white paper critical and strategic minerals

8/6/2019 White Paper Critical and Strategic Minerals

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CriticalandStrategicMinerals

CanColoradoPlayaRole?Coloradohaslongbeenknownforitsmineralresources. ThediscoveryofgoldbyprospectorsheadedforCalifornia

spurredthesettlementoftheterritory.Thestatesmininghistoryhasbeenglorious.Beginningwiththemostalluringof

metalsgoldColoradohasbeenpreeminentintheU.S., andtheworld, intheproductionofthatpreciousmetal,plus

silver,leadandzinc,tungsten,uraniumand,morerecently,molybdenum.

Astechnologyadvanced,thedemandforthesetraditionalmetalsincreased.Atthesametime,othermineral

commoditiesgainedinimportance.Theworldeconomydevelopedasurgingdemandforlesserknownminerals

unknowntotheoldprospectors.Thesemetalswereneverrecoveredinthemillsbecausetheyhadnoknownuse.

Indium,gallium,germanium,tantalumthesearejustafewofthenames.Theyareconsideredcriticalandstrategic

mineralsbecauseofthekeyrolestheyplayinmoderntechnology.TheU.S.isdependentonimportsformostofour

supply.Fortunately,thesematerialshavebeguntocapturetheattentionofpolicymakersandthemedia.

Criticalandstrategicmineralsarenecessaryacrossthespectrumofmoderntechnology,fromelectronicsandelectrical

systemsapplications,aerospaceanddefense,andtheconventionalenergyindustry.Manyoftheusesoverlapand

convergeinthefieldofalternativeorgreenenergy.

Indium,gallium,germanium,selenium,tellurium,neodymium,lanthanum,tantalum:thesemineralmaterialsare

relatively

new

to

most

people,

even

within

the

mining

profession.

They

join

others

weve

known

such

as

vanadium,

lithium,silicon,platinum,cobalt,nickel,arsenicandsilveraskeyplayersforproducinghardwareandinfrastructurefor

thevariousalternativeenergytechnologies.Solarphotovoltaic,thermalsolar,windpower,electricandhybridvehicles

alldependononeormoreoftheseminedmaterials.Manyarealsoindemandinthebroaderareaofelectronics. On

thepositiveside,manyofthesemaybefoundinColorado,althoughnocomprehensiveinventoryhasbeendoneoftheir

occurrence.

Withinthedefenseandaerospaceindustriesmanylesserknownmineralcommoditiesareimportant.Anumberof

metalsareneededformilitaryequipment,bothaircraftandgroundbasedequipment.Vanadium,rhenium,cobalt,

nickelandniobiumareallimportantforspecialalloys.Variouselectronicdevlicesforairtrafficcontrol,satellite

communications,andlasersrequireneodymium,samarium,cobalt,yttrium,terbium,europium,erbiumandothers.

Becauseoftheneedforsophisticatedelectronicsinmilitaryapplications,allofthematerialsneededforelectronicsare

alsoaerospace/defenseneeds.

Inthetraditionalenergyfields,manycriticalandstrategicmineralsareneeded.Lanthanumandtantalumareusedin

capacitors.Ceriumisusedasanadditiveindieselfueltoloweremissions.Praeseodymium,samariumandscandiumare

allusedinformsofhighintensitylighting.Europium,galliumandindiumareusedforlightemittingdiodes(LEDs).

Dysprosium,erbium,europium,holmium,samariumandmolybdenumareusedinnuclearplants.Molybdenumalso

performsvaluablefunctionsintheoilandgasandcoalpowerindustries.


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AlternativeEnergyThepromiseofgreenenergyasanalternativetothetraditionalfossilfuelsourceshasraisedawarenessofwindand

solarsourcesforenergygeneration.Manyautomobilemanufacturersareaddinghybridvehiclestotheirfleetscars

thatcanswitchbetweenbatteryandfossilfuelpower.Vehiclespropelledbyfuelcellsareunderdevelopmenttotakea

shareofthepersonaltransportationmarket.Muchoftheimpetusfortheseeffortsisadesiretoeliminatedependence

onforeignimportsforourenergy.WhilesunandwindenergycanbeutilizedintheU.S.,manyofthekeymaterials

neededforthesetechnologiesmustbeimported. And, theymustbemined.

SolarPower

Themostcommonphotovoltaicmaterialissilicon.Usedinseveraldifferentformsinphotovoltaicapplications,siliconis

themostabundantmetalintheearthscrust.Siliconwithfewimpuritiesissoughtbecausetheprocessofpurifyingitto

thegraderequiredforelectronicsandphotovoltaicsisexpensiveandenergyintensive.Producersseekhighpurity

quartz(theprinciplesiliconmineral)tominimizetheamountofpurificationneeded.Thetwoleadingthinfilm

photovoltaicmaterialsareCdTe(cadmiumtellurium)andCIGS(copperindiumgalliumselenium).Thebestreflective

coatingformirrorsusedinthermalsolargenerationissilver.

HybridVehicles

Anotherareaofalternativeenergyinthespotlightishybridvehicles.Thesevehiclescanrunparttimeonbatteries,thus

savinggasoline.Atthepresenttime,onlytwotechnologiesexistinthehybridvehiclebatterymarketNickelMetal

hydridebatteriesareusedintheHondaAccord,theCivic,andFordEscapeandtheToyotaPrius.Thebatteriesrequire

lanthanum,cerium,neodymiumandpraseodymium,(calledRareEarthElements),nickel,cobaltandmanganese.The

otherbatteryoptionisthelithiumionbattery.Theyusethemetallithium,alongwithothers,usuallycobalt.Hybrid

vehiclesusetwiceasmuchcopperasstandardvehicles.TheU.S.isdependentonimportsfornearlyallthesemetals

except

copper.

Much

research

is

directed

at

the

development

of

various

fuel

cell

vehicles,

using

hydrogen

as

a

fuel.

At

present,fuelcelltechnologyisdependentonmetalsintheplatinumfamily,whichalsoincludespalladiumandrhodium.

Neodymiummagnetsareusedintheelectricgeneratorsandmotors,astheyareinthenewgenerationofwindturbines

IsTherePotentialInColorado?

Amongthemineralsneededforalternativeenergytechnologies,somehavebeenidentifiedinColoradoandmoreshow

promiseforsuccessfulexploration.Pegmatitedepositsarethebestplacetolookforhighpurityquartz.Pegmatites

occuraroundthestate,mostlyalongtheFrontRange,fromLarimersouthtoTellerCountyandalsoinParkandChaffee

Counties.TelluriumcombinedwithgoldtoformthefamoustelluridedepositsofColorado.GoldisminedfromTelluride

depositsinthestatenow,includingthefamousCrippleCreekdistrictinTellerCounty.Seleniumoccursinnumerous

placesinwesternColorado,commonlyoccurringwithuraniumdeposits.Perhapsthemostpromisingarethemetals

usedforphotovoltaicsgallium,germanium,andindium.Thesethreeelementsoftenoccurinthemineralsphalerite,

theprimaryoremineralofzinc.Coloradohasmanyzincdepositsandthepossibilityisstrongthatoneormoreofthese

canbefoundinthezincore.Germaniumiscommonlyfoundincoaldeposits,sotheabundantcoalsofColorado,

includingthoseundertheeasternPlains,areapotentialsourceofthisvaluablematerial. Lithiumisfoundinoilshale

deposits,includingColoradosoilshale,aswellasingeothermalwaters.RareearthelementshavebeenfoundinMoffat

andGunnisonCountiesandintheWetMountainsofCusterCounty.


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ElectronicsandTraditionalEnergyTheworldrunsonenergy.Percapitalelecticityconsumptionincreasedworldwideby25percent from1997to2007.

Overallenergyconsumptionincreasedatanevengreaterrate.ThepersonalincomesinpopularcountrieslikeIndiaand

Chinaarerisingand,withthat,thedemandforelectricalappliancesandlighting,personalvehiclesthetrappingsof

modernindustrialsociety.Energyprovidersareunderpressuretomakemoreenergyavailable,preferablyatalowcost.

Lighting

Criticalandstrategicmineralsareusedinbothtraditionalenergytechnologiesandinemergingtechnologies.Energy

conservationandtechnologiesthatenablelowerenergyuse,aredependentoncriticalminerals.Tworareearth

elementspraseodymiumandsamarium,alongwithscandium,areusedinformsofhighintensitylighting.Light

emittingdiodesorLEDs,representapromisingnewtechnologyforsavingenergy.LEDsprovidelightusingonlya

fractionoftheelectricityusedbyconventionallights.Awidevarietyofmetalsareused,dependingonthecolorand

application,andincludeeuropium,gallium,indium,germanium,tin,cerium,lanthanum,zincandselenium.

OilandGasIndustry

Atthefrontendofoilandgasproduction,molybdenumisusedindrillsteelforwellsandbariumisusedindrillingmud.

Petroleumrefiningconvertingcrudeoiltoitsmanyusableproductsisacomplexprocess.Amongcatalystsusedin

refiningarezeolitemineralsandtheplatinumgroupmetalsplatinum,palladium and rhodiumandtherareearth

elementLanthanum.Petroleumanditsproductsaretransportedusingmolybdenumalloys becauseofthatmetals

resistancetocorrosion.Newgenerationdoublehulledtankersandoilandgaspipelinesusemolybdenumalloys.Cerium

isusedasanadditiveindieselfueltoreduceemissions.

NuclearIndustry

Molybdenumisusedinalloysinthepipingandtubingofnuclearplants.Othermetalsusedinnuclearplantstructures

includemanganese,nickel,chromium,zirconium,titanium andniobiuminadditiontoiron.Rareearthelements

dysprosium,erbium,holmiumand samariumareusedforcontrolrods.

ElectronicsandMiscellaneous

Capacitorsareavitalcomponentinelectricalsystems,includingelectricmotors.Lanthanumandtantalumarebothused

forcapacitorsandpromisingresearchshowsthattantalumsupercapacitorsmaypossiblyreplacebatteriesinelectric

vehicles.Galliumisanecessarycomponentofcellulartelephones.Germaniumisusedincomputers.Indiumandtinare

usedinflatpaneldisplaysandliquidcrystaldisplays.

IsTherePotentialinColorado?

ApotentialexistsforeconomicdepositsofthemineralsusedinelectronicsandenergywithinColorado.

Germanium,gallium,andindiumoftenoccurwithzinc,presentinmanyplacesintheState.Thefamilyofrareearth

elements,includinglanthanum,cerium,praseodymium,samarium,europium,erbium,andholmium,havebeen

identifiedinpromisingconcentrationsinseveralplacesinColorado,includingMoffatandGunnisonCountiesandthe

WetMountains.Ina1993report,theU.S.BureauofMinesidentifiedseverallocationsinColoradowherefurtherworkis

warrantedinthesearchfortantalum.Platinumgroupmetalsplatinum,rhodium,andpalladiumdontshowgreat

promiseinColorado,butthereareseverallocationswherethesehavebeenidentified.MolybdenumisaColorado

successstory.Withfouridentifiedworldclassdeposits,thereareotherlocationswithinthestatethatshowpromisefor

furtherdiscoveries.


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AerospaceandDefense

Modernaerospaceanddefensetechnologiesincreasinglydependoncriticalandstrategicminerals. Breakingnew

frontiersofspeedandaltituderequiresmaterialsthatwithstandgreaterrangesofconditionsthaneverbefore.The

materialsmustoperateeffectivelyandefficiently. Aircraft,includingrockets,mustperformatnearperfectionin

extremesoftemperatureandgravity.Evermoresophisticatedequipment,especiallyelectronics,provide

communicationandsafetyforU.S.troopsinhostileconditions.Researchersareconstantlydevisingnewmaterialsto

meetthesechallenges.Thematerialsoftenrequirecriticalandstrategicmineralsfortheiroptimumperformance.

Aircraft

Airplanesandrocketsmustperformunderextremeconditions.Structuralelementsofthesecraftuseavarietyof

mineralmaterials,includingvanadium,nickel,niobiumandhafnium.Enginecomponentsinparticularrequirealloysand

ceramicmaterialsabletowithstandextremetemperatures.Alloysandsuperalloysusingrhenium,cobalt,nickel,

niobium,hafniumandtitaniumplayimportantroles.Samariumandcobaltareusedinflightcontrolsandyttriuminhigh

temperatureceramics.

DefenseApplications

Manyofthesamemineralsusedinelectronicsandpowerapplicationsarealsoimportantinthedefenserealm.Of

particularnote,though,isthegroupknownastherareearthelements.Theseseventeenmineralsareusedinmany

differentareasofdefense.Belowisalistofsomedefenseapplicationsandthemineralmaterialsused.Notethatmany

othercriticalandstrategicmineralsareneededinadditiontotheserareearthelements.

Protectivecoatingsagainstneutronradiation(gadolinium)

Precisionguidedmunitions,suchassmartbombs(samarium,neodymium,cobalt)

Lasersinrangefinders,targetdesignators(dysprosium,erbium,europium,gadolinium,holmium,terbium,ytterbium,

yttriumalongwithnonrareearthsvanadiumandcobalt)

Minedetectiontechnology(neodymiumandyttrium)

Lineofsightcommunications(erbium)

Radarsystems(yttrium,samarium,gadolinium,aswellascobalt)

Specializedopticalequipment(gadolinium,lanthanum,cerium)

Sonartechnology(dysprosium)

Electroniccountermeasures(gadolinium,yttrium,samarium)

Nuclearmarinepropulsion(gadolinium)

Travellingwavetubesandklystrons(samarium,neodymium,nonrareearthcobalt)

Stealthtechnology(neodymium,samarium+nonrareearths cobalt,nickel,titanium)

Audiodevicesforpsychologicalwarfare(neodymium,dysprosium,samarium+nonrareearthcobalt)

Electronicdisplays(europium,yttrium,cerium,terbium,gadolinium,lanthanum)

Sonicandultrasonictransducers(dysprosium)

IsTherePotentialinColorado?

PromisingconcentrationsofrareearthelementsareknowninGunnisonandCusterCountiesalongwithpaleoplacer

depositsinMoffatCounty.ThePikesPeakgranitehasbeendescribedasoneoftherichestknowninrareearthcontent.

Zirconiumandhafniumareobtainedfromzirconsinplacerdeposits.NoneareknowninColorado,butoccurrencessare

possible,mostlikelyinoldbeachdeposits.GunnisonCountycontainswhathasbeendescribedastheworldslargest

reserveoftitanium;titaniumrichplacersareknownineasternColorado,notablyinElbertCounty. Vanadium occurs

abundantlyintheuraniumoresofsouthwestColorado.Rheniumoccursasabyproductofmolybdenumwherethat

occurswithcopper.Itisnotknowninprimarymolybdenumdeposits,butColoradoswealthofmolybdenummakesita

possiblesourceworthinvestigating.


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