• What was the result of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, &

what happened to each side? Most importantly how could

these results effect future relations with China & the U.S.?

• What is Pan-Africanism?

• Explain Apartheid in South Africa during much of the 20th

century. Which leader & ANC member strongly opposed this?

The Communists won & claimed mainland China. The Nationalists went

to Taiwan. The UN & U.S. accepted Taiwan’s Nationalist government as

the legitimate government of China.

An ideology & movement that encourages the solidarity of Africans

worldwide, based on the belief that unity is vital to economic, social, &

political progress & aims to "unify and uplift" people of African descent.

After South Africa had gained its independence from Great Britain, several

white-minority governments, passed a series of laws that drastically curtailed

the rights of Africans and other non-whites to vote, go to university, etc.; these

governments also instituted laws requiring the separation of whites and

blacks. Nelson Mandela, 1st African President of South Africa.

Struggles for Democracy 1945-present

Free elections, Citizen participation, Majority rule, Minority rights,

Constitutional government!

Brazil: From Dictators to Democracy • Gained independence from Portugal in 1822;

became a monarchy. • 1889 Republican gov’t controlled by wealthy

elites • 1930s Vargas became dictator • 3 Presidents try to steer Brazil toward democracy

and are unsuccessful • 1964 Army seizes power in a military coup • 1980s recession gripped Brazil finally allow

direct elections of local, state, and national officials

• 1985 indirectly elected civilian president, Jose Sarney fails to solve the country’s problems

• 1994 and 1998 Brazilians elect Fernando Henrique Cardoso, who achieved some success in tackling the nation’s economic/political problems

• 1990s and onward Brazil continued on the path of democracy

Mexico: One Dominant Party

• 1911 Mexican Revolution (giving peasants more rights and land)

• After the Mexican Revolution, the government passed the Constitution of 1917 (outlining a democracy & promising reforms)

• 1920-1934 Mexico elected several generals as president which led to the creation of the National Revolutionary Party

• 1934-1940 President Lazaro Cardenas tried to improve life for peasants/workers & enacted many reforms

• 1946 the dominant party changes its name to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)

• 2000 Mexican voters ended 71 years of PRI rule by electing center-right party candidate Vicente Fox Quesada as president

Argentina: Casts off Repression

• 1946 Argentinean workers supported an army officer, Juan Peron, who won the presidency and then established a dictatorship He and his wife created a welfare state.

• 1955 Military ousted Peron & sent him to exile; they rule for the next 3 decades

• Mid 1970s Argentina is in chaos! – Economy in ruins & terrorism on the rise!

• 1976 Generals seize power again establishing a brutal dictatorship/hunting down opponents

• Early 1980’s several thousand Argentines had simply disappeared— kidnapped by their own government!

• 1983 Elect Raul Alfonsin as president in the first truly free election in 40 years; he worked to rebuild democracy and the economy.

• Late 1990s Democracy seemed established in Argentina

Democratic Challenges in African Nations

• Won its independence from Britain in 1960, but the country was ethnically divided

• Nigeria sets up a federal system with three states, one for each region & ethnic group, with a corresponding political party in each

• 1967-1970 Eastern Region seceded from Nigeria, declaring itself the new nation of Biafra; causing a Civil War. Biafra surrenders in 1970 and Nigeria was reunited.

• 1970s – Military governs Nigeria • 1979 Military hands power back to civilian rulers • 1983 Military overthrew the civilian gov’t allowing a

military regime, dominated by the Hausa-Fulani to take charge carrying out a policy of discrimination against other ethnic groups

• 1993 Army held elections, resulting in the victory of Moshood Abiola. However, officers declared the results invalid & handed power to dictator, General Sani Abacha

• 1998 General Abubakar seized power promising to end military rule

• 1999 Nigerians freely elected their first civilian president, Obasanyo, in nearly 20 years

NIGERIA:

Democratic Challenges in African Nations

• 1910 – Gains self-rule as a dominion of the British Empire. • 1931 – Became an independent member of the British Commonwealth • 1948 – National Party came to power in South Africa, promoting

Afrikaner, or Dutch South African, nationalism and apartheid • 1959 – Minority gov’t set up reserves for the country’s majority black

groups • 1960 – At an ANC demonstration, police killed 69 people, banned the

ANC, & imprisoned many members (e.g. Nelson Mandela) • 1976 – 600 black students are left dead after riots in the township of

Soweto • 1986 – Protests are on the rise & the government declared a state of

emergency – under pressure to change • Many nations imposed trade restrictions on South Africa and even

banned it from the Olympic games • 1989 – White South Africans elect a new president, F. W. de Klerk in

1990 he legalizes the ANC & released Nelson Mandela from prison! • 1994 – President de Klerk agreed to hold South Africa’s 1st universal

elections, in which people of all races could vote! Mandela was elected president.

• 1996 – A new, more democratic constitution was passed; guaranteeing equal rights for all citizens.

• 1999 – Mandela retires from office

South Africa:

Gorbachev Moves Toward Democracy

• 1960s-1970s Censors decided what writers could publish & such basic rights as freedom of speech & worship were restricted by then leader, Leonid Brezhnev & his communist party – Brezhnev dies in 1982

• 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became general secretary & then, President of the Soviet Union in 1990.

• 1985 Gorbachev announced a policy known as glasnost (political openness); encouraging Soviet citizens to discuss ways to improve their society. This allowed for churches to open, dissidents to be released from prison, and for previously censored authors to write. He also announced the policy of perestroika (economic restructuring)

• 1987 Gorbachev signs the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty with U.S. President, Ronald Reagan. The treaty banned nuclear missiles with ranges of 300 to 3,400 miles.

Reforms in Poland & Hungary

Poland • 1978 A Polish archbishop

became Pope John Paul III & lent support to the anti-communist movement

• 1980 Shipyard workers strike, demanding gov’t recognition of their union, Solidarity

• 1989 Solidarity defeats Communism when military leader, Jaruzelski legalized Solidarity and agreed to hold Poland’s 1st free elections since the Communists took power

Hungary • Inspired by Poland, Hungary also

launched a reform program; encouraging private enterprise & allowing a small stock market to operate

• 1989 Radical reformers took over a Communist Party congress; dissolving the party

• 1990 National elections are held & voters put a non-Communist gov’t in power

• 1994 A socialist party formed a coalitionn w/a democratic party to rule

Communism Falls in East Germany

• 1989 Hungary allowed vacationing East Germans to cross over into Austria, & from there they could travel to West Germany (=escape route)

• Protestors in East Germany demand the right to travel freely & hold free elections!

• November 9th the collapse of the Berlin Wall

• October 3rd, 1990 Germany is officially reunited!

• 1998 German voters elect a new chancellor, Gerhard Schroeder of the Socialist Democratic Party

Democracy Spreads!

Czechoslovakia • 1989 10,000 people

gathered in Prague demanding democracy & freedom! Then, 3 weeks later 25,000 students do the same! Finally, on Nov. 24, 500,000 people crowd into downtown Prague

• One month later a new parliament elected Vaclav Havel as president!

Romania • 1989 Romanians begin a

protest movement of their own

• December a popular uprising gains the support of the army & together they overthrow the Communist dictator, Ceausescu!

• 1990/1992 Romania held general elections

• Government made economic reforms to introduce elements of capitalism

Collapse of the Soviet Union • 1980s Nationalist groups such as those in

Georgia, Ukraine, and Moldavia began to demand self-rule

• 1990 – Lithuania declared its independence resulting in Gorbachev ordering a blockade of the republic

• June 1991 U.S.S.R. dissolved & Voters chose Boris Yeltsin, a member of Parliament, to become the Russian Republic’s 1st directly elected president.

• Late 1991 Latvia and Estonia declare their independence, with other republics soon following

• Gorbachev pleads for unity, but by December, 1991, all 15 republics had declared independence

• 1992-1994 Boris Yeltsin implements “shock therapy” which was an abrupt shift to free-market economics. This plan backfires when prices soar, the inflation rate averaged 800%, many factories had to shut down and thousands of people were out of work

• 1991 – Chechnya (a largely Muslim area in Russia) declared its independence, but Yeltsin denied this & ordered 40,000 Russian troops into the area…. 1996 – The two sides signed a peace treaty and Yeltsin was re-elected

• War soon breaks out again with Chechnya, and in 1999 Yeltsin resigns, naming Russian Premier Vladamir Putin as acting president (2000) Putin is able to crush the rebellion in Chechnya

Yugoslavia • Six major ethnic groups (Serbs, Croats,

Muslims, Slovenes, Macedonians, and Montenegrins)

• Jospi “Marshal” Tito, led Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1980, holding it together until his death

• Serbian leader Milosevic asserts Serbian leadership over Yugoslavia

• 1991 – Slovenia and Croatia declare independence

• 1992 – Bosnia-Herzegovina declared independence

• Bosnian Serbs launched a brutal war in March, using “ethnic cleansing” (genocide) as a means to rid Bosnia of its Muslim population.

• 1995 leaders of the 3 factions in the war sign a U.N.-and U.S.-brokered peace treaty

• 1996 – Bosnians elected a 3-person presidency – one leader from each group

Kosovo

• Rebellion in Kosovo, a province in S. Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians 1998 – Independence movement grows violent – Serb forces enter the area to fight back

• 1999 due to many Serbian atrocities & failure of diplomacy to bring peace – NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia 2 months later, Yugoslav leaders pull back their troops from Kosovo

Eastern Europe Faces Problems

Poland Polish people are unhappy

with Lech Walesa’s strategy of “shock therapy” reforms which led to inflation & unemployment

1995 – they elect a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski who vowed to combine free market policies with greater social benefits

Czechoslovakia Reformers also launched

an economic program based on shock therapy causing unemployment

Slovakia & the Czech Republic drift apart, in spite of President Havel’s pleas for unity

January 1, 1993 – Czechoslovakia split into two countries & Havel was elected president of the Czech Republic

Margaret Thatcher

• 1979-1990 Prime Minister of the UK (only woman to do so)

• 1975 - 1990 Leader of the Conservative Party

• Nicknamed, “The Iron Lady” due to her uncompromising politics & leadership style

• Her policies are known as “Thatcherism” (political platform emphasizing free markets with restrained government spending and tax cuts coupled with British nationalism both at home and abroad)

• 1984 Signs the Sino-British Joint Declaration in Beijing, agreeing to hand over Hong Kong’s sovereignty in 1997

• Died of a stroke in 2013

China Follows Its Own Path Mao’s Unexpected Legacy 1953-1957 First Five-Year Plan Results: Industry grew 15% a year & Agricultural output grew very slowly 1958-1962 Great Leap Forward Results: China suffered economic disaster— industrial declines & food shortages & Mao lost influence 1966-1976 Cultural Revolution Results: Mao regained influence by backing radicals (Red Guards) & Purges & conflicts among leaders created economic, social, & political chaos & Moderates increasingly opposed radicals in Communist Party

China & the West 1971 Zhou Enlai invited the U.S. table tennis team to China = 1st visit by an American group to China since 1949 = “Ping Pong Diplomacy” The U.S. reversed its policy & endorsed UN membership for China 1972 President Nixon made a state visit to China to meet with Mao & Zhou = cultural exchanges & limited trade 1976 – Mao Zedong & Zhao Enlai die 1979 U.S. & China established formal diplomatic relations 1980 Deng Xiaoping is most powerful leader in China & promotes goals known as the Four Modernizations 1st Deng eliminated Mao’s unpopular communes & leased land to individual farmers = food production increase by 50 % from 1978 to 1984 2nd Gov’t permitted small businesses to operate & Deng welcomed foreign technology & investment 3rd As incomes increased people began to buy appliances and TVs, teens listened to western music, etc…China is now exporting abroad & turning toward capitalism

Tiananmen Square • Increased contact with the West led to

Chinese students learning about democracy & questioning China’s lack of political freedom

• 1989 Students spark an uprising with more than 100,000 students occupying Tiananmen Square in Beijing. Their slogans were: “Down with corruption!” “Down with dictatorship!” “Long live democracy!”

• Several thousand students went on a hunger strike & perhaps a million people poured into the square to support them

• They call for Deng Xiaoping to resign

• Deng responds by declaring martial law & ordering 250,000 troops to surround Beijing

• Most students left, but 3,000 remained & they erected a 33-foot statue named the “Goddess of Democracy” modeled off of the Statue of Liberty

• June 4. 1989 Troops storm the square, tanks smash through the barricades crushing the statue, troops spray gunfire into crowds of students. Results: Hundreds killed, thousands wounded, 10,000 arrested

China in the 1990s • By the mid-1990s, China’s booming

economy was producing extraordinary changes including construction & traffic everywhere, indoor malls with new department stores, restaurants packed with China’s new urban middle class, & an emergence of chain smokers.

• 1997 Deng Xiaoping dies & Jiang Zemin assumed the presidency

• 1997 Great Britain handed the thriving business center, Hong Kong over to China, ending 155 years of colonial rule As part of this transfer, China promised to respect Hong Kong’s economic system & political liberties for 50 years

• 2000 U.S. Congress voted to normalize trade with China