Why are there religions?

Understandings of Sacred Reality

Ritual, symbol, and myth

Absolutist and liberal interpretations

The encounter between science and religion

Women in religions

Negative aspects of organized religions

Chapter 1Religious Responses

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absolutistagnosticismallegoryatheismawakeningcharismacomparative religionCreationismDarwinismdogmaenlightenmentexclusivismfundamentalism

gnosishereticimmanentincarnationintelligent designliberalmetaphysicsmonotheismmysticismmythorthodoxphenomenologypolytheism

profane realizationredactionreligionritualsacredscientific materialismspiritualitysymboltheismtranscendentuniversalism

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Karl Marx

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“He is forever free who has brokenOut of the ego-cage of I and mineTo be united with the Lord of Love.This is the supreme state. Attain thou this And pass from death to immortality.”

Bhagavad Gita

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Timelinec. 427-347 BCE

1642-1727 CE1809-18821818-18831825-18951842-19101856-19391858-19171869-19371875-19611904-19871907-1986

1941-1946 -

Plato, “body is soul’s prison”Isaac Newton, physicist and theologianChas. Darwin, evolution undermines religionKarl Marx, “religion is tool of oppression”Thos. Henry Huxley, coins “agnosticism”Wm. James, Varieties of Religious Experience Sigmund Freud, “religion is neurosis” Emile Durkheim, “religion needed for survival”Rudolf Otto, “religion irreducible”Carl Jung, “collective unconscious”Mircea Eliade, comparative religionistJos. Campbell, comparative mythologistRichard Dawkins, militant atheist Paul Davies, physicist and theologian

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Continual worship at a sacred fire at Gobind Sadan, India.

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Materialist Perspective: Humans Invented Religion

Functional Perspective: Religion Is Useful

Belief Perspective: Ultimate Reality Exists

One set of explanations called the materialistic perspective maintains that the supernatural exists only in our imaginations.

Only the physical world really exists. Religion is therefore essentially bad for people because

it deludes us and detracts our attention away from dealing with the only material world we have.

This explanation goes on to assert that humans created religion and not for the highest of motives.

Sigmund Frued – “religion is a mental illness” Karl Marx – “religion is a mind numbing drug, invented

to oppress people” Ludwig Feurbach – “our fears are turned into gods”

Some psychologists believe that religion can indeed be good for people

It is good because religion is thought to fulfill deep individual needs of humanity

Adherents of this view maintain that religion can enhance one’s mental health and aid in the development of maturity

All religions help discover meaning in the midst of the ordinary This may be one of the deepest felt needs within human life, to

have a sense of higher purpose and direction. Finally, religion can be a source of comfort, a way of answering

the discomforting even terrifying sense of isolation, of being alone in the universe.

Erich Fromm – “people have a normal need for stability and humanistic religions (as opposed to authoritarian ones) can fulfill that need”

Mircea Eliade – “is to say that all religions help one seek out the sacred amidst the profane”

This view asserts that Ultimate Reality is real, that there is a transcendent or supernatural sphere co-existing with the physical universe

This belief is frequently grounded in some kind of mystical experience, the overwhelming awareness that one has been touched by a reality that far transcends ordinary life

Those claiming mystical experience often find it hard to express and explain

There is an ineffable dimension to such experiences. Ineffable simply means that you have an experience which you know to be real; however, you can only describe, express, and explain it partially to others

These encounters with transcendent reality are given different names in different religious traditions: coming home, ecstatic communion, gnosis, self-knowledge, awakening, kensho, illumination, enlightenment, for example. These may arise spontaneously or by measures of inducement

However encountered and however described, mystical experiences are part of the universal phenomenon of religion

Existential loneliness is depicted by Alberto Giacometti’s Walking Man.

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The Unnameable in the ordinary: Samuel Palmer, Waterfalls.©Prof A. D'Ascoli

God as a bearded old man ruling the world from the sky:William Blake, The Act of Creation.

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Mircea Eliade: helped to develop the field of comparative religion Used the terms “sacred” and “profane”

Here the sacred refers to the extraordinary, the supernatural, the source of the universe and values, significance. The idea of profane refers to what is mundane, ordinary, the everyday. Some cultures do not make a clear distinction

between the sacred and the profane, such as many indigenous peoples

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Immanent view of sacred reality (existing in the world) Transcendent view of sacred reality (existing above and

outside the world) Concept of sacred Being

Theistic (monotheistic or polytheistic) - Religions that understand the Sacred to be a personal reality and are based on one’s relationship to the Personal Sacred are called theistic Some theists believe in human incarnations or special

manifestations Monistic (everything is a unified whole) - Religions, which

maintain that behind the plurality of apparent forms there is one under girding substance, are termed monistic

Nontheistic (no god/gods) - means that there is ultimacy to the universe but it is expressed without relationship to a sacred reality beyond our world.

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Atheism is a term that means disbelief in any deity “New Atheism,” promoted by thinkers such as Richard Dawkins,

argues that religious faith is not just wrong, but evil, because it can be used to support violence http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LxHsfbhCplI

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P4RWIf9mN9o&NR=1&feature=fvwp

Agnosticism does not deny the existence of the divine but states that it is impossible or unnecessary for humans to know with certainty about the existence of the Sacred

It is important to emphasize to students that these categories are not necessarily mutually exclusive

Religions, which conceive of a Personal Sacred Reality, can think of that Reality as simultaneously immanent and transcendent

It is also possible that at times some of these distinctions may blur For example, a Hindu may be a polytheist and believe in the

existence of many gods but may be somewhat monotheistic in practice when she or he places one god at the top of the pantheon

Exclusivist religious authorities claim that they worship the only true deity and that all others are pagans or nonbelievers.

In contrast, universalism is the view that it is possible different religions are talking about the same thing in different languages, or referring to different aspects of the same unknowable whole

Phenomena of religion are ways of: Worship Symbol Myths It is usual now to understand symbols and myths

metaphorically rather than literally. They both signify deep realities, which transcend them. In other words, symbols and myths are not simply identical to what they signify

Attempts to express reverence Enter into communion with object of

worship Acts of worship that are predictable and

repeated are rituals Worhip is a dramatic gesture which

attempts to express in outward form the reverence and awe which one experiences in response to Ultimate Reality, e.g., rituals, sacraments, prayers, and spiritual practices

Images borrowed from material world that are similar to ineffable spiritual experiences

Carl Jung proposed that humanity as a whole has a collective unconscious of archetypal symbols from which separate cultures have drawn

A symbol is an object, a place, a person, or an action which allows worshiper to enter a sacred state of communion with Ultimate Reality, e.g., the sharing of food, the use of fire or candles, water purification, uses of flowers or fragrances

Symbolic stories that communities use to explain the universe and their place within it

Four primary functions, according to Joseph Campbell mystical cosmological sociological Psychological Myths are stories founded on symbols. They attempt

to express infinite reality and meaning using finite means. Moreover, a major purpose of religious myths is to constitute models of human behavior

Within each religious community there are different ways of interpreting its traditions. At least six models of interpretation can be identified:

A. Orthodox: adhere to an established, historical form of their religion

B. Absolutist - orthodox adherents who resist contemporary influences and affirm the "historical core" of their religion.

C. Fundamentalism - selective insistence on parts of a religious tradition. May include violence against people of other religions. 

D. Liberal: flexible approach to religious tradition; often advocate reform of ways religions is practiced, understood.

E. Heretics: those who assert positions or practices that are unacceptable to the orthodox

F. Mystics - guided by their own spiritual experiences. May or may not coincide with any of the above positions

Academic study of religion requires us to "bracket" our own beliefs, at least temporarily, and to try to see the world from the point of view of the adherents of other faith traditions. This approach is often called phenomenology. 

This approach tries to: (1) avoid "reductionism:" explaining religion

as a purely historical, psychological, economic or political object. 

(2)take seriously the meaning that a religious tradition has for its adherents.

Science, like religion, searches for universal principles to explain reality

Early scientists placed greater emphasis on rational knowledge

Recently, scientists have sought to understand religious belief

Conflict between science and religion is exemplified in the opposing views of creationism and Darwinism

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SSxgnu3Hww8 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xfZFsXfCy6s http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KRLR9jhP_DM

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMyZblR5W04&feature=relmfu

The eighteenth-century Enlightenment placed greater respect on rational knowledge than religious knowledge

In the nineteenth century, Darwin’s theory of evolution challenged the biblical view of creation. As evolutionary biology has continued to develop since Darwin, more is known about the role of genetics in natural selection. Also, studies are revealing more and more evidence of gradual changes in organisms from fossil records and the genetic records encoded in DNA

4 propositions in current dialogue: Conflict model Science and religion deal with separate

realms A dialogue in which scientists and

religious believers can find common ground

Integration , in which science and religion overlap

Hubble telescopereveals star nurseries 6 trillion miles high in the Eagle Nebula.

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Most institutionalized religions are patriarchal

This situation is being widely challenged by the contemporary feminist movement

Many women are deeply concerned about violence, poverty, ecological disaster and are insisting that religions be actively engaged in these issues

May split rather than unify humanity May devote more energy to preserving

the outer, institutional form of the religion than its inner spirit

Those in religious power have the ability to dominate and manipulate the faithful; people may put their faith in unethical or misguided spiritual leaders.

May lead to an exaggeration of guilt in people with perfectionist or paranoid tendencies; may become a form of escapism; may be psychologically harmful to some

A potential center for political power, and may be used as a rallying point for wars against other peoples or nations

Re-lig-ion “bind/tie back,” “bind together” (to be

bound)

(“Yoga” = to Unite) “re-connect”

To a Higher Power To other people, in community To the world around us With ourselves

Religion is a way of thinking about: Origins (where did we come from?) Purpose/meaning (why are we here?) Destiny (where are we going? what

happens when we die?) Who we are (the nature of human nature) Who/what God is (the nature of Ultimate

Reality)The basis for our beliefs & doctrine, expressed

through myth, scripture, philosophy, theology

Intellectual - Emotional - PhysicalIntellectual

Religion is a way of feeling:

awe

faith

hopegratitude

appreciation

ecstasy

joy

bliss

fear

guiltlove

reverence

rejoicing

peace

Religion is a way of acting, of living, a social system:

Spiritual practices: meditation,chanting, prayer, ritual

Physical forms: art and architecture,ritual objects, statues, icons, etc.

Communal celebrations:rites of passage, holidays

Social regulation: morals & ethics, prohibitions & taboos

Institutions/organizations/communities: Leaders (gurus/priests/ministers) &

followers (disciples, laity) Hierarchies, obedience & discipline

(monastic communities) History

Thinking about the religion you are most familiar with (likely your own or, if you are non-religious, that you have observed among family, friends, or neighbors)…

Identify several examples of each dimension of religion. Why do you identify these examples as you do?

The church building, as a physical structure, is obviously part of the physical dimension of religion.

Celebration of Passover, as a holiday observed in community with family and friends, commemorating an ancient event in the history of the Jewish community, is an example of the practice & social sub-dimensions of the physical dimension of religion.

I feel uplifted (feeling dimension) when we (social/physical dimension) sing songs (practice/ physical dimension) of praise (feeling dimension)

When the preacher gives her sermon (practice/physical) I use my intellect to try to understand (intellectual dimension) the message and how it relates to my life.

the service or worship of God or the supernatural - Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary

a specific system of faith and worship – Oxford English Dictionary

a set of symbolic forms and acts which relate man to the ultimate condition of his existence – Robert Bellah

Beliefs, attitudes, emotions, behavior, etc., constituting man’s relationship with the powers and principles of the universe – Reader’s Digest Great Encyclopedic Dictionary

Belief in and/or worship of God or gods – World Book Dictionary

Belief in and reverence for a supernatural power or powers regarded as creator and governor of the universe; a personal or institutionalized system grounded in such belief and worship – YourDictionary.com

[the seeking] of divine truth, exploring who we are, why we’re here, and how we should live - Joel Beversluis, ed., Sourcebook of the world’s Religions

belief that there is an unseen order, and that our supreme good lies in harmoniously adjusting ourselves thereto – William James

The common folk Philosophers Sociologists Theologians Anthropologists Psychologists Historians CriticsEveryone’s got an agenda and a limited

perspective that will influence how they perceive religion

Substantive or essentialist definitions characterize religion by some basic essence which is common to all religious systems, but not to any non-religious systems. They say what religion is:

“Belief in invisible superhuman power together with feelings and practices that flow from such a belief “

Functionalist definitions focus on the way religion operates or functions in human life. They say what religion does:

“A set of beliefs and practices which serve to subordinate us to something superior or holy in order to justify the events that control our lives”

Both Substantive and Functional:

“a system of belief and worship which usually incorporates a code of ethics. Religion fulfills the human need for a relationship with the creative, spiritual force of the universe.” - Pope John Paul II Cultural Center “Gallery of Faith”

…the seeking of transcendent meaning that gives our lives value and puts us in touch with the deeper currents of existence... Religion helps people to cultivate an appreciation of the holiness of humanity and teaches us to respect the sacredness of life and the world. - Karen Armstrong, Battle for God, pp. 199-201

“a specific system of belief in God, doctrines, etc. God’s relation to humanity and the universe” (Western/Christian bias)

Religion is a lot more than just belief There are many systems generally

considered to be “religions” that do not fit with this definition (they do not believe in or relate to a god or gods) (use more generic language)

Biased, too narrow or limited:

“a system of beliefs and practices directed to the ultimate concern of society”

Are economic or political systems “religions”?

What kind of “ultimate concern”? What kind of beliefs? What kind of practices?

Definitions that are too general (generic) may not be very useful

Too broad or inclusive:

Identify several “familial” traits shared by many religions…

What comes to mind when you hear the word “religion”?

Belief in a higher power (be it a person or principle)

Surrender to the supreme power An ethic of reciprocity (the Golden Rule) Worship (prayer or other such practices) Belief in the human spirit (soul) Belief in other worlds (beyond life in this

world, afterlife, reincarnation, etc.) Paths to God that can effect a positive

change in human lives- Pope John Paul II Cultural Center “Gallery of Faith”

Do not insist that every religion must share every trait in common

May include traits shared by non-religious systems

Tend to suggest that the more traits a given system involves, the more likely we can consider it a “religion”; the fewer traits a given system shares the less likely we may be to consider it a “religion”

The Nacirema? Secular Humanism? Confucianism? Communism?

Is it or is it not a “religion”?

How can we make a determination?

Deductive reasoning: begin with a definition and see if the system fits

Inductive reasoning: compare and contrast a variety of systems provisionally considered “religious” and “non-religious” and then draw some conclusions to arrive at a definition:

What do most (if not all) “religions” have in common? What is it that makes something a “religion”?

Perspective/Agenda Substantive Functionalist Narrow/biased Broad/vague Cluster/Multidimensional Inductive Deductive

“Religion is a system of activities and beliefs directed toward that which is perceived to be of sacred value and transforming power”

Is this definition: Too limited? (why?) Too broad or vague? (why?) Substantive? (where?) Functionalist? (where?) Biased? (why?)

“Religion is a set of beliefs that spark the formation of communities of faith which act out those beliefs in order to heal themselves and our broken world”

Is this definition: Too limited? (why?) Too broad or vague? (why?) Substantive? (where?) Functionalist? (where?) Biased? (why?)

How is the study of religion different from the study of subjects such as mathematics or other sciences? How best can we approach our study when religions make claims with which we may or may not agree?

Explain what a myth is, and describe some of the different ways that the function of myth has been explained.

Give two examples of scientific materialist explanations of religion. To what extent are such explanations useful in understanding religion? What aspects of religion might they miss?

What is involved in the historical-critical study of scriptures? How does this approach differ from an absolutist approach?

In trying to understand the negative side of organized religion, some people have argued that religious violence is carried out when people misuse or misinterpret their religion. Others, however, argue that the widespread nature of religious violence suggests that religion itself may be the problem. Which view do you find more convincing? Why?