelor holders can find work without further professional education. If with transferable skills we understand general work skills then there are courses in study programs that develop these competencies and facilitate adaptation in the labor market.

Mobility Reformed programs make mobility easier (cycle structure, credit transfer system) both for students and teaching staff.


The effect on performance indicators is not known. Latvian quality assurance system was created in mid‐1990s. Latvian HEQEC is a member of ENQA, INQAHE and of the Central and Easter European network of quality assurance agencies. QA system does accreditation – both of programs and institutions.


Transition to 2‐cycle system has reduced costs of study places substantially. The number of contact hours for students was reduced from 36 to 20 hours a week, but the amount of independent work was increased.

References

Websites: http://www.aic.lv/rec/Eng/index.htmhttp://www.aiknc.lv/en/index.php# http://www.aic.lv/rp/Eng/DEFAULT.HTM http://www.bologna‐bergen2005.no/EN/national_impl/00_Nat‐rep‐05/National_Reports‐Latvia_050106.pdf http://www.bologna‐bergen2005.no/

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http://www.aic.lv/rec/Eng/index.htm


Curriculum reform in Liechtenstein



As Liechtenstein is a very small country, it has a very small and limited HE system with only three officially‐recognised HEIs: (1) The Hochschule Liechtenstein (a Fachhochschule, also called Liechtenstein University of Applied Sciences) offers only Bachelor and Masters programmes in Architecture and Economics/Business Administration. According to the Act on the Hochschule Liechtenstein, effective since 2005, the introduction of doctorate studies requires an approval by the government. However, doctorate studies in these fields can be attended at a foreign partner university. (2) The private Universität für Humanwissenschaften (University of Human Sciences) offers only doctoral studies in medicine (Dr.scient.med.); (3) The private Internationale Akademie für Philosophie (International Academy of Philosophy) offers only doctoral studies in Philosophy (Dr. phil.). More than 90% of students from Liechtenstein study at a foreign university, mostly in Switzerland, Austria, and Germany. As the Hochschule Liechtenstein is the only HEI offering degrees at Bachelor and Masters levels, the subsequent information is confined to this HEI. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

The new HE Act, effective since 2005, regulates HE degrees under articles 17 to 23. It distinguishes between Bachelor, Master, Doctorate, and other programmes. Bachelor programmes last at least 3 years, Master programmes at least 1 ½ and doctorate studies at least 2 years, there is no maximum duration. HEIs are allowed to offer other programmes as well. Even though the law became effective in 2005 only, the reforms have been ongoing since 1996. The implementation of the Bachelor‐Master structure at the Hochschule Liechtenstein is complete. In the academic year 2004/5 the last graduates of Diplom degrees left the system.


Within the scope of internal curriculum projects, the concept of competence‐based learning has been established and curricula have been modified on this base.

• Flexible learning paths The diversity of teaching modes as well as the flexibility of programmes has been increased through stronger modularisation. Excellence tracks have not been introduced. A basis for the recognition of prior learning qualifications has not been established yet.

• Recogni‐tion: ECTS and Diploma Supplement have been introduced to facilitate recognition. Information about study possibilities to different target groups has been improved at the institutional level.

• Mobility:

The mobility of undergraduate and graduate students has strongly increased, both with regard to the completion of foreign studies and traineeships. The mobility of teaching staff has strongly increased as well.

STATE OF THE ART

The study fields of medicine, law, engineering, history, and teacher training are not offered in Liechtenstein.

IMPACT

As the five fields of study are not offered in Liechtenstein, only general impacts of the transition to Bachelor and Master programmes and accompanying curricular reforms are given below.

Access Since the start of the Bologna process, the number of students has strongly increased. This led to stronger selection policies for different degree programmes, based on prior qualifications and interviews. The openness of programmes has been increased by facilitating access to the Hochschule Liechtenstein for candidates with other professional backgrounds or qualifications from other HEIs, and in other subject areas.

General assessment

Graduation Since the beginning of the reform, the number of graduates has strongly increased. The time to degree has on average been shortened considerably, especially in the first cycle. The transition to the Bachelor‐Master structure has eased recognition and employment on the international labour market. However, positive or negative effects on the general labour‐market chances have not yet been formally assessed.

Employability At international level, the two‐cycle structure leads to easier access for graduates to further studies and to the labour market. At national level, it is possible that in single cases, the new degrees are still less known, specifically among smaller employers. This can lead to the fact that graduates from the former study programmes, specifically of the first cycle with a longer duration of studies, partly still have better chances at the labour market. Even if the individual degree programmes would need more detailed examination, it can be stated that graduates from Bachelor studies have good chances on the labour market. In most programmes, the acquisition of skills needed for qualified professional practice is part of the curriculum and the precondition of a successful graduation.


With the implementation of the reform, different quality assurance mechanisms have been examined, adapted and reintroduced at the institutional and national levels.


Concerning the impact of the reform in the field of higher education on the cost‐effectiveness, information about improvement can not been given yet.

References

Hochschule Liechtenstein: www.hochschule.li/Universität für Humanwissenschaften: www.ufl.li/Internationale Akademie für Philosophie: www.iap.li/HE Act of 25 November 2004: www.gesetze.li/get_pdf.jsp?PDF=2005002.pdfAct of 25 November 2004 on the Hochschule Liechtenstein www.gesetze.li/get_pdf.jsp?PDF=2005003.pdf

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http://www.hochschule.li/

http://www.ufl.li/

http://www.iap.li/

http://www.gesetze.li/get_pdf.jsp?PDF=2005002.pdf

Curriculum reform in Lithuania



Higher education institutions belong to the Lithuanian Higher Institutions’ Association for Organizing Joint Admission (Lithuanian acronym – LAMA BPO). The association develops and carries out admission procedures equally applicable to all of its members. External evaluation of new and operating study programmes is compulsory. Accreditation of operating study programmes is compulsory and is done by the Centre for Quality Assesment in Higher Education and the Ministry of Education and Science which takes the final decision before the new study programme is included into the Register of Study Programms. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

Tree‐cycle structure: 4(3,5)+2(1,5)+4 First level: undergraduate with 4 (or 3.5) years of study; Second level: Masters, specialized professional studies with 2 (or 1.5) years of study; Third level: doctoral studies, graduate art studies, residency programmes with 4 (or 3) years study.


Competence‐ based (before introducing Diploma Supplement the study programmes were revised and redefined in terms of competences). National qualification framework is being discussed and designed.


Some institutions offer modules. However, modularization is not widely spread and is also not promoted by any legal document. Diversity of teaching modes has been increased and flexibility of courses chosen has increased as well. The regulations of course recognition are approved by the Ministry of Education. As the guidelines of nine study fields are already formulated, it makes recognition of courses and study programmes acquired in other universities more flexible.

• Recognition:

Changes of the Governmental Decree on ʺRegulations on Higher Education and Scientific Degrees Awarded in the Republic of Lithuaniaʺ from 24.03.2004 introduced Diploma Supplement on the national level. From 2005 the graduates could get Diploma Supplement free of charge on request. From 2006 Diploma Supplement is being issued to all graduates automatically and is free of charge in two languages Lithuanian and English.

• Mobility:

National credit system has been implemented. The Law on HE (March 2000) states that the average amount of one academic year full‐time studies corresponds to 40 credits. One national credit is equal to 1.5 ECTS. The national credits serve for accumulation and ECTS for transfer purpose. Two of the Lithuanian universities have been granted the ECTS label in 2005.

STATE OF THE ART

General The government fixed the current scheme of medical study in 2003. It corresponds to the European parliament and EC directive of 2001/19/EB. Studies in medicine, odontology and pharmacy are integrated studies. Studies in medicine last not less than 6 years or consist of not less than 240 credits. Internship in medicine is (not longer than 1 year‐ 40 credits) part of medicine study, which is devoted to acquire sufficient clinical experience of general medicine. Medical residency is the third level of university studies in the field of medicine.

Medical studies


Three‐cycle structure.: having finished integrated studies, students may apply for academic doctoral studies lasting for 4 years . For clinical doctoral studies, students have to finish integrated medical studies and medical residency. For other doctoral studies students may apply having master’s degree.


Study programmes in medicine have been redefined in terms of competences before implementing the Diploma Supplement. Context of modularisation in study programmes of medicine is not clearly defined.


Recognition Diploma Supplement has been introduced and all the study programmes are registered and evaluated.

Mobility General The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Three‐cycle structure: 4+1,5(1) +4 having finished integrated studies or master studies one may start doctoral studies, lasting 4 years. Studies are conducted either five years of integrated studies upon the completion of which a Master degree and a qualification of a lawyer is obtained (VU); 4+1,5 – successful graduates acquire Bachelor‘s and later Master‘s degree (LTU) and 3+, then those who dispose of a Bachelor’s degree in social sciences area within three years should acquire a Master’s degree (VDU). In 2006 new study regulations were prepared to restructure the Law studies.

Law


All study programmes have been redefined in terms of competences before implementing the Diploma Supplement. Guidelines of studies in law are being prepared, transparency of skills and knowledge will be increased.



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Mobility

General There are many concerns on quality and structure of teacher training study programmes. A concept is prepared, with three main parts of teacher education: general education, the competence in a chosen field or study and the competence in pedagogy. The main schema of current teacher training: The teachers are trained in the universities and the colleges. In the university teachers can be trained according parallel or consecutive models of study programme. The parallel model of teacher training describes studies in the subject field and after the studies in pedagogy and psychology according minimal requirements for teachers training. The consecutive model of teacher training includes studies in the subject field plus studies in pedagogy and psychology. The one year internship in the school is obligatory. The final examination for teacher qualification is needed.

Teacher training


Three cycle structure: 4+2+4.


All study programmes have been redefined in terms of competences before implementing the Diploma Supplement. The skills and knowledge acquired for teacher competence are not yet clearly defined and discussed.



Mobility General In April of 2005 a general regulation of technological (engineering)

study field was certified. The regulation consists of general attitudes, requirements for a study programme, structure of study programmes, requirements for the performance of study programmes. The scope of engineering study programmes is related to qualifications awarded

Engineering


Three‐cycle structure: 4+1,5(2) +4. Many study fields in technological sciences (electronics, civil, transport, environmental engineering, bioengineering, etc.) follow the scheme 4+1(2). Since April 2005 this scheme was changed: 140‐180 credits (3,5 years‐4,5 years). Studies should be integrated (then the scope is 180‐220 credits). Upon completing the undergraduate level a Bachelor degree or Bachelor degree and the qualification of an engineer is awarded. Upon completing a one year period of the second level of study the qualification of an engineer is awarded. Upon completing a two‐year period of the second level of study, a Master degree or a Master degree and qualification of an engineer is awarded.


All study programmes have been redefined in terms of competences before implementing the Diploma Supplement. Some of the programmes use modularisation.



Mobility General History The two‐ or three‐ Three‐cycle structure: 4 +2+4

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cycle structure The scheme varies: 4+1 to obtain a Bachelors degree, later, the qualification of a teacher; 4+1.5‐ a Bachelors degree and later, a Masters degree or the qualification of a teacher; 4+2‐ both: a Bachelors degree and later, a Masters degree or a Masters degree and the qualification of a teacher. Studies of archaeology and ethnology are standard (4+2), except for the programmes in Vytautas Magnus University (Kaunas). Within a year and a half of second level study bachelors in Vytautas Magnus University can obtain the qualification of a teacher.


All study programmes have been redefined in terms of competences before implementing the Diploma Supplement.



Mobility

IMPACT

Medical studies

Access Admission to integrated studies of medicine, same as to other fields of studies, is accomplished through LAMA BPO. The interest to study medicine has significantly decreased, and the situation is changing only for the last two years. In 2006 there were 2 candidates per place. Admission to doctoral studies is possible immediately after finishing integrated studies and internship, if one goes for theoretical (academic) doctoral studies. If one chooses clinical postgraduate studies, one usually has to finish residency. In principle medical studies are rather open for students of the same study field, studying in another medical high school. Students from other study programmes have very slight possibilities to join, especially to senior courses (one has to pass exams of all academic differences between programmes).

Graduation As students of other study programmes, medical students are trying to graduate in time, because it is connected with financing (studies are financed by the government, students are paying 300 EURO per year. Therefore graduation rate is rather high: medicine – 65‐70 percents, odontology – 85 percents, public health: bachelor studies 66‐70 percents, while master studies – 94 percents. Doctoral studies are finished in time and doctoral thesis are defended (96‐100 percents). Recently doctors, who graduated after integrated studies and residency, have more possibilities to find jobs in other European countries.

Employability Possibilities of finding jobs are quite good. There is lack of doctors in many places .More vacancies are connected to growing possibilities for doctors and nurses to find jobs abroad. The concept of transferable skills is not yet legitimated, not institutionalized.

Mobility Possibilities for mobility have increased, both for students and teachers. As doctors in Lithuania are trained by two institutions (Vilnius University and Kaunas University of Medicine), to compare those two‐ Kaunas University of Medicine is more active in mobility.

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All study programmes of medicine have been evaluated and accredited. Odontology programme was evaluated positively by an international team of experts. Only public health programmes were accredited temporarily and now they are being redesigned and revised, while preparing for a new evaluation. Institutional and national QA mechanisms are implemented and constantly improved, but only institutional “ scores” on performance indicators are described and implemented ( but not specifically for medical studies).



Access Admission to bachelor degree and integrated law studies is accomplished through LAMA BPO. Competition for law studies is quite big: approximately 4 candidates per place. Two universities, that train lawyers according to a binary system, admit students to master studies by competition. Students are admitted to doctoral studies after finishing integrated or second stage law studies. Admission is by competition, taking into account Study programmes are quite open: a shift from one programme to another, as well as from one university to another is possible after passing exams of academic differences between programmes, and if free places are available in groups (students accepted to study programmes according to quota, approved by the Ministry of Education).

Law

Graduation Graduation rate of bachelor, integrated studies and master students in law is very high. The majority of students graduate on time. However, not all the accepted finish their doctoral studies timely. Or not all of those who graduate maintain their thesis. Lawyers are mostly trained for national labour market

Employability Recently certain difficulties in finding jobs immediately after graduation for lawyers are being observed (much more lawyers are being trained, than there is a need in our labour market). Licences, that are obligatory for many workplaces, require acquisition of first and second degree of studies.

Mobility Mobility matches general character of Lithuanian universities: we accept more than we send abroad. But mobility in law studies is creditable compared to other study programmes. Recently mobility of teaching staff has also increased.


All law study programmes are registered and all of them have been assessed by invited foreign experts. All of them were accredited, except for VDU ( Vytautas Magnus University). At present a task force is preparing regulations of law studies.


Teacher training

Access Admission to bachelor degree studies is accomplished through LAMA BPO. Approximately some 2 candidates per place. Admission to the second stage of studies is by competition for number of places, determined by ministry quota. Selection is accomplished taking into account the record of the undergraduate courses taken in that speciality. Applicants to doctoral studies should have a master degree and pass the entrance exam. Teacher training programmes are rather open, there are theoretical and practical possibilities of moving from one university to another or to change the programme, if there are free places in the selected programme.

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Graduation As teachers are trained by many universities, therefore the graduation rate is

very different, both in universities and in study programmes. Graduation rate in physical science teacher training is similar to physical science study programme graduation rates (approximately between 50 percents in bachelor studies, and higher in master studies). Teacher training programmes in humanities have higher graduation rates. Graduation rate for doctoral studies is not very high (approximately 50 percents), bet in certain years in certain universities it may be higher. There are no data that indicate that flexibility in labour market for teachers has increased.

Employability Quite a lot of teachers is being trained. 2‐3 years ago quotas for admission have even been decreased. However, recently in many schools in Lithuania there is lack of teachers, especially of foreign languages, informatics, etc. So, possibilities to find a job are not bad. But one can not start working as a teacher directly after finishing bachelor studies, if he has not studied education and psychology according to a parallel model of teacher training. In addition, the one year internship at school is obligatory. The concept of transferable skills is not yet implemented

Mobility Mobility matches general character of Lithuanian universities: we accept more than we send abroad.



Access Admission to bachelor degree studies is accomplished through LAMA BP. For a long time engineering studies were not popular. The situation has improved in 2006, when there were 1,6 candidates per place (number of places determined by the ministry quota). Admission to master studies is by competition and taking into account the record of the undergraduate courses taken in that speciality. Admission to doctoral studies is competitive, taking into account the records of the master courses taken in this speciality, published articles or other publications, reports at conferences. “Openness” of programmes depends on the number of free places available and if all the differences in examinations are eliminated.

Engineering

Graduation The graduation rate in bachelor studies is approximately 59 percents, and in master studies – 65‐70 percents. Doctoral studies are finished in time by approximately 60 percents of students. Flexibility on international labour market has increased.

Employability Most students of engineering studies programmes are inclined to acquire full engineering qualification according to standards of professional training, established by international conventions. Therefore there is no rush to find jobs after bachelor studies. The concept of transferable skills not yet implemented.

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Mobility Mobility is in accordance with general experience of Lithuanian universities:

we send more than we accept. Numbers are different in different universities.


Discussions about quality of teacher training are going on for many years. And there is some background. For example, Centre of quality assurance of studies has evaluated 43 teacher training programmes, and accredited 20. The rest were temporarily accredited or not accredited. As in other fields, scores on performance indicators regarding quality are not yet implemented. Lithuanian universities have only institutional scores on performance indicators.


Access Admission to bachelor degree studies is accomplished through LAMA BPO Competition for history full‐time studies is approximately 2,5 candidates per place. Competition for part‐time study programme is not big (1,28 candidates per place). Master studies are available only for those candidates, who have bachelor degree. Admission to the second cycle is competitive: rating marks of the Bachelor thesis/final examinations, the record of undergraduate courses taken in history. Students are admitted to doctoral studies after finishing master studies in history. Admission to doctoral studies is competitive. Master thesis evaluation, master courses taken and evaluation of presented research project or level of scientific publications are taken into account. Theoretically study programmes of history are sufficiently open: one can shift from other study programmes and other universities. Practically it may be implemented if there are free places (as students are admitted to places, settled by quotas of Ministry of Education), and having eliminated all the differences between the subjects accounted for and those indicated in the curriculum.

History

Graduation Studies of history are finished in time, that means after four years of bachelor studies and two years of master studies, rather small amount of students does not finish their studies in time for different personal reasons. 70‐80 percents of students graduate in time. However, doctoral studies graduation is not so successful. For different reasons (marriages, parenting, etc.) usually are prolonged for 1‐2 years, and not all of those, who graduate successfully, defend doctoral thesis.

Employability Graduates of history find jobs quite successfully, but most often not according to their speciality. Profession of teacher of history is not popular. A very small number of students (some 5 percents) start working after finishing bachelor studies. Students of history, like other students, try to finish second level of studies, and only then they start working. The concept of transferable skills is not implemented in this field of studies.

Mobility Mobility in this study programme matches general trends of Lithuanian universities: we accept more than we send abroad. One has to admit , that mobility in this field is not very high compared to other study programmes


All study programmes of history were evaluated and accredited or temporarily accredited. Every high education establishment has its own mechanism of quality assurance, but questions of quality improvement are part of everyday schedule, as well as description and application of “scores” on performance indicators.


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Access The number of students has increased. Admission to studies is competitive,

based on leaving examinations for those entering the first year of study and entrance examinations or Bachelor thesis//final examinations for those entering masters courses and entrance examinations.

All together

Graduation 80‐69% of students timely finish their Bachelor studies (engineering studies 59%) and about 70‐65% finish Master studies on time.

Employability Mobility Low mobility rate. Students are strictly forced to finish their studies on time,

because this is regulated by state funding. The possibilities of mobility and flexible planning of studies are very limited. Student mobility is promoted by Socrates/Erasmus programme. The number of outgoing Lithuanian students is much higher than the number of incoming foreign students. New programmes like joint degrees, Erasmus Mundus, transnational programmes support mobility of teaching staff.


National responsibility for quality policy lies with the Ministry of Education and Science, for quality evaluation with the Centre for Quality in Higher Education, while quality assurance on the institutional level is the responsibility of higher education institutions themselves. Institutions of higher education are free to choose the type and way of implementation of their internal quality assurance system. The performance indicators have been introduced by the Strategic Planning Methodology approved by the Government on 6 June 2002, which the University, as a state –funded institution, has to follow while drafting and implementing institutional short‐term( three years) plans. Performance indicator means an indicator providing information about the implementation of the strategic action plan or the strategy of a branch ( sector) of the economy or of an institution. Outcome/impact means the benefit ( or damage) which, upon the implementation of a respective goal, is experienced not only by direct beneficiaries but also by the groups. Result means the benefit ( or damage)which, upon the implementation of the programme, is directly experienced by the programme beneficiaries. Output means material or intellectual product and/or services produced reasonably using the resources allocated for the implementation of the objective. For example: there are 3 outcome , 5 result and 33 output indicators in the institutional plan of 2006‐2008 of Vilnius University.


Due to the attempts of universities themselves, recently while using money, earned by the universities, the material basis of studies and research is improving, at the same time for this reason quality of studies is improving as well( The government or budgetary financing has not changed during the last four years).

References

Evaluations of study programmes of engineering (in Lithuanian). http://www.skvc.lt Evaluation of study programmes ”Public Health”. http://www.skvc.ltLaw on Higher Education, 2000. Potentiality of universities to realize Master studies programmes (Study draft in Lithuanian), 2006. Regulation of Law studies (draft in Lithuanian),2006. Regulations of Centre for Quality Assessment in Higher Education, 1995. Rules of Quality assessment for Institutions of Research and Higher Education, 2001. The general regulation of engineering studies (in Lithuanian), 2005.

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http://www.skvc.lt/

Curriculum reform in Luxembourg



The University of Luxembourg was created by Act of Parliament in August 2003. The university is an ʺétablissement publicʺ financed by the State, but which enjoys financial, pedagogical and administrative autonomy. The relationship of the university with the State is governed by a four‐year‐plan. The Act also establishes the obligation of both an internal and external quality assurance mechanism. The national quality assurance system is about to be put in place. Considering the size of the country and its only institution, the national quality assurance system will be based on networking and be overseen by a panel of international peers/experts. So far institutional quality assurance has focused on administration and management. The Ministry for Culture, Higher Education and Research oversees the university, the various public research institutes and the national research fund. The University Act explicitly refers to the Bologna Process The degree structure is bachelor, master, PhD. Study programmes are defined in terms of ECTS; bachelor and master programmes taken together cannot exceed a five‐year‐duration (standard student). Mobility is compulsory for all students in bachelor programmes. Since there was provision at Fachhochschule level and undergraduate level, albeit only two‐year courses before the university was set up, these programmes are currently redefined so that they meet the Bologna criteria. Students can choose courses among 11 academic or professional Bachelors degree courses, 11 academic or professional Masters degree courses, all of which in line with the Bologna system, as well as 5 specific courses. The University of Luxembourg model is that of a university led by research with three faculties, i.e. (1) Sciences, Technology and Communication; (2) Law, Economics and Finance and (3) Language, Literature, Humanities, Arts and Education. One of the organising principles of the University of Luxembourg is multilingualism. Programmes are to become bilingual (with the choice being French, German and English). • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

Since the University of Luxembourg relies on cooperation agreements with universities from France, Belgium and Germany, the varying degrees at which the process is implemented in the various Member States greatly affects these agreements and makes student mobility more difficult. The coexistence of two systems and the ongoing definition of study programmes in terms of duration complicate the issue further. All Bachelors are organized over 180‐240 credits. All first degrees can be completed after a minimum of three years. Professional degrees are designed to be relevant to the (European) labour market. This might not be the case for some academic bachelors. Access to the second degree (Masters) is so far open to all students. These master programs only started in the academic year 2005‐2006. All curricula have been reorganized to account for the adjusted structure.


At bachelor level, The University offers a bilingual (French/German) programme in physics run by three universities and based on joint admissions. The programme includes student mobility (each university offering 60 credits) and leads to three degrees. Three other master programmes (law, economics, philosophy) run as joint degree programmes with joint admissions, mobility of student and the awarding of double degrees. Doctoral programmes are offered on a co‐tutelle basis, leading to double degrees. All doctorates are joint programmes.

A large part of the curricula has already been defined in terms of competencies, and organized in modules. The transparency of skills and knowledge to be acquired will be further enhanced by a new website available in the autumn 2006.


Various Acts of Parliament define the criteria according to which in service training measures and continued education are subsidised. The University also has the mission to contribute to lifelong learning. Presently this is primarily done through executive programmes.

The University Act contains provision for a ʺvalidation des acquis professionnelsʺ; this still needs implementing. In the field of engineering, there is a validation of skills acquired in vocational training and on the job to ensure access to a bachelor programme. Overall the diversity of teaching modes have been increased: lectures, seminars, on‐line learning, blended learning, collaborative on‐line possibilities. Increased offer of optional courses. Doctoral programmes are currently conducted as joint ventures with other universities. A specific doctoral programme (informatics ‐ security, reliability and trust of communication systems) explores the link between a doctorate and placements in industry (ʺindustrial PhDʺ); this programme includes seminars, but t is not structured in terms of coursework, nor are the other doctorates.

• Recognition: Traditionally Luxembourg has had to recognise degrees taken abroad since most students were not trained in the country. A department within the ministry ensures appropriate application of the directives and recognition of diplomas awarded by foreign universities.

Diploma supplements, modularization and ECTS have been introduced as facilitators for recognition.

• Mobility: Traditionally Luxembourg has relied on student mobility. Having students trained abroad has always been considered as beneficial to the country. There is a hundred percent portability of student grants and loans. The ERASMUS programme complements these measures.

Compulsory mobility at the bachelor level will increase the opportunities for student to experience new university settings abroad. To increase internationalizing of the teaching experience, there is no nationality clauses attached to the appointment of staff. The ongoing implementation of the University Act with its provision for compulsory mobility at bachelor level will lead to most programmes becoming joint programmes with the awarding of double degrees. The system which is being put in place is that of a network in which the institution has the responsibility to make mobility happen.

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STATE OF THE ART

Medical studies

General Medical studies have just started in autumn 2005; a specialization in general medical study is proposed in a 3 year‐course.

General The Academic Bachelor in law is organized as a three‐year course of 180 ECTS. The teaching language is French. Certain courses might be organized in English.

Law




Recognition Mobility The compulsory mobility is in the third year. General In 2005 the Faculty of Language and Literature, Humanities, Arts and

Education (LSHASE) launched a four‐year Degree Programme in Educational Sciences leading to a Bachelor in educational sciences. This programme provides qualifications for teaching in preschool, primary school, in preparatory classes of the technical secondary school and in institutions for children with special needs. The Bachelor of Educational Sciences grants 240 ECTS credits after eight semesters of full‐time study. The programme is taught in three languages, i.e. German, French, and English. The Luxembourgish language is requested for working in local schools during the internship.

Teacher training


The programme meets the requirements of the Bologna agreement.


The programme is based on the following pillars: ‐ “Learning how to learn” instead of “teaching how to teach” Students construct their knowledge within contextualized activities and in relation to their needs and questionings. ‐ “Developing in a community of learners” instead of “studying as an isolated actor” People learn while mutually interacting with their social context. ‐ “Being an author” instead of “being a passive agent” Students are accountable for their personal development. The learner’s ʺvoiceʺ is encouraged in a broad variety of contexts and through authentic individual and collective productions. The approach stresses the diversity of individual paths and encourages pluralistic cultural contributions. ‐ ”Growing” instead of “imitating” Learners engage in a developmental processes. Trainers support this development by encouraging creating, documenting, reflecting and evaluating personal initiatives. The main concern of the programme is to develop an students’ critical mind.

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Recognition Mobility Every student to study at least a term at a university abroad.

Engineering General The Bachelor of Engineering in Computer Science provides a solid education in computer science with a professional orientation. Following the Bologna Process, this three year curriculum (six semesters) accounts for 180 ECTS points. Each semester comprises 15 weeks. Courses are grouped into modules according to their subject matter. During the first four semesters, all modules are common. The fifth semester, students can specialize by choosing among different optional modules in addition to the common ones. The sixth semester is subdivided into two parts. During the first seven weeks there are 8 hours of common plus 4 hours of optional courses. After that, the Bachelor concludes with a Thesis of eight weeks. Languages used for teaching and course material are French and English, focusing on English in the later semesters.

General The Master programme in European contemporary history focuses on the origins, the foundations and the identities in Europe, ,cultural diversity, the process of integration and European construction and the relationship between Europe and other regions in the world. The historical point of view is enriched by a critical analysis of different forms of representations of history and of the European idea. The methodology is essentially comparative, critical and long term based. An applied component is guaranteed by complementary stays in European institutions. An individual tutoring insures a personalized progress in his study field. Employability will be given in the fields of research, education, media, cultural management, political and cultural institutions with European vocation.

History



Competencies that should be developed in the programme are: • critical analysis of all kind of information sources • capacity of applying historical reflection on actual problems • capacity of adopting multiperspectival approaches Capacity of conceptualization, formulating and communication.



IMPACT

No impacts can be reported yet

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Curriculum reform in Malta




In place (already before Bologna)


No explicit developments


ECTS regulations implemented at university.

• Recognition: Through NARIC and Diploma Supplement (about to be implemented) • Mobility: Participation in ERASMUS/SOCRATES

STATE OF THE ART

General Only offered at University of Malta The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Exempted from two cycle reform: five year integrated curriculum


‐


Numerus clausus abolished. Access to second year possible for students from chemistry and biology. But teaching modes are rather traditional

Recognition

Medical studies

Mobility Yes for students, hardly for staff (because involved in medical practice as well)

General Only offered at University of Malta The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

3 (LLB) +2 (LLD) structure


66‐75% of programme(s) are core competences.


Modular system introduced. After four years, students can obtain a diploma to work as notary public (but many students stay on for the fifth year). Two cycle structure allows for a more flexible inflow in second cycle.

Recognition

Law

Mobility Many foreign students on Erasmus/Socrates programme. General Other national developments “explain” changes in curricula:

specialisation towards primary or secondary education; from single subject specialisation in arts and languages to two subjects specialisation.


One year PCGE certificate after initial degree unchanged. Alternative is B. Ed., but also through Ma or MSc programme.


Introduction of professional development portfolio approach


Modular basis

Recognition

Teacher training

Mobility Increasing mobility (e.g. through Erasmus, but also ISEP with USA)

General Offered at university and at Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST).

Engineering


4+1, discussion whether to move to 3+2.


Core competences amount to 75% of curriculum


More options to choose from (through the introduction of new areas in the departments). Also European Master with 25% distance learning component.

Recognition MCAST students can continue at university Mobility General Offered at university of Malta The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

No changes (i.e. Ba‐Ma structure in place, 3+1) History


Portfolios are used.


Increasing emphasis on non‐traditional components of the programme (social and economic history, oral history, demography). Otherwise, rather traditional modes of teaching.

Recognition Mobility Increase in foreign students (but not necessarily related to changes in

curriculum).

IMPACT general

Difficult to say, but most impacts seem to be unrelated to Bologna‐type changes. E.g. there is a sharp increase in enrolments in engineering, but this is most likely due to the increase in options and programmes within those departments.

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Curriculum reform in The Netherlands




In 2002 the bachelor master structure was introduced in the Netherlands. By the end of 2006, all higher education programmes at the universities will be offered in the bachelor‐ master structure. 49 bachelor programmes are taught in another language (mainly English), 459 master programmes are taught in another language (mainly English). Master programmes may carry an ECTS credit load of 60, 90 and 120. Natural Science programmes (beta) offer only 120 ECTS master programmes. By 2009 all programmes will be accreditated by the NVAO (the Dutch‐Flemish accreditation organisation). Beside the “regular” Master programmes there are 108 research masters of 120 ECTS credits which have separately been accredited by the NVAO. These research masters function as a preparation for a (3 or 4 year) doctorate, although access to the doctorate can also be granted on the basis of a “regular” master programme. Universities in the Netherlands are also offering (interdisciplinary) liberal bachelors or/and honours programmes or/and topmasters (masters of high prestige). Like research masters these programmes select students (and teachers) on the basis of excellence. At the hogescholen, not that much changed in terms of the structure of programmes. These HEIs offer four‐year Bachelor programmes. They can also offer Master programmes, but these are only exceptionally funded by the government.


Competence‐based learning at university level is not very common (yet), although quite a number of programmes and sectors have defined eindtermen in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes. Hogescholen are much more advanced in competence based learning. For each programme, committees have defined competences (domein competenties en ‐kwalificaties), which are nationally agreed upon. This development has already been visible in the mid 1990s, but the Bologna process has increased attention to competencies.


All universities have introduced or are in the process of introducing a major‐ minor structure in combination with a semester system. Most of the bachelor programmes contain a part of at least 30 ECTS credits that enables students to incorporate in their study programmes a minor programme or separate courses free to choose. Minor programmes.allow for more flexibility and different learning paths. In the hogescholen sector there is agreement that about 70% of the programme should be dedicated to core competencies, the other 30% is free. Within the 70%, institutions have considerable leeway to decide what and how to teach exactly. The 30% does not imply that students have complete freedom to choose: hogescholen set the limits to this.

• Recognition:

Recognition of qualifications is a responsibility of higher education institutions. The Nuffic (NARIC) facilitates the admission offices of the universities regarding the admission of foreign students. A system of recognition of competences obtained elsewhere by the learner (EVS), is not yet very common in higher education institutions The Dutch law on Higher Education prescribes that each student who holds a bachelor degree of a research university can automatically be admitted to the master programme which is the follow‐up of the bachelor in the same subject area taken at the same institution (for example: bachelor economy ‐> master

economy). If one switches to another type of master the student has to apply for admission. This is also the case if a holder of a bachelor degree rewarded by a hogeschool wants to continue his/her studies at master level of a university. Universities offer a variety of bridging courses (in general 30 – 60 ECTS credits). Universities and hogescholen provide students with a Diploma Supplement, not always exactly according to the standard European format.

• Mobility: At the university Masters level, 20 percent of the total amount of students come from abroad. 13 percent come from a hogeschool, 8 percent comes from another university in the Netherlands and 59 percent comes from within the institution.

In 2004, 18,670 Dutch students went abroad. 11.900 Dutch students were registered at a foreign institution; a bit less than 7,000 Dutch students went abroad with a scholarship for a study or training period. For the hogescholen sector, system‐level internationalisation data were not available.

STATE OF THE ART

General Offered at universities The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Not all medical studies introduced the bachelor master structure. Two medical studies did not. It is still under discussion.

Medical studies


There is a national (binding) framework for learning outcomes.


Hardly room for specialisation (free choice), specialisation in post‐masters education.

Recognition See national level Mobility The same as in the old programmes General Offered at universities, and recently at hogescholen The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

The university bachelor level does not have a civil effect. You need to have a masters degree to be (for example) a lawyer.

Law


No, but there are national learning outcomes for the university sector and competencies defined for the hogescholen programmes.


There are different law programmes (Dutch law, international law, notary, etc.). Within programmes relatively limited choice for students

Recognition See national level Mobility Less than before the introduction of Ba‐Ma General At university (teachers for upper tranches of secondary education) at

master level, at hogescholen (for primary and secondary education) at bachelor level. But some specific master programmes in education/pedagogy at hogescholen.

Teacher training


To increase the amount of teachers there are two year masters and master‐after–master programmes.


There are national learning outcomes defined.


Some specialisation possible.

Recognition See national level Mobility Less than before Ba‐Ma. But because of the master‐after‐master

programmes, students can enter from different disciplines. General Offered at universities and hogescholen. The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Two cycles implemented at universities. At hogescholen bachelor level programmes.

Engineering


There are national learning outcomes and competencies defined.

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Specialisations within programmes, considerable flexibility.

Recognition See national level Mobility Considerable General Offered at universities The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Two cycles History


There are national learning outcomes and competencies defined.


Specialisations within programmes.

Recognition See national level Mobility Less than before Ba‐Ma

IMPACT

Access Numerus fixus. Selection of students, so access situation has not changed. Graduation See data above, system is still in transition Employability After six years, same as before

Medical studies

Mobility Unknown Quality of education

Some universities intensified their curriculum as a result of the introduction of the bachelor master system.


Same as before.

Access For the bachelor, the same as before: open access (certain profile from secondary education required). For the master, increasing number of students accessing from a university of professional education. Bridging courses (60 – 120 ECTS) are always required, because of the regulated access to the occupation of lawyers etc.

Law

Graduation See data above, still in transition Employability Not after bachelor Mobility Unknown. Maybe more mobility for master programmes like “European

Law” Quality of education

No changes.


Same as before. Exception for initiatives like the Utrecht Law College

Access Open access after relevant bachelor (for the universities) ‐ two year masterprogrammes or ‐ one year educational master (master after a master)

Teacher training

Graduation See data above, still in transition Employability Only After master (120 ECTS) Mobility Unknown Quality of education

Same as before.


Same as before

Access Open access (certain profile from secondary education required) Graduation See data above, we are still in transition

Engineering

Employability After master. Mobility Unknown Quality of education

Unknown, although internationalisation arguably has led to quality impetus

143


Some, a bit more because of internationalisation

Access Open access (certain profile from secondary education required) Graduation See data above, we are still in transition

History

Employability After master Mobility Unknown Quality of education

Same as before


Same as before

144

Curriculum reform in Norway



• General With the Quality Reform, Norway is probably one of the countries having implemented Bologna both at an early stage and consequently. A combination of the need for solving internal and the external influence from Bologna is probably the reason for this.


Following the parliamentary debate and decisions in June 2001, the necessary legislative changes (in the Act on Universities and University Colleges and the Act on Private Higher Education) were introduced as from 1 July 2002. The Quality Reform was implemented at all higher education institutions in Norway from the autumn of 2003. Central to the reform is a new degree structure with the degrees Bachelor, Master and Ph.D. following the 3+2+3 model


Establishment of a quality assurance agency, the compulsory use of the Diploma Supplement, the introduction of credits based on the ECTS model, closer counselling of students, change from a system oriented towards final exams to a system oriented towards teaching and learning


There has been a slight increase in flexible learning.

• Recognition:

Use of the Diploma Supplement is compulsory and credits based on the ECTS model is implemented

• Mobility: The institutions are responsible to facilitate mobility of both students and teachers and increased internationalisation

STATE OF THE ART

General The reform has not led to any changes in the degree structure in medical studies. There have been some minor changes in the study programme but this is probably not related to the reform


The 6 years medical degree has been changed


New curricula abolishing the former division in a pre‐clinical and a clinical stage, and introducing problem‐based learning was dome prior to the 2002 reform at some universities.


Recognition

Medical studies

Mobility General The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

The 5 years structure has been kept unchanged


Major reforms have taken place in the organisation of teaching and learning, aiming at improving study progression


Law

Recognition

Mobility

General teachers training are remains unchanged as 4 years programmes The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Teacher training



Recognition A new reform in 2001 gave access for students based on the assessment of prior knowledge. This is a general reform, but teacher training are among the fields which received many new ( mainly mature) students of this kind.

Mobility General There are few, if any, changes in engineering. Graduate engineering at

the larges campus had already changed their 4,5 years programme to a 3+2 model before the reform.

Engineering




Recognition Students with a diploma from the three years programmes at State colleges may transfer to master degrees

Mobility General In history, the reform has caused major changes in degree structure,

the curriculum and of the content of the education. New forms for evaluation and credit system are introduced.

History


The degree structure has been changed from a 4 + 2 to a 3 + 2 structure, and a restructuring towards more pipelined programmes


Better follow‐up of students, students write more assignments and get feed‐back



146

IMPACT

Access no changes, still selective Graduation no changes, high graduation rates Employability no changes, easy access to the labour market

Medical studies

Mobility no changes, (a large proportion of Norwegian students get their degrees abroad


no changes


no changes

Access no changes Graduation Improving

Law

Employability no changes, easy access to the labour market Mobility Increasing Quality of education

Improvements in teaching and student follow‐up


Possible increase

Access no changes, due to a drop in number of applicants, teacher training has become less selective

Graduation Increasing drop‐out and delays, but not related to the reform

Teacher training

Employability no changes Mobility Increasing Quality of education

no changes


Access no changes Graduation no changes

Engineering

Employability no changes Mobility Increasing Quality of education

no changes


no changes

Access no changes Graduation Improving

History

Employability No change visible yet Mobility Increasing Quality of education

Improvements in teaching and student follow‐up


Possible increase

147

Curriculum reform in Poland



New legislation on Higher Education came into force in 2005 the main purpose of which is the determination of three‐level education system due to the Bologna process. Types of studies to be provided by HEI’s and names of fields of study. Programme requirements for each field are clearly indicated such as framework curriculum contents, duration, practical placements, and the establishment of interdisciplinary programmes. New standards concerning study programmes are being prepared. The role and the responsibility of the General Council for Higher Education regarding curricula have been increased. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

Three‐cycle structure determined: The law states uniform two‐level studies. Although regulations concerning doctoral studies are included in the new law, there are no regulations regarding curricula or common standards for third‐level education (a need is felt for some standardisation and comparability of doctoral studies in order to prepare doctoral students for mobility and job performance).


The degree programme requirements for each field of study include the educational profiles of graduates.


• Recognition:

degree‐structure for each programme/ field of study formally recognised, which prepares graduates for work in a specific profession (professional titles: lincensjat /magister/doctor)

• Mobility:

Foreign credentials may be recognised (academic or professional). Recognition of professional qualifications for the regulated professions obtained in EU countries is based on EU directives. Recognition of other foreign credentials, as well as EU credentials for purpose of further study, is based on bilateral agreements (between countries which have signed a bilateral agreement on the recognition of educational credentials with Poland) or through special legislation (presented to the local educational authority). Mobility is very important (use of ECTS, Diploma Supplements) and increasingly comparability (also of doctoral studies).

STATE OF THE ART

General Medical studies have a uniform long term duration. The Regulation determines number of didactic hours, hours for practical work


Masters are awarded after completion of 5 or 6‐year magister‐level courses.


Theoretical and practical skills determined. Knowledge in particular fields and abilities necessary for professional performance (examination methods, interview, diagnosing etc.)

Medical studies


The curriculum is regulated in the Regulation and is standard for all students in all medical faculties. Some general knowledge and skills subjects (informatics, humanistic studies, nursery and first aid, foreign language and physical training) is included.

Recognition Common standards as basis for formal recognition Mobility The curriculum covers all skills necessary to increase the mobility and

openness of graduates. General There is no formal system of curricula applying to all legal studies.

However, there is a catalogue of courses for all departments (civil law etc.)

Law


Curriculum in the form of long‐term studies: students must complete five years of studies and a particular number of ECTS



Since there is no national regulation, every department tries to provide a wide scope of classes in order to increase its attractiveness for students

Recognition Professional title of magister after 5 years of study Mobility In order to increase mobility, departments include courses on foreign

legal systems and foreign languages. General The requirements for teaching programmes (for each type of

education) include: the educational profile of a graduate; teacher training and education courses (content and skills required); training for the teaching of two subjects; training in information technology, including its use in the respective specialisation areas; foreign language courses; study duration and minimum number of hours for particular subjects. Duration and organisation of practical placements.

Teacher training


Teachers may continue at postgraduate level


Not only knowledge on the issue but also teachers’ qualifications to perform teaching at the particular level of studies and some professional qualifications. Practical training is necessary to ensure the right preparation for the job. The graduate should have competencies in didactics, social life, creativity, organisation of time, communication, information and foreign language


Studies for teachers cover two teachers’ courses: the main course and an additional one

Recognition The regulations assure the qualifications needed for professional practice

Mobility Competencies in foreign languages would enable graduates to perform jobs in other countries

General Curricula are determined in the national Regulation and apply to all engineering studies.

Engineering


The professional title is awarded after the completion of 3.5 or 4‐year of studying. The magister (inzynier) is awarded after completion of 5 or 6‐year magister‐level courses or 2 or 2.5 year complementary magister‐level courses. Curricula for third cycle of studies are not provided


Yes, as a description of skills and knowledge to be achieved by the graduates (technical and computing skills, management)


Recognition Formal recognition based on the Regulation Mobility Graduates should be able to use professional language to enable

graduates to perform jobs in other countries. Many graduates move to other Member States to perform a job in their field.

150

General The curricula for first and second cycle are provided in the Regulation, but not for third level education

History


Three cycle structure


Formulation of skills and abilities graduates should possess, such as professional language, general history of Europe and the world.


There are general classes to provide the graduates with some professional skills for jobs in different types of institutions

Recognition Mobility General (world) history and development of professional language

may increase the mobility of graduates

IMPACT

Since the changes are very new in polish higher education, information on the impact variables is not yet available

References

Central Statistical Office (2005) Polish Higher Education System and Statistics. www.stat.gov.pl/dane_spol‐gosp/warunki zycia/szkoly Centre for Science Policy and Higher Education (semi‐annual publication) Nauka i Szkolnictwo Wyzsze (Science and Higher Education). Warsaw: CSPHE.

The World Bank (2004) Tertiary Education in Poland.

151

http://www.stat.gov.pl/dane_spol-gosp/warunki

Curriculum reform in Portugal



The new law (Degree 74/2006) regulates the academic degrees and diplomas of both universities and the Polytechnic sector. It contains the general principles of accreditation, regulations for the reorganisation of programmes, recognition of the new cycles of studies (temporary till the accreditation agency is in function). Many courses are not yet ratified according to the Bologna process, especially those of the second and third cycle. The adaptation percentage is 43% (public universities), 63% (private universities), 38% (public polytechnics) and 27% (private polytechnics). Overall 41% of the courses have been adapted to the new structure. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

In Polytechnic sector two‐cycle: first cycle leads to Licenciado (first degree) which is 6 semesters (180 ECTS), except for some professional courses (8 semesters, 240 ECTS). Second cycle is Mestre (Master). University sector is three‐cycle: Licenciado (graduate) has 6‐8 semesters, Mestre (Master) 3‐4 semesters and Doutor (Doctorate). In the university sector there are also integrated studies leading to a master’s degree (300 to 360 ECTS).


Education in polytechnic sector aims to prepare students for a professional activity and their knowledge should be geared to this.


Two important policy changes aim to involve HEIs in the expansion of post‐secondary education: ‐ new programmes of technological specialisation. This is not on the higher education level but post‐secondary education. The aim is to promote programmes of technological specialisation regarding access, the structure of graduation and to stimulate the flow to higher education. The programmes are also open for HE graduates who wish a professional re‐qualification. ‐ Widening of course offering in the context of lifelong learning, especially for people over the age of 23 years. Admission (determined by the HEIs themselves) is based on a test which assesses the candidates’ professional experience and knowledge as well their overall capacity to pursue the course. The total number of students through this route is limited depending on the total number of students for that course.

• Recognition:

Foreign HE degrees according to the Bologna Process are recognised by HEIs. Moreover, access to Master/Doctorate is possible for owners of a scientific or professional curriculum who are recognised by the respective institution as having the capacity to finish such a degree. Access to Doctorate is also open for owners of Licenciado with a scientific curriculum as recognised by the respective university.

• Mobility:

Universities must adopt the credit system as being implemented in Europe in order to create conditions for student mobility and facilitate educational and professional integration

STATE OF THE ART

General There are seven medical courses which are exclusively provided by the public universities.


All have an undivided programme of six years duration. A change towards the two cycle structure is not expected.

Medical studies



Not available

Recognition Yes, based on national regulations Mobility Mobility will not expand since the curriculum structure has not changed General The private universities have taken more initiatives in adapting their

curricula to the Bologna process than the public ones. Law


With the exception of one university, all private universities have adopted the first cycle courses (graduate degree: 240 ECTS and 8 semesters) and a second cycle with 90 ECTS (3 semesters). The public universities have approved the first cycle with 180 ECTS and a 2nd with 120 ECTS (4 semesters). No ratification by ministry of 3rd cycle courses.



Recognition Mobility General To date, adaptation of study programmes has not taken place. The Ministry

has not (yet) approved the New Statute of the Teaching Career and has not determined the new qualifications for the teaching career. This causes a significant delay in the creation of the formative profiles which have to be included in the teacher training courses.

Teacher training


Apart from the general comments, teacher education for childhood and the first years of primary education will have a second cycle (60‐90 ECTS). The qualification for teaching in the last few years of primary education and in secondary education takes 120 ECTS.



Transition from the 1st cycle to the 2nd cycle is possible when a student has obtained a certain number of specific credits in the areas of knowledge in which he wishes to teach.


154

General Altogether 62% of all courses are adapted to the Bologna model (either one

or two cycles or integrated) Engineering


There are two possibilities: (1) the 1st cycle has 180 ECTS and 6 semesters (all private institutions and all public polytechnics) (2) The integrated Master’s degree (only existing in some public universities) with 300 ECTS and 10 semesters.



Recognition Mobility General All private universities adapted their History courses to the Bologna

process. Public universities did so in 63% of their courses. History


Two cycle structure: 1st cycle with 180 ECTS (6 semesters) and 2nd cycle with 120 ECTS (4 semesters). One (private university) has a 3rd cycle with 180 ECTS and 6 semesters




IMPACT

Since curricular reforms have been implemented in 2006/2007, it is too premature to give an assessment of their impacts.

155

Curriculum reform in Romania



Current legislation has changed the national curriculum for higher education in the 2005/2006 academic year (Law no. 288/2004). Before this change the HE system was basically organised in three cycles with a first degree after 4, 5 or 6 years (depending on subjects), masters and doctoral studies. These cycles have been adapted to the Bologna objectives. The Law states that in one year of academic studies a student must be able to get a maximum of 60 credits. The length of cycles is determined by a Government decision, except for engineering which is determined by law. Within this general legal framework, the law acknowledges academic freedom in the sense that universities can establish their own specific curricula. Autonomy increased due to new funding mechanisms (global funding). Romania does not have a qualifications framework similar to the European qualifications framework provided by the ENQA. The National Agency for University Qualifications and Partnership between universities and socio‐economic environment (ACPART) was established in 2005 with the task of preparing a national qualifications framework together with the Ministry of Labour. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

University studies are divided in three cycles: - First cycle (license degree), for most studies 3 years study programme, with

some exceptions for particular subjects; (between 180 and 240 credits) - Second cycle (masters) varying between 1 and 2 years (between 60 and 120

ECTS) - Third cycle (doctorate), not in ECTS, but according to the law should be three

years with the possibility of extension for another 1 or 2 years. • Competence‐based learning:

The law describes the three cycles in terms of general competencies and practical abilities that graduates must acquire during each stage of higher education


In the last few years the number of optional courses available to students in the first cycle has increased and exceeds the number of compulsory courses. Many universities offer in the second year different educational packages which enable students to attain a second specialisation besides their main field of study

• Recognition:

The National Center for Recognition of Diplomas (CNRED) affiliated with international networks is in charge of the recognition of diplomas. The basis for recognition is the ECTS.

• Mobility:

Since 1997 Romanian universities are part of the Socrates and Leonardo programs. Many Romanian universities recognise the credits their students receive during their Erasmus stages, as well as the study period as such. In addition, national programmes, financed by the state, address the need for greater academic mobility and provide grants for students to study abroad for relatively short periods of time (2 –10 months). Student mobility among Romanian universities is less common, and usually credits are not transferred.

STATE OF THE ART


Medical studies are organised according to the old 6 years curricula for general medical training, followed by specialised further training

Medical studies


See remarks in the general section above


Most parts of the curriculum is compulsory for all students and there are few options open for students to choose from. Some changes have been made due to the influence of European labour market regulations, such as programmes for medical teaching staff, for medical assistants (only the first four years of study for their qualification), nursing programmes.

Recognition Recognition follows national regulations. The emphasis on bilateral agreements between universities has increased

Mobility Mobility is not usual among the Romanian universities. Erasmus mobilities are offered at all the Romanian medical universities.


Law students are allowed to continue the four year curriculum structure until those enrolled have completed their studies. Beginning with the academic year 2005‐2006 all new entrants in the first cycle are enrolled in new Bologna‐type programs. The existing Masters programs remain unchanged until the academic year 2008‐2009, when they will be organized as the second cycle according to the Bologna process. This is a Government decision on the basis of a proposal by the Rectors’ Council. The doctoral studies are already organized as 3‐years long programs. However, law students who have not completed a masterʹs program are allowed to enrol in a doctoral program

Law




Law students generally are required to follow the same type and educational path and number of courses, with very few optional courses.

Recognition Recognition follows national regulations. Mobility See remarks in the general section above General The old structure of the short‐term university programmes leading to a

teacher qualification and the long‐term university teacher training (as an optional package of courses in all curricula at university level – the “Pedagogy Module”) has changed in the 2005/06 academic year.

Teacher training


Two‐cycle structure: The teacher qualification for teaching in compulsory schools / high schools requires a package of courses most of which are explicitly determined by the Ministry. A first cycle graduate can teach in primary school or in gymnasium if s/he took during the 3 years program a number of courses from this package representing 30 ECTS. A second cycle graduate may teach in a high school if s/he took during the 3+2 years of university education a number of courses from this package representing 60 ECTS. In the National Development Plan 2007‐2013, a masters programme is intended to be introduced in universities for those who wish to a pursue a teacher career.



158


Students have little course options and they have to follow the same educational path irrespective of their own interests The second level also includes continuous formation: for teaching staff from schools or universities to participates periodically in various courses (in context of life long learning)

Recognition Formal recognition by the Ministry Mobility See remarks in the general section above General The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Three cycles: The first degree has a four year structure, followed by masters (3‐4 semesters) and doctoral studies (4 years) and/or other postgraduate education

Engineering




Some flexibility in learning paths and faculty profile. Within each faculty several different study programs can be taken by students

Recognition Recognition follows national regulations. ECTS officially implemented. Mobility Despite the flexibility in study programmes, it remains unclear how easy

students can transfer from one study programme to another, or within the university from one faculty to another.

General In the academic year 2005/06 the number of students enrolled in master and doctoral programmes declined considerably along with a reduction of funding per student of 50%.

History


Three cycle structure: first cycle is 3 years (was previously 4 years) Master programmes ( 2 years) and doctoral studies (3 years)


Each program is described in terms of general competencies and practical abilities that graduates must acquire during each stage of higher education


The number of optional courses is largely enough. The students have to a large degree opportunities to opt for modules.

Recognition Recognition follows national regulations. Bilateral agreements between universities are more and more important.

Mobility The number of Erasmus students is very large. However, students usually do not take courses from other programs or other universities.

IMPACT

Since reforms have been implemented for the 2005/06 academic year, it is too early to provide information on the impact of these changes. The National Agency for Quality of HE has been established formally in 2006, but is not yet completely in function. In October 2006 it started is activities. In the academic year 2006‐2007 it will have mainly accreditation activities for new study programs, as well as pilot activities on quality assurance.

References

Ministry for Education and Research (2005) Report on the current state of the national education system. Bucharest: MER.

159

Curriculum reform in Slovakia



• The new Act on Higher Education began curriculum reform in higher education in 2002. Currently higher education institutions (HEIs) provide education according to both the previous system and the current system. As of academic year 2005/2006, HEIs may enrol students only in study programmes created according to the new Act

• The Ministry of Education administers the list of fields of study since 2002 • There is no official national qualification framework in Slovakia


3‐cycle structure since 2002: Bachelors: 3‐4 years; Masters: 1‐3 years; PhD: 3‐4 years full‐time or 3‐5 years part‐time (also 3‐5 years faculties of medicine in the fields of study requiring a specialised examination) Certain study programmes (e.g. as pharmacy, general medicine, general veterinary medicine etc.) can still follow a 2‐cycle system, where first second cycles are unified For Academic Years 2002/2003, 2003/2004 and 2004/2005, HEIs could still admit students to studies created according to the previous regulations (2‐cycle). Admission requirement to a Bachelors (or a unified Bachelors/Master) study programme is a secondary school certificate; Admission requirement to a Masters is completion of a Bachelors; Admission requirement to a Doctorate (PhD) is completion of a Masters


There is no official national qualification framework in Slovakia The description of field of study contains the graduate’s specification, which also includes the most relevant knowledge, abilities and skills which the graduate of the study programme must achieve in the given field of study.


Study programmes and internal regulation of higher education called Study Rules determine rules and conditions for creating study plan for students. Students may develop their study plan in accordance with regulations of the study programme and choose with respect of time and capacity limits given in the study rules and study programme, the speed of the study, sequence of completing units of the study programme with the fixed sequence preserved, and the choose the teacher for a subject lectured by several teachers. Students have the right to apply within their study also for study at another higher education institution, even abroad

• Recognition:

The organisation of all degrees and forms of higher education study is based on the European credit transfer system (ECTS) There is no possibility of validation of prior learning, increasing permeability from vocational/professional education and recognition of prior professional experience for mature learners The Diploma supplement has been introduced.

• Mobility:

The Ministry of Education wants to increase academic mobility of students and teachers through the introduction of a new scholarship programme introduced in 2005, and by supporting other (existing) programmes. In the previous years mobility has increased.

STATE OF THE ART

General European directives were implemented in higher education in study programmes in the field of general medicine in previous years.


Study programmes in field of study General medicine are realised in jointing the first and the second degree in one whole. The third degree can be acquired only in related field of study such as Surgery, Neurology, Oncology etc. In those fields of study higher education in the first and second degree is not provided. For professional issues there is system of specialised trainings in medicine, which is not part of higher education. PhD study is oriented for science and academic carrier.

Medical studies


European directives were implemented in preparation students in field of study called general medicine, dental surgery and others.


There are not special regulations for medical studies in regard to flexible learning path. Level of flexibility Is determined by HEIs in their study programmes.

Recognition Diploma supplement is given to graduates of all study programmes. ECTS is obligatory for all study programmes. A HEI is obliged to provide to the applicant of study information on whether the study he/she applies for corresponds to the demands for coordination of education for the needs of mutual recognition of professional qualifications according to special regulations.

Mobility There are not specific programmes which support mobility of students, graduates or teachers in medical studies.

General In the case of law there are no obligatory European directives. Study programme are realised by criteria for accreditation and description of field of study.

Law


Higher education in the field of study Law can be acquired in the first and in the second degree and in related fields of study as Constitutional Law, Administrative Law etc. in the third degree. Related fields of study are provided only in the third degree.


See general context


See general context.

Recognition Diploma supplement is given to graduates of all study programmes. ECTS is obligatory for all study programmes.

Mobility There are not specific programmes which support mobility of students, graduates or teachers in Law.

General In the case of teacher training, there are no obligatory European directives. Study programme are realised by criteria for accreditation and description of field of study

teacher training


Teacher training is provided in the first and in the second degrees of higher education. Graduates can acquire the third degree in field of study Branch Didactics. Graduates of the first degree are not qualified for working as teacher. They can work as teaching assistant, organizer of spare time activities of pupils etc.






162

Mobility There are not specific programmes which support mobility of students, graduates or teachers in teacher training.

General In the case of engineering, there are no obligatory European directives. Study programme are realised by criteria for accreditation and description of field of study

engineering


The number of fields of study of engineering in the third degree is higher than in the first and in the second degree. (There is not general field of study called engineering, there set of technical field of study such as Mechanical Engineering, Maintenance of Machine and Equipment, Transport Machines and Equipment etc. )






Mobility There are not specific programmes which support mobility of students, graduates or teachers in Engineering.

General In the case of history, there are no obligatory European directives. Study programme are realised by criteria for accreditation and description of field of study.

history


Higher education in field of study History is provided in all three degrees. There are also related fields of study General history and Slovak history in the third degree.




See general.


Mobility There are not specific programmes which support mobility of students, graduates or teachers in Engineering.

IMPACT

Not much know about impacts, apart from some information already mentioned above Access Has risen during the last few years. This is caused by different reasons. The

impact of curricular reform on access can not be assessed. General

Graduation In fact there are not graduates of study programmes prepared according the new Act.

Employability The impact of curricular reform on unemployment can not actually be assessed.

Mobility Has risen during the last few years. There are not data divided by students In previous system and the new system regards to mobility. New government scholarship programme was introduced in 2006, which support mobility of student, PhD. and teachers and not only within Europe.


The impact of curricular reform on quality of education can not actually be assessed.


Financial sources were increasing during previous years.

163

Curriculum reform in Slovenia




Amendment to Higher Education Act (May 2004) introduced a three‐cycle structure according to the Bologna process guidelines. The duration of study programmes is limited in credit points (CP). One CP stands for 25‐30 hours of student work. 60 CP represent one academic year. • The first‐cycle has binary system of academic and professional study

programmes (180‐240 CP; 3‐4 years) leading to the first‐cycle degree. (‘diplomirani … UN’, ‘diplomirani … VS’)

• The second‐cycle offers masters’ study programmes (60‐120 CP; 1‐2 years) leading to ‘Magister …’. The new ‘Magister …’ differs from the old ‘Magister znanosti’ in content and scientific title awarded after completion. The new ‘Magister …’ is not a first phase of doctoral studies any more but belongs to the pre‐doctoral study structure.

• The third‐cycle are doctoral studies (180 CP; 3 years) leading to ‘Doktor znanosti’.

Long non‐structured masters’ study programmes are allowed as an exception (for example EU regulated professions).


Criteria for accreditation of higher education institutions and study programmes adopted by the Council for higher education in 2004: • Each application for accreditation of HEIs must state also the strategic role of

the new institution in economical, social and cultural development and sufficient demand from students and future employers.

The strategy of Slovene policy by 2010 is to: • Ensure the balance of the supply and demand for study programmes needed

by the labour market and economy, also through promoting the recognition of non‐formal / informal education and modular composition of study programmes and inclusion of basic entrepreneurial knowledge into study programmes.

• Stimulate the increase in R&D innovative cooperation between companies, research and individuals by putting technologies and innovations into companies.

• In the area of lifelong learning: stimulate people’s demand for education and training and encourage employers to invest more in it.

• Increased share of adult population in all forms of lifelong learning and increased share of population (age 15 and up) with higher education, by improving the conditions for studying.


The main changes in the approach towards the development of new curriculum have been defined with the new Criteria for accreditation of HEIs and study programmes of the Council for Higher Education. New criteria were prepared following the guidelines of the Bologna process and the Lisbon strategy. Special attention is given to ensure the employability of the graduates. For example, during the preparation of the study programmes HEIs must also take into account the potential need of the labour market for certain type of higher education knowledge.

Universities are increasing the number of interdisciplinary study programmes, mostly at postgraduate level, such as Biomedicine, Environmental protection, Statistics, Economic engineering, etc. and envisage the establishment of graduate

schools. • Recognition: The Act on recognition and assessment of education (July 2004) introduces a

modern system of recognition of foreign certificates and diplomas and assessment of certificates and diplomas obtained in Slovenia and abroad, taking account, in the procedures and criteria, of the principles of education system reforms.

• Mobility: Since the Bologna reform has not yet been fully implemented we can not yet talk about the influence on mobility. However in general HEIs have accepted the Bologna reform as an opportunity to renovate the curriculum and make it attractive to students (also from abroad) and employers. The interest of HEIs for attracting students has increased also due to the introduction of lump sum financing of higher education in 2004 which is partly dependent on the number of students and graduates. Further changes are expected in this field.

Already now Slovenia has a policies on promoting mobility (regional/multilateral):

• Organised mobility schemes: - CEEPUS, - Socrates/Erasmus programme, - Marie Curie programme.

• AD FUTURA (Slovene foundation established in 2002 that specialises in promotion of scientific cooperation and education of Slovene citizens abroad and of foreign citizens in Slovenia. The foundation offers student loans and scholarships for studies abroad and co‐financing for scientific cooperation of foreign researchers in Slovenia and Slovene researchers’ mobility during their doctoral studies. Priority is given to natural and technical sciences. Special schemes promote mobility with the countries of West Balkans.)

• Slovene research agency: - Extended national scheme “Junior researchers” also for students

from abroad. (The scheme covers the salaries and expenses of post‐graduate students.)

- Issued tender for (co)financing of prominent researchers from abroad.

• The Ministry for higher education, science and technology also promotes inter‐sectoral mobility through a scheme “Junior researchers in enterprises”, which provides co‐financing for Slovene post‐graduate students who are employed in enterprises.

166

STATE OF THE ART

Because the reform of the study programmes has not yet been finished and the new study programmes have not yet been introduced or accredited, we can not give information on the impact of the reform on competence‐based learning, flexible learning paths, recognition and mobility. However all universities are actively involved in the reform of the curriculum.

One of the important factors which slowed the curriculum reform in Slovenia was the delay in the preparation of the new Professional and Academic Titles Act (adopted in June 2006) and the amendment to Higher Education Act which regulates the comparison of the ‘pre‐reform’ and ‘post‐reform’ levels of higher education (adopted in August 2006). Another important factor was the discussion on the financing of the second cycle studies, which was settled with the amendment to Higher Education Act in August 2006.

The development of new curriculum has been defined with the new Criteria for accreditation of HEIs and study programmes of the Council for Higher Education. New criteria were prepared following the guidelines of the Bologna process and the Lisbon strategy. Special attention is given to ensure the employability of the graduates.

The application for accreditation of a study programme must include among other: international comparability of the study programme and possibility of international cooperation of the HEI; possibility of employing the graduates with opinions of the relevant employers; definition of basic and specific competences of graduates; curriculum which is evaluated in ECTS credit points; criteria for the recognition of knowledge and skills obtained before enrolment; criteria for transfer between and within study programmes and information on the method of delivering the programme.

General Medical studies are provided by two universities. Neither has yet introduced new undergraduate and master studies, which will be organised as non‐structured masters’ study programmes. New doctoral study programme was already introduced by the University of Maribor. On the other hand the University of Ljubljana decided keep the doctoral studies as an interdisciplinary programme of Biomedicine and adopt it to the goals of the Bologna reform (the programme is in the programme of adoption).

Medical studies


Expected: Two cycle structure with long non‐structured masters’ study programmes followed.

General With the exception of one (new, private) faculty (Evropska pravna fakulteta v Novi Gorici), which decided on three structured study structure, new law study programmes have not yet been introduced.

Law


Expected: Two cycle structure with long non‐structured masters’ study programmes.

General All three universities offering study programmes in the field of teacher training are still in the process of developing new curriculum. The reform was slowed down because the HEIs were waiting for the decision from the minister for education on what qualifications will be demanded for teachers. The minister responsible for primary and secondary education issued recommendations for the curriculum reform of study programmes in teacher training in August 2006.

Teacher training


Three cycle structure with possibility for long non‐structured masters’ study programmes.

General New study programmes from the field of engineering have not yet been introduced. All universities are actively involved in the reform of the curriculum.

Engineering


Three cycle structure.

167

General New study programmes have not yet been introduced. Universities are

actively involved in the reform of the curriculum. History


Three cycle structure.

IMPACT

Because the reform of the study programmes has not yet been finished and we do not have any new graduates, we can not talk about the impact of the reform. The main expectations of the Bologna reform are: • an increase in the interdisciplinary of study programmes, especially in postgraduate level where

emphasis is given on research. • a significant increase in the mobility of students, teaching staff and also graduates, especially

researchers, from Slovenia to abroad and even greater expectations are given to stimulate mobility from abroad to Slovenia.

• to shorten the length of studies and to increase the rate of students who successfully complete their study and get a higher education diploma relevant to the labour market.)

References

University of Ljubljana (2005‐2006) Reform of the higher education study programmes. Ljubljana: UoL. Ministry of Higher Education Science and Technology (various years) internal reports. Republic of Slovenia. Development Strategy

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Curriculum reform in Spain



The Act on Universities 2001 states the main arrangements linked to the Bologna process. Two Royal Degrees (from 2003) regulate the establishment of ECTS and the procedure for issuing the Diploma Supplement to all official university titles. Two Royal Degrees (from 2005) regulate graduate and postgraduate studies. Modifications to both the law and these Royal Degrees have been proposed by the new government. On 26 September 2006, the Ministry of Education published a proposal for the organization of university programmes in Spain. General directives for each first degree that had been proposed by the Council of University Coordination will not finally be developed. In the proposal of 26 September 2006, it is stated that the Ministry of Education will give general directives for first degrees within broad areas of knowledge. For example, for Social Sciences in general (it can comprise many varied first degrees such as Law, Teacher Training, etc). These directives will not predefine common teaching contents but it will define the number of credits for first degrees (240/four years, in general) and common generic competencies for broad areas of knowledge. With this new proposal, the Ministry of Education encourages universities to be more autonomous in the curricular design. First degrees will start to be implemented not before the 2007‐08 academic year. Although governmental regulation to lead this reform is still in progress, most universities are already adapting existing degrees to the EHEA, including a student‐centred approach based on the student workload, transforming old credits to the new ECTS, and introducing new methodologies. 93% of Spanish universities have launched specific plans for the implementation of the EHEA. In order to promote the Bologna process, pilot projects have been launched on the implementation of the first degree. About 65% of Spanish universities, more than 50% of first degree courses are implementing the curricular reform within pilot projects. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

Although the three‐cycle structure has not yet been ‘officially’ implemented, state and regional governments have encouraged the adaptation of existing programmes to the new structure. Universities will offer undergraduate programmes under general directions settled by the government considering broad areas of knowledge. In 2006/7 an important number of postgraduate programmes (Masters and Doctorates) will be implemented. Most of these programmes come from previous doctorates. Most Master programmes are new. However, some Masters come from previous doctorates that have been slightly modified (only structural changes with more or less the same content).


The National Agency for Quality Assessment and Accreditation (ANECA) launched a European Convergence Programme. An outcome was a White Paper on the analysis and design of first degrees with respect to the European qualification framework, graduate labour market, occupational profiles, generic and subject‐specific competencies, assessment of competencies by professional associations, design of the degree‐structure, objectives, contents, ECTS allocation and quality criteria.


Diversity of teaching methods has been promoted by government and universities in pilot projects and training activities. Although new degrees have not yet been implemented, it is expected that the new degree structure will reinforce the flexibility of courses which will attract new student profiles.

• Recognition: The Royal Degree regarding the Diploma Supplement applies to all official

university programmes nationwide (issued on request in Spanish/ official language in autonomous communities and another official EU language).

The Royal Degree regulates the establishment of the European system of credits and the grade system. ECTS is only used for credit transfer and not for credit accumulation. ECTS will be applied to all course units in all degree programmes before October 2010. First degree programmes will have 240 credits (four years of duration) Recognition of postgraduate programmes by each regional government (on the basis of quality criteria as settled in agreement with the National Agency for Quality assessment and Accreditation).

• Mobility: Mobility has been high on the agenda in the Spanish HE System, especially the increase of international student and staff mobility, and to a lesser extent graduate mobility. Promotion of exchange programmes like Socrates/Erasmus, Leonardo, University Cooperation Program and cooperation between South American and Spanish universities.

STATE OF THE ART

General Most information above in the general part apply to medical studies. Specific information cannot be provided since curricular reform has not been officially implemented. Medical studies follow European directives.

Medical studies


The deans of the faculties of Medicine agree about an integrated Master programme of six years (total 360 ECTS). Thereafter, a graduate and a postgraduate degree can be obtained simultaneously.



Recognition See general comments Mobility General General directives on law studies have not been published by the

Council of University Coordination. However, the Ministry has announced that there will be directives within broad areas of knowledge. Law will be in the Social Sciences field.

Law


There is a wide agreement on a 4‐year bachelor degree A postgraduate degree should require between 60 and 120 credits. The two‐year degree (postgraduate) gives the opportunity to dedicate the first year to an ‘academic’ or ‘theoretical’ specialisation and the second to specific professional training. The final result is an academic training of 5 years (general training during the first 4 years and specific training the last year) and one more year of professional training.


Comments in the general part above apply to law studies

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General The Ministry has announced that there will be directives within broad

areas of knowledge. Teacher training will be in the Social Sciences field.

Teacher training


Currently, teacher training studies are comprised of seven different degrees of three years of duration each. The proposal within the Bologna process is the reduction of degrees to two first degrees in Pre‐primary Education and in Primary Education of 240 ECTS (180+ 60 professionally oriented ECTS).


General comments made above apply to teacher training studies


Recognition See general comments Mobility General The Ministry has announced that there will be directives within broad

areas of knowledge. Engineering will be in the Architecture and engineering field.

Engineering


The proposal for engineering studies in particular subjects is a first degree of 240 ECTS (180+ 60 professionally oriented ECTS).


See general comments made above apply to engineering studies


Recognition see general comments Mobility General The Ministry has announced that there will be directives within broad

areas of knowledge. History will be in the Arts and Humanities field. History


Currently the study duration is five years (300 ECTS). The proposal is a first degree of 240 ECTS (180 + 60 professionally oriented ECTS).


General comments apply to history studies

IMPACT

Not applicable, since curricular reform has not been officially implemented. Although pilot projects have been carried out, the potential impact of these projects has not been assessed from a national perspective.

References

Ministry of Education and Science (2006) http://www.mec.es/mecd/gabipren/documentos/Propuesta_MEC_organizacion_titulaciones_Sep06.pdfValcárcel Cases, M. (forthcoming), Reflecting on the transition process towards the European Higher Education Area in Spanish Universities. (Spanish Ministry of Education and Science)

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http://www.mec.es/mecd/gabipren/documentos/Propuesta_MEC_organizacion_titulaciones_Sep06.pdf

http://www.mec.es/mecd/gabipren/documentos/Propuesta_MEC_organizacion_titulaciones_Sep06.pdf

Curriculum reform in Sweden




The Swedish Parliamant passed a new law on higher education in May 2006 introducing a three cycle degree structure. Since 1993 the Swedish degree structure has only had two cycles: a three years university degree (bachelor) and a four years PhD. However, the first cycle could be prolonged with one year to get a “magister” which could be translated into a Master. The three years degree has been the basic qualification for entering the labour market, but due to competition for jobs more and more students prolonged their study with one or two years. In the new system there will be three years of study (180 ECTS credits) for the Bachelors degree in the first cycle. In the second cycle either 60 credits to get a “Magister”, probably to be translated as a Master (which will inevitably cause some confusion) or a “Master” (also in Swedish) requiring 120 credits. There is supposed to be an overlap of one year (60 credits) between the Master and the third cycle studies, which are supposed to require 4 years. It is too early to tell, but it is reason to expect (based on the present situation) a very low level of selectivity for the second cycle. Degrees that are necessary as vocational qualifications, such as teachers, engineers, and medical doctors, are exempted from the tree year first cycle rule.


Work is now intense in Swedish HEIs to rewrite curricula into the new formats, including the organisation in two cycles and learning outcome style objectives for courses and programmes. Also under the present system, all courses and programmes have to have stated and published aims and contents.


The diversity has yet to be seen. The present system is in many fields very flexible, and this will stay. Excellence tracks have not been discussed.

• Recognition:

Validation of prior learning has been an issue for the last 5 – 10 years. Recognition of “real competence” is prescribed in the present Ordinance. This will not change.

• Mobility:

There is an interest to increase mobility, but not many efforts. The general picture is that Sweden has a fair share of in‐coming students, but fewer students are going out. The financing systems, both for undergraduate studies to HEIs (since 1993) and the student loan system include incentives for mobility. A number of undergraduate courses are taught in English to facilitate mobility.

STATE OF THE ART

Medical studies

General No significant change the last 10 years, and not in the latest reform either.

Law General No significant change the last 10 years, and not in real terms in the latest reform either.

Teacher training

General A major reform in teaching was launched in 2001

Engineering General Engineering has by tradition been taught in programmes of at least 9 semesters. An issue in the present reform work has been how to identify an advanced level, corresponding to the second cycle and – consequently ‐ have he opportunity to translate the degree “civilingenjör” (in German “Diplomingenieur“) as a Master.

History General No significant change the last 10 years. The latest Ordinance will introduce the second cycle, but this will probably not influence teaching activities.

No impact visible yet, because of recent reforms

IMPACT

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Curriculum reform in Turkey



Curricular reforms based on the Bologna Process are gradually taking place, mostly guided by the Higher Education Council. The process has different modes, speeds, and trends depending on the particular fields of study or disciplines. • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

Generally Turkey has a three‐cycle system since 1981 in which first‐cycle degrees are normally completed in four years, the second in two years, and the third in four years. There are exceptions depending on field of study. There are no plans to replace this system with the dominant 3+2 system in the EHEA (except for a number of teacher training programmes).


Some disciplines are implementing this, others do not

• Flexible learning paths: Some disciplines are implementing this, others do not • Recognition:

The Higher Education Council made it mandatory for HEIs to issue diploma supplements beginning in the 2005/06 academic year (with the relevant ECTS) indicators) and approved by the Council for purposes of accuracy and standardisation.

• Mobility:

Mobility of students funded through the EU Socrates Programmes has increased significantly since 2004. Problem of imbalance between incoming and outgoing students in certain areas. The lack of necessary language skills appears to be a general problem (except for institutions where the medium of instruction is English)

STATE OF THE ART

General The Turkish Health Council, associated with the (official) Interuniversity Council, has formulated a set of national qualifications in medicine, which involves not only a national core curriculum but also knowledge‐, skill, and value‐based criteria relevant to the workplace. Accreditation is underway.


Duration of the first and second cycle are integrated in six years


National qualifications include competencies gradates need to posses for their medical practice


Recognition Graduates of medical faculties are legally required to pass a qualification examination in their field of specialisation before they can start practicing

Medical studies

Mobility

General No significant effort for curriculum reform The two‐ or three‐cycle structure

Law


Not mentioned


Only lip service paid to modularisation

Recognition Graduates are subject to a practicum of one year (for lawyers) and two years (for judges), in addition to the newly imposed Ministry of Justice qualification examination for potential lawyers.

Mobility Non‐modular structure makes mobility more sporadic. Language problems are more acute in law.

General Curricula recognised by the Higher Education Council aim to make teacher training more in tune with competence‐based learning and flexible training learning paths.

Teacher training


An integrated five‐year (3.5 = 1.5) curriculum is in effect





Recognition There is a comprehensive examination in field pedagogy and general knowledge by the Ministry of National Education for all graduates to be admitted to the teaching profession.

Mobility General Faculty deans have formed a board of accreditation on the national level.

Based on ABET experiences, this board has formulated national criteria for qualifications concerning learning outcomes and flexible learning paths, with implications for curricular revisions and accreditation procedures.

Engineering


4 + 2 + 4



In most engineering faculties, curricula contain option sequences that emphasise different areas included in the discipline, different sectors of the industry, or developments in current technologies.

Recognition Mobility General So far no significant effort made for curriculum reform.

No need is felt for national curricular criteria for learning outcomes History


4 + 2 + 4


National criteria for qualifications formulated

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IMPACT

General: no impact on entry rates and admission criteria for the first cycle because access is highly selective based on a national examination. Access to second cycle is based on institutional selection. One area where the Bologna‐based reforms have produced an impact is student mobility. Most Turkish universities have international or EU offices catering for Erasmus programmes. Joint degree programmes have been established or are envisaged. Regarding quality assurance and enhancement: The Higher Education Council has implemented a new set of regulations on quality assurance (internal and external procedures). Also individual HEIs are developing their own quality assurance systems (bottom‐up processes)

Access See above graduation See above Employability No employment problems for doctors, given the shortage of doctors in

Turkey.

Medical studies

Mobility Is increasing Quality of education

Apart from the activities of the Higher Education Council, medical faculties are working on procedures to develop national quality assurance


Access See above Graduation See above

Law

Employability No employment problems for graduates Mobility No impact Quality of education

See above under impact general


Access See above Graduation See above Employability No employment problems for graduates

Teacher training


See under impact general



Engineering

Employability No employment problems for graduates Quality assurance mechanisms are directed towards curricular reforms envisaging the implementation of the concept of transferable skills.


There are efforts of a number of engineering faculties to obtain ABET accreditation and engineering deans have introduced ABET‐based internal quality assurance procedures (in addition to the policy of the Higher Education Council).

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History

Employability Yes, some employment problems are mentioned Mobility No impact Quality of education

See under impact general


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Curriculum reform in the United Kingdom



There are four national education systems, and four ministries of education, in the UK: England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. There are several institutions which deal with the implementation of the Bologna Process in the UK: the Ministry in charge of HE ‘Departments for Education and Skills (DfES), the Universities’ Vice‐Chancellors’ Conference ‘Universities UK’ (UUK), an office set up in 2002 by a range of actors of British HE to support the Bologna process, the ‘UK HE Europe Unit’, and the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA). • The two‐ or three‐cycle structure:

Even before the Bologna Process, the common study system in the UK was a two‐cycle system: In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the three‐year Bachelor Honours degree followed by the one year Master’s degree (‘3+1’) results in a minimum of four years study. In Scotland, the four‐year Bachelors degree with Honours is followed by the one‐year Master’s ‘4+1’). The common practice in the UK is to award 75‐90 credits for a taught Masters degree (with 90 for full‐year Masters). In some disciplines, there are integrated Masters (MEng, MPharm) of 4 years duration.

In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, two‐year Foundation degrees were introduced in 2001 as another qualification below Bachelor level, designed to create intermediate awards strongly oriented towards specific employment opportunities (24,000 students in these programmes in 2003/4). At the doctoral level, the coursework and final thesis requirements vary according to institution and the subject area. There are professional doctorates as well as research doctorates. The third cycle can be accessed with a good honours degree. British academics are concerned with their traditional system – especially the one‐year Masters – not being in line with the Bologna requirements, but are unlikely to adjust. Instead, to defend their one‐year Masters, the UK HE Europe unit calls for the use of credit in the EHEA to take account of the outcomes of periods of study and not simply workload or ‘hours studied’. The evolution of a common European Higher Education Area and especially the offer of English language courses and study programmes in many non‐English speaking countries is seen as a challenge.


Within UK higher education the more accepted, and acceptable, discourse is that of Learning Outcomes, not of competence‐based learning. The UK recently introduced several HE qualifications frameworks which, in accordance with the requirements of the Bologna Process, describe UK qualifications in terms of workload, level, learning outcomes, competences and profile (Framework for Higher Education Qualifications in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework). The QAA requirement for ‘programme specifications’ obliges institutions to make transparent to interested stakeholders the skills, knowledge and other attributes that students will attain through successful participation in the programme. The UK HE Europe Unit is working closely with the QAA and other stakeholders on ensuring the compatibility of UK qualifications frameworks with the ‘Bologna’ framework.


The UK has always had diversity of provision and variety in its approach to the delivery of learning opportunities and the practice of learning in HE. A similarly diverse range of approaches and practices for the accreditation of prior learning has evolved across the HE sector. Guidelines on the accreditation of prior learning have been drawn up by the QAA at the request of individuals and groups within the HE community to help ensure that

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this important activity can be conducted with a high level of security and in the light of current best practice.

• Recognition: Currently UK HEIs compare unfavourably with their continental counterparts on introducing the Diploma Supplement and UUK considers it to be important that students graduating in the UK are able to benefit from the enhanced recognition and mobility that the Diploma Supplement brings. The use of ECTS is not mandatory and there is no consensus on it within UUK, but many institutions use credit points for students transferring between programmes or institutions, and use ECTS for transfers within the European area and to recognise learning gained by students on exchange visits with institutions elsewhere in Europe. The number of international students in the UK at all levels is an indication of de facto academic recognition of qualifications from a wide range of systems and countries.

• Mobility: In the UK, credit is used universally in Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland. Scotland and Wales have credit transfer and accumulation systems in place within their integrated credit and qualifications frameworks: the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework and the Credit and Qualifications Framework for Wales (which is currently introduced) respectively. Many institutions in England use credit for transferring between programmes or institutions, and use ECTS for transfer within Europe. Inward student mobility is much higher than outward mobility.

STATE OF THE ART

Medical studies

General The pattern of UK medical degrees was strongly influenced in the 1990s by a major policy review entitled ‘Tomorrow’s Doctors’ which identified the competences medics in the UK would need to practise in the 21st century. Curricula throughout the UK are now structured to ensure achievement of these competence statements, which vary in their range from scientific theoretical knowledge, to clinical practice to ethics and communicative competence. After graduation medics join a Royal College appropriate to their specialism eg Royal College of Physicians or Royal College of Surgeons. The Royal Colleges take responsibility for planning and monitoring the continuing professional development of medics until the end of their careers. What is distinctive of medical education in the UK is that medics follow one long linear programme track of initial and continuing professional training and development form ‘cradle to grave’, that is from entering university to retirement.

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The normal pattern of medical degree study in the UK is five years full time academic study followed by one year as a Pre‐Registration House Officer (known as PRHO). After this medics are then fully registered to practice. The interesting aspect in terms of cycles is that on completion of the academic period of study UK medics graduate with two first cycle degrees simultaneously: a Bachelor of Medicine (M.B) and a Bachelor of Surgery (Ch.B) hence their post‐nominal designation M.B.Ch.B. A recent innovation has been to offer a slightly condensed 4 year medical degree as a second first cycle degree to more mature students who have already gained a first cycle degree in another subject. (eg at St George’s Hospital Medical School in London). UK medics tend not to follow a second cycle medical degree (except in some quite specialised areas such as Medical Ethics, or areas such as an M.Sc in Medical Education) but some go on to undertake a third cycle professional doctorate, the M.D (Doctor of Medicine) which tends to be taken in one to two years, a much shorter period than for a conventional Ph.D.


Medical degrees in UK universities are described in terms of a set of competence statements laid down by the professional body for Medicine which is the General Medical Council (known as the GMC). The GMC bestows a seal of approval and professional recognition on medical degrees offered in UK universities. The clinical competence statements are assessed in practice whilst medical students are on placements in clinical settings.


The general pattern is for medical students to attend full‐time and to undertake the full 5+ 1 programme of study by attendance, either in university or in clinical placements. A recent innovation has been to offer a slightly condensed 4 year medical degree as a second first cycle degree to more mature students who have already gained a first cycle degree in another subject. (eg at St George’s Hospital Medical School in London). The Open University UK is currently developing a joint medical degree with the newly‐opened Peninsula Medical School in Cornwall which is planned to contain some theoretical curriculum elements available by distance and online learning. The clinical elements will still be undertaken in clinical settings.

Recognition Recognition is bestowed on medical degrees by the professional body, the General Medical Council (GMC). Courses in the UK are now modularised and credit rated as facilitators for recognition. Clear consumer information and communication to students on studying in higher education have been introduced in recent years through the QAA requirement for Programme Specifications written in terms of learning outcomes.

Mobility Recent reforms of medical education in the UK along integrated curricular lines can be seen to complicate international mobility to minor extent, though the structure of medical degrees worldwide, eg USA, Canada, New Zealand Australia, is relatively similar.

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General Within the UK there are multiple jurisdictions, professions and qualification routes, and they are not always recognised even within the UK. There are three ministers of justice and at least six professional bodies. Scottish lawyers, for example, cannot, as such, practise in England.

Law


Scottish law degrees last four years, English and Northern Irish three years. It is possible in the English system (though not Scottish) to obtain a Bachelor degree after three years of higher education in law. However, this degree will not and cannot give immediate access to the legal profession (as a lawyer, judge, state official, company or organisation law expert). Every law degree must be followed by professional courses and a traineeship to lead to legal profession. The Masters degree in law lasts one year, it can also be entered after a non‐law degree and a conversion course.


Law degrees across the UK are couched in terms of learning outcomes, but it is considered a challenge to demonstrate that the learning outcomes achieved by an English Masters of law a equivalent to the outcomes reached by continental European programmes in five years.


Next to the law degree there is also the possibility for non‐law‐students to get a law diploma. After professional courses and traineeship they have access to the legal profession.

Recognition Standards for accreditation of law degrees in England by the Bar Council and the Law Society were issued as a Joint Announcement to take effect from September 2001. In Scotland the Law Society of Scotland is the governing body for Scottish solicitors. Admission to the Scottish Bar is controlled through the Faculty of Advocates is an independent body of lawyers who have been admitted to practise as Advocates before the Courts of Scotland. All UK Law degrees are also expected to conform to the QAA Subject Benchmarking statements for Law. Courses in the UK are now modularised and credit rated as facilitators for recognition. Clear consumer information and communication to students on studying in higher education have been introduced in recent years through the QAA requirement for Programme Specifications written in terms of learning outcomes.

Mobility For European students wishing to study within the UK, normally a recognised English‐language qualification such as IELTS 5.5 (for postgraduate Masters courses IELTS 6.0) or equivalent is required. Studies differ in terms of how many UK Law students undertake a period of study in Europe during their first‐ or second‐cycle degree but according to the Virtual Mobility Project and Victorious Project it is less than 5%.

Teacher training

General In England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, there are differing cultural and educational traditions, examination systems and, in the case of Scotland, degree structures. UK Teacher Education is strictly regulated by agencies such as the Teaching and Development Agency in England and the Scottish Executive in Scotland. For primary and secondary teaching, qualified teaching status is required in each of the four countries through the relevant General Teaching Council of the country concerned. UK Teacher Education is fully involved in the Tuning working group on education .

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Either a three‐ to four‐year initial degree (usually the Bachelor of Education, traditionally four years, now often only three) integrating disciplinary specialisation with pedagogy, or a 3 + 1 consecutive arrangement in which a three‐ or four‐year initial discipline‐based award is then followed by a one year full‐time Postgraduate Certificate in Education. Masters‐level and Doctoral‐level programmes are available in many UK universities including taught and professional Doctoral programmes such as the Ed.D.


Teacher Education programmes across the UK are represented in terms of learning outcomes in accordance with QAA precepts. The ‘outcomes and competences’ approach has been adopted by ‘Tuning Project’ as a European equivalent to UK ‘subject benchmark statements’.


There is a widening range of candidates entering teacher education, including ‘second career’ mature professionals. New flexibility of provision and access has arisen in Teacher Education in many parts of the UK in terms of shifts to part‐time access to awards (eg two‐year part‐time awards as opposed to the one year full‐time equivalent), and a significant increase in the use of digital technologies within Teacher Education permitting remote access to programmes. Neither this degree of remote access or part‐time flexibility would have been likely even five years ago. A illustrative example of the former would be the possibility of students accessing programmes of Teacher Education online from Strathclyde University in Glasgow, from remote parts of rural Scotland such as Oban and Islay.

Recognition See “mobility”. Mobility As in other European countries, mobility is an issue, since professional

teaching placements are ‘contextually locked’ by a range of prescriptive and uncompromising local factors that have arisen historically in terms of local regulation and institutional constraint. These factors involve local government, universities and schools, unions, General Teaching Councils and other agencies. The net result, according to one respondent for this study, is ‘a huge degree of inflexibility’. There is anecdotal evidence of initial teacher education complacency in terms of portability of qualifications, credit transfer and mobility’. This inflexibility at local level runs counter to the proactive approach at international level such as the Tuning pilot project.

General Professional associations such as the Engineering Council UK (ECUK) play an important role. This council has published a statement on the implications of Bologna for UK Engineering degrees.

Engineering


There is both a two‐cycle route (3+1 in England, Northern Ireland and Wales) 4+1 in Scotland) leading to an MSc and an integrated route (4 years in England, 5 years in Scotland) leading to an MEng. Foundation degrees are also common in Engineering. There are many concerns that the MEng might fail to meet the Dublin descriptors for a Masters‐level degree as it (a) is a long first‐cycle degree and (b) commonly only the equivalent of 240 ECTS is awarded, thereof only 50 ECTS at Masters level, as the last year is commonly not a full academic year.

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The Subject Benchmark Statement for Engineering, defining learning outcomes and competences expected from Engineering graduates, has been revised in 2006.


A wide number of first cycle Engineering courses in the UK are offered in part‐time study mode. A typical pattern might be weekly attendance involving one day plus evening. As a general rule, credit can be given for previous study or relevant experience. If qualifications are relevant and of an appropriate level this might be recognised by offering advanced entry at a level to suit ability. As a guide, HNC may give entry to level 2 with HND providing entry to level 3. Other qualifications such as National Diploma, AVCE awards or Irish NC / ND can also provide advanced entry. The aim throughout the UK aim is to encourage participation in Higher Education. A lack of formal qualifications should not generally be seen as preventing entry to university

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Recognition Under its Royal Charter, Engineering Council UK (ECUK) grants

licences to engineering Institutions allowing them to assess candidates for inclusion on its Register of Professional Engineers and Technicians, and to accredit academic programmes and professional development schemes. With a quarter of its Registrants working outside the UK, and as many as 10‐15% of Registrants not being UK citizens, international issues are of major importance to ECUK. The strategy of the Council is to extend the recognition of UK engineers overseas by reaching mutual recognition agreements with professional bodies and by inclining governmental organisations towards liberalisation of professional recognition and of the provision of engineering services. In carrying out this strategy ECUK sees the world as being currently in two blocks. There are the countries whose education and engineer formation systems are built on a UK/USA model ‐ for example all or most of North America, Asia, Pacific, Africa and China, and there are the European countries with a Napoleonic system of education and formation. The UK (and Ireland) bridge these two blocks and actively engage with both systems in order to reconcile differences and enhance mobility. Within Europe ECUK is involved in three over‐arching professional organisations ‐ESOEPE, FEANI and EurEta ‐ and in discussions with the European Commission. Outside of Europe ECUK is involved with four professional body agreements ‐ the Washington Accord, Sydney Accord, Dublin Accord and International Register of Professional Engineers ‐ and with two government sponsored initiatives ‐ APEC Engineer Register and the Transatlantic Economic Partnership. There are a range of more specialised professional bodies offering recognition under the aegis of the ECUK. So for example a BEng degree course might be recognised by the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) as providing the academic requirements for registration with the Engineering Council; they also might satisfy part of the academic requirements for recognition as a Chartered Engineer (CEng). In addition to the BEng (Hons) degree a 12 months “matching section” might be required for CEng recognition. A BSc Product Design Engineering course might be accredited by the Institution of Engineering Designers (IED). A BEng Polymer Engineering might be accredited by the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining (IoM3). The advantages of professional recognition and the various grades of professional engineer are explained in detail on the Engineering Council UK web site. http://www.engc.org.uk/ Over 4,000 accredited courses are listed there. Another useful source of reference is the IET website.Courses in the UK are now modularised and credit rated as facilitators for recognition. Clear consumer information and communication to students on studying in higher education have been introduced in recent years through the QAA requirement for Programme Specifications written in terms of learning outcomes.

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http://www.theiet.org/


http://www.ied.org.uk/

http://www.ied.org.uk/

http://www.iom3.org/

http://www.engc.org.uk/



Mobility Under the European Mobility Directive, you are entitled to recognition

to work in another EU Member State under the Directive if your professional qualifications (education and professional experience) enable you to work in your home EU Member State. For UK engineers this means being either a registered Chartered Engineer (CEng), Incorporated Engineer (IEng) or Engineering Technician (EngTech). The host country (the one you are seeking to work in) has four months in which to reply to your application. If your application is refused you will be given a reason why, and are entitled to appeal against this decision. Failure of the host country to respond within four months is considered an implicit refusal. Once your qualifications have been recognised, you are entitled to work in the host country under the same conditions as persons with the qualifications of the host country. You have the same rights and obligations as nationals of the host country. The Engineering Council UK website gives further details of Directive 89/48/EEC, which is the first General Systems Directive for the recognition of higher education diplomas awarded on completion of professional education and training of at least three yearsʹ duration. This Directive is applicable to Chartered and Incorporated Engineers. It also gives further details of the Engineering Technicians ‐ Directive 92/51/EEC which is the second General Systems Directive for the recognition of professional education and training of at least one yearsʹ duration, which is not covered in Directive 89/48/EEC. Directive 92/51/EEC is supplemental to Directive89/48/EEC. Engineering Technicians are covered by this Directive. For European students wishing to study within the UK, normally a recognised English‐language qualification such as IELTS 5.5 (for postgraduate Masters courses IELTS 6.0) or equivalent is required. Studies differ in terms of how many UK Engineering students undertake a period of study in Europe during their first or second cycle degree but according to the Virtual Mobility Project and Victorious Project it is less than 5%.

General History education in England is strongly involved in the Tuning project. Taking into account that, within the European context, the subject of History has always merited a particular status in terms of fostering European peace and stability, the UK involvement in the Tuning pilot is undertaken in conjunction with CLIO (Creating Links and Innovative Overviews for a New History Agenda). CLIO’s proponents believe ‘that a critically founded supranational view of history ‐ the ways in which it is conceptualised, learned and studied – constitutes one of the most important arms against racism, xenophobia and civil conflict. History constitutes one of the key fields in which international understanding can be ensured ‐ or negated ‐ and cohesive citizenship can be guaranteed ‐ or shattered’ (http://www.clioh.net).

History


The common two‐cycle structure described in the general part applies (3+1 in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, 4+1 in Scotland).

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http://www.clioh.net/


There is a Subject Benchmark Statement for History, defining learning outcomes and competences expected from graduates. It is currently being revised, seriously taking into account recent results from the Tuning project. QAA leads the revision in consultation with the Institute of Historical Research, the Higher Education Academy Subject Centre for History, The Historical Association, The Royal Historical Society, and History UK.


A wide number of first‐ and second‐cycle History courses in the UK are offered in part‐time study mode. A typical pattern might involve both day and evening attendance combined with some study online. As a general rule, credit can be given for previous study or relevant experience. The aim throughout the UK aim is to encourage participation in Higher Education. A lack of formal qualifications should not generally be seen as preventing entry to university

Recognition As History is not considered a specifically vocational subject there is no professional body providing professional recognition a such. First‐cycle History degrees in the UK are expected to conform to the QAA Subject Benchmarking statements for History. Courses in the UK are now modularised and credit rated as facilitators for recognition. Clear consumer information and communication to students on studying in higher education have been introduced in recent years through the QAA requirement for Programme Specifications written in terms of learning outcomes.

Mobility For European students wishing to study within the UK, normally a recognised English‐language qualification such as IELTS 5.5 (for postgraduate Masters courses IELTS 6.0) or equivalent is required. Studies differ in terms of how many UK History students undertake a period of study in Europe during their first‐ or second‐cycle degree, but according to the Virtual Mobility Project and Victorious Project it is less than 5%.

IMPACT

Data relating to impact measures at disciplinary level within the UK is not easily available. The higher education funding councils, the DfES, the Scottish Executive the TDA, the GMC and BMS, the Law Society and the relevant Subject Centres of the Higher Education Academy are not in a position to provide quantitative data. The most recent and informative data, though derived from small scale studies, can be found in papers from the ‘Working Together Conference’, between officers of the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education and representatives of the Higher Education Academy Subject Centres, held on Wednesday 24 May 2006 (Brooks 2006). It is however not broken down by the five disciplines and does not contain information on the impact dimensions of this study.

Access The ‘Foundation degree’ is a recent initiative of the British government to increase access cost‐effectively. To date there are 24,000 students, so mixed success. The rapid increase in participation over the last 40 years from a participation rate of 10% to now around 45% (50% in Scotland) is testimony to the effectiveness of increased access through part‐time provision and widening participation policies. The introduction of fees in the UK (though not in Scotland) does not appear to have adversely affected this trend.

General

Graduation

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Employability The British Bachelor degree is well established as degree qualifying for the

labour market in most subject areas, however not in law and medical studies.

Mobility Overall, outward mobility of British students is still very low (estimates indicate less than 5%) and there are concerns that the Bologna commitment to three‐year length of Bachelor degrees (instead of four years as in the US) rather impedes an increase.


The QAA was founded in 1998 bringing together earlier quality assurance traditions from universities and the state in a coherent overall architecture that respects university autonomy.


The Foundation degree is a recent initiative of the British government to increase access cost‐effectively. To date there are 24,000 students, so mixed success.

Access Access to medical degrees in the UK is highly competitive and requires high entry qualifications. Medical Schools participate in widening participation measures but all entrants must manifest high level grades on entry. Though participation has been widened to include under‐represented groups, students who enrol in the second cycle usually require a disciplinary backgrounds in medicine, though a new form of four year first cycle medical degree has recently been introduced for students from other discplinary backgrounds.

Medical studies

Graduation UK medics graduate with two first‐cycle degrees simultaneously: a Bachelor of Medicine (M.B) and and a Bachelor of Surgery (Ch.B), hence their post‐nominal designation M.B.Ch.B. They graduate after five years and then undertake one year’s pre‐registration as a House Officer (PRHO). Graduation rates remain very high with very little wastage and minimal attrition rates

Employability There is currently a serious shortage of medical practitioners in the UK, and so employment of medical graduates on graduation is virtually 100%. Transferable skills are implemented and institutionalised in medical degrees through the QAA programme specification requirements and also through the recommendations of Tomorrow’s Doctors report issued by the General Medical Council.

Mobility There is relatively high mobility of UK medics usually in order to gain wider or more specialised professional experience and expertise. Mobility tends to be greater to short placements in Commonwealth countries and the USA for historical, cultural and linguistic reasons. Mobility of teaching staff within Europe is comparatively low.


UK Medical education is rigorously monitored by the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education and by the General Medical Council, so high quality and reputation are maintained. Scores on performance indicators regarding quality have seen a general and steady increase over the last decade. Institutional and national quality assurance mechanisms have now been adjusted (in Scotland) or are being adjusted (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) away from a quality assurance approach more towards one of quality enhancement, which places greater emphasis on institutional autonomy.

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Medical education is high cost given its labour‐intensive nature and the cost of specialist equipment. The UK National Health Service is under continual and high profile pressure to reduce clinical costs. Fees for medical studies are higher than for most courses and students are now expected to make a contribution to fees. The return on investment given the comparatively high salaries that medics can expect to earn during their careers makes this a cost‐effective option for students in the long term.

Access Access to Law courses remains competitive and high grades are usually required for admission. Participation has been widened to include under‐represented groups, but students who enrol in the second cycle usually require a disciplinary background in law.

Law

Graduation Despite some retention problems in the first year of first‐cycle degree programmes, graduation rates remain high in Law courses with comparatively low wastage and minimal attrition rates.

Employability Demand for entrants to the legal professions fluctuates according to market demands. It is currently high. However legal qualifications provide access to a wide range of other careers in business, commerce, industry, government and administration. Transferable skills are implemented and institutionalised in legal degrees through the QAA programme specification requirements

Mobility Mobility is comparatively low for UK law students (estimates indicate less than 5%) and this may be attributable to language ability, the need to maintain paid work during a degree, and the requirements of different jurisdictions in other countries. Mobility of teaching staff within Europe is comparatively low.


UK legal education is rigorously monitored by the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education and by the Law Societies of the four home countries of the UK who set professional standards, so high quality and reputation are maintained. Scores on performance indicators regarding quality have seen a general and steady increase over the last decade. Institutional and national quality assurance mechanisms have now been adjusted (in Scotland) or are being adjusted (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) away from a quality assurance approach more towards one of quality enhancement which places greater emphasis on institutional autonomy.


Over the last two decades, the student numbers in this subject have nearly doubled whilst the number of teaching and support staff has virtually halved in that time. This has led to a steep rise in the staff/student ratio and hence clear cost‐effectiveness.

Access There is considerable variation in the patterns of access and requirements for admission to courses of teacher education in the UK. Admission to courses leading to teaching qualifications in the primary sector are heavily oversubscribed and entrance is competitive. Those courses leading to teaching qualifications in the secondary sector are less competitive though recruitment has remained reasonably buoyant in recent years, owing to competitive rates of pay currently operating within these sectors.

Teacher training

Graduation There are some retention problems in the first year of first‐cycle degree programmes, but generally graduation rates remain reasonably high in Education courses with relatively low attrition rates (There is however a relatively high level of attrition in the first years of employment in the secondary‐schools sector).

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Employability Employability for Education graduates obviously fluctuates in relation to

demographic factors as they affect the pupil roll of schools. Over the last two decades, employment demand has remained relatively high. Transferable skills are implemented and institutionalised in Education degrees through the QAA programme specification requirements

Mobility Mobility remains an issue, since professional teaching placements are ‘contextually locked’ by a range of prescriptive and uncompromising local factors that have arisen historically in terms of local regulation and institutional constraint. These factors involve local government, universities and schools, unions, General Teaching Councils and other agencies. Mobility is comparatively low for UK teacher education students (estimates indicate less than 5%) and, as with other subjects, this may be attributable to language ability and the need to maintain paid work during a degree. Mobility of teaching staff within Europe is comparatively low.


UK teacher education is rigorously monitored by the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, by OFSTED in England and by the General Teaching Council for Scotland who set professional standards, so high quality and reputation are maintained. Scores on performance indicators regarding quality have seen a general and steady increase over the last decade. Institutional and national quality assurance mechanisms have now been adjusted (in Scotland) or are being adjusted (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) away from a quality assurance approach more towards one of quality enhancement which places greater emphasis on institutional autonomy.


Over the last two decades the student numbers in this subject have nearly doubled whilst the number of teaching and support staff has virtually halved in that time. This has led to a steep rise in the staff/student ratio and hence clear cost‐effectiveness.

Access There is considerable variation in the requirements for admission to Engineering courses, depending on whether such courses provide routes to Chartered Engineer status or not. For those that do, access remains competitive and high grades are usually required for admission, whilst other courses have seen recruitment fall in recent years and admission requirements have relaxed as result. Participation has been widened to include under‐represented groups, but students who enrol in the second cycle usually require a disciplinary background in Engineering.

Engineering

Graduation There is variation in the graduation rates of students in Engineering depending on the nature of courses and the type of institution. Courses not leading to Chartered Engineering status particularly in the post‐1992 sector have suffered relatively high attrition rates in recent years leading to some course closures.

Employability Engineering graduates tend to have a high rate of employment though many on qualification do not choose to enter engineering professions but other employment sectors. Transferable skills are implemented and institutionalised in Engineering degrees through the QAA programme specification requirements

Mobility Mobility remains comparatively low for UK Engineering students (estimates indicate less than 5%) and, as with other subjects, this may be attributable to language ability and the need to maintain paid work during a degree. Mobility of teaching staff within Europe is comparatively low.

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UK engineering education is rigorously monitored by the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, and by the various professional bodies for Engineering who come under the Aegis of the Engineering Council UK. These bodies set professional standards, so high quality and reputation are maintained. Scores on performance indicators regarding quality have seen a general and steady increase over the last decade. Institutional and national quality assurance mechanisms have now been adjusted (in Scotland) or are being adjusted (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) away from a quality‐assurance approach more towards one of quality enhancement which places greater emphasis on institutional autonomy.



Access Access to History courses remains popular and hence competitive and high grades are usually required for admission. Participation has been widened to include under‐represented groups. Students who enrol in the second cycle do not usually require a disciplinary background in History.

History

Graduation Despite some retention problems in the first year of first cycle degree programmes graduation rates remain high in Law courses with comparatively low wastage and minimal attrition rates.

Employability The achievement and skills of UK History graduates are recognized within a wide range of employment opportunities, with many finding employment as trainee managers within the retail, banking and insurance sectors, administrative and clerical roles, the retail and leisure industries. A number of History graduates are now in IT roles in software development and engineering, others are administering and managing projects in public‐sector organisations, some have entered media jobs and are now working as editors and deputy editors. Those undertaking further study were either taking Masters‐level courses in History or related areas or they were enrolled on PGCE courses. Transferable skills are implemented and institutionalised in History degrees through the QAA programme specification requirements

Mobility Mobility remains comparatively low for UK History students (estimates indicate less than 5%) and, as with other subjects, this may be attributable to language ability and the need to maintain paid work during a degree. Mobility of teaching staff within Europe is comparatively low.


UK History is rigorously monitored by the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education and all courses conform to the History Subject Benchmarking Standards of the QAA. Scores on performance indicators regarding quality have seen a general and steady increase over the last decade. Institutional and national quality assurance mechanisms have now been adjusted (in Scotland) or are being adjusted (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) away from a quality‐assurance approach more towards one of quality enhancement which places greater emphasis on institutional autonomy.



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