what is genetically modified food

8/13/2019 What is Genetically Modified Food

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What is Genetically Modified Food?.

Genetically modified foods(or GM foods) are foods produced fromorganismsthat have had

specific changes introduced into theirDNAusing the methods ofgenetic engineering.Thesetechniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control

over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such asselective

breedingandmutation breeding.[1]

Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, whenCalgenefirst marketed

itsFlavr Savrdelayed ripening tomato.[2]

To date most genetic modification of foods have

primarily focused oncash cropsin high demand by farmers such assoybean,corn,canola,

andcotton seed oil.These have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and

better nutrient profiles. GM livestock have also been experimentally developed, although as ofNovember 2013 none are currently on the market.

[3]

There is broadscientific consensusthat food on the market derived from GM crops poses no

greater risk to human health than conventional food.[4][5][6][7][8][9]

However, opponents have

objected to GM foods on several grounds, including safety issues, environmental concerns,

andeconomicconcerns raised by the fact that GM seeds (and potentially animals) that are food

sources are subject tointellectual propertyrights owned by multinational corporations -

seeGenetically modified food controversies

History[edit]

Food biotechnology is a branch of food science in which modern biotechnological techniques are

applied to improve food production or food itself.[10]

Different biotechnological processes used

to create and improve new food and beverage products includeindustrial fermentation,plant

cultures, andgenetic engineering.[11]

The use of food biotechnology dates back to thousands of years ago to the time of

theSumeriansandBabylonians.These groups of people used yeast to make fermented beveragessuch as beer.

[12]The use of plant enzymes such as malts were also used millennia ago, before

there was even an understanding of enzymes.[13]

Further advancement in food biotechnology

occurred with the invention of the microscope byAnton van Leeuwenhoek,which allowed for

humans to discover microorganisms which would then be used in food production.[13]

Food

biotechnology was advanced in 1871 whenLouis Pasteurdiscovered that heating juices to a
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odified_food#cite_note-history-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-history-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_Leeuwenhoekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-history-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-timeline-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-Insight-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_fermentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-Lee-10http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genetically_modified_food&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_propertyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-decade_of_EU-funded_GMO_research-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-decade_of_EU-funded_GMO_research-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-WHO-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-WHO-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-AAAS-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-AAAS-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_consensushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_seed_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgenic_maizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgenic_soybeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_crophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-James_1996-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavr_Savrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation_breedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism


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certain temperature would kill off bad bacteria which would affect wine and fermentation. This

process was then applied to milk production, heating milk to a certain temperature to improve

food hygiene.[13]

Food science and food biotechnology was then progressed to include the discovery of enzymes

and their role in fermentation and digestion of foods. With this discovery, further technological

development of enzymes emerged. Typical industrial enzymes used plant and animal extracts,

but this was later substituted by microbial enzymes. An example of this would be the use

ofchymosinin the production of cheese; cheese was typically made using the enzyme rennet

which would be extracted from the stomach lining of the cow. Scientists then started using a

recombinantchymosinin order for milk clotting, resulting in cheese curds.[13]

Food enzyme

production using microbial enzymes was the first application ofGenetically modified organisms.

Food Biotechnology has grown to include cloning of plants and animals, as well as more

development in genetically modified foods in more recent years.

Scientists first discovered that DNA can transfer between organisms in 1946.[14]

The first

genetically modified plant was produced in 1983, using an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant. In

1994, the transgenicFlavr Savrtomato was approved by the FDA for marketing in the US - the

modification allowed the tomato to delay ripening after picking.[2]

In the early 1990s,

recombinant chymosin was approved for use in several countries, replacing rennet in cheese-

making.[15]

In the US in 1995, the following transgenic crops received marketing

approval:canolawith modified oil composition (Calgene),Bacillus thuringiensis(Bt)

corn/maize (Ciba-Geigy), cotton resistant to the herbicidebromoxynil(Calgene),Btcotton(Monsanto), Bt potatoes (Monsanto), soybeans resistant to the

herbicideglyphosate(Monsanto), virus-resistant squash (Monsanto-Asgrow), and additional

delayed ripening tomatoes (DNAP, Zeneca/Peto, and Monsanto).[2]

In 2000, with the creation

ofgolden rice,scientists genetically modified food to increase its nutrient value for the first time.

As of 2011, the U.S. leads a list of multiple countries in the production of GM crops, and 25 GM

crops had received regulatory approval to be grown commercially.[16]

As of 2013, roughly 85%

of corn, 91% of soybeans, and 88% of cotton produced in the United States are genetically

modified.[17]

Method of production[edit]

Main articles:Genetic engineeringandGenetically modified organism

Genetically engineered plants are generated in a laboratory by altering their genetic makeup and

are tested in the laboratory for desired qualities. This is usually done by adding one or

moregenesto a plant'sgenomeusinggenetic engineeringtechniques. Most genetically modified
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plants are generated by thebiolistic method(particle gun) or byAgrobacterium

tumefaciensmediated transformation.

Once satisfactory plants are produced, sufficient seeds are gathered, and the companies

producing the seed need to apply forregulatory approval to field-test the seeds.If these field

tests are successful, the company must seek regulatory approval for the crop to be marketed

(seeRegulation of the release of genetic modified organisms). Once that approval is obtained,

the seeds are mass-produced, and sold to farmers. The farmers producegenetically modified

crops,which also contain the inserted gene and its protein product. The farmers then sell their

crops as commodities into the food supply market, in countries where such sales are permitted.

Foods with protein or DNA remaining from GMOs[edit]

As of 2013 there are severalGM cropsthat are food sources and there are no genetically

modified animals used for food production. In some cases, the plant product is directly consumedas food, but In most cases, crops that have been genetically modified are sold as commodities,

which are further processed into food ingredients.

Fruits and vegetables[edit]

3 views of the Sunset papaya cultivar, which was genetically modified to create the SunUp

cultivar, resistant to PRSV.[18]

Papayahas been genetically modified to resist theringspot virus.'SunUp' is a transgenic red-

fleshed Sunset cultivar that is homozygous for the coat protein gene of PRSV; 'Rainbow' is a

yellow-fleshed F1 hybrid developed by crossing 'SunUp' and nontransgenic yellow-fleshed

'Kapoho'.[18]

The New York Times stated that "in the early 1990s, Hawaiis papaya industry was

facing disaster because of the deadly papaya ringspot virus. Its single-handed savior was a breed

engineered to be resistant to the virus. Without it, the states papaya industry would have

collapsed. Today, 80% of Hawaiian papaya is genetically engineered, and there is still no

conventional or organic method to control ringspot virus."[19]
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related product, masa dough, can be made using corn flour and water. Masa flour and masa

dough are used in the production of taco shells, corn chips, and tortillas.[31]

Milled soy products[edit]

About 90% of the planted area of soybeans in the US are genetically modified varieties.

[32][30]

Soybeanseeds contain about 20% oil. To extract soybean oil from the seeds, the soybeans are

cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with

commercialhexane.The remaining soybean meal has a 50%soy proteincontent. The meal is

'toasted' (amisnomerbecause the heat treatment is with moist steam) and ground in ahammer

mill.Ninety-eight percent of the U.S. soybean crop is used for livestock feed. Part of the

remaining 2% of soybean meal is processed further into high protein soy products that are used

in a variety of foods, such assalad dressings,soups,meat analogues,beverage

powders,cheeses,nondairy creamer,frozen desserts,whipped topping,infant

formulas,breads,breakfast cereals,pastas,and pet foods.[33][34]

Processed soy protein appears in

foods mainly in three forms: soy flour, soy protein isolates, and soy protein concentrates.[34][35]

Soy protein isolates[edit]

Food-grade soy protein isolate first became available on October 2, 1959 with the dedication of

Central Soya's edible soy isolate, Promine D, production facility on the Glidden Company

industrial site in Chicago.[36]:22728

Soy protein isolate is a highly refined or purified form of soy

protein with a minimum protein content of 90% on a moisture-free basis. It is made from

soybean meal which has had most of the nonprotein components,fatsand carbohydratesremoved. Soy isolates are mainly used to improve thetextureof processed meat products, but are

also used to increase protein content, to enhance moisture retention, and are used as

anemulsifier.[37][38]

Soy protein concentrates[edit]

Soy protein concentrate is about 70% soy protein and is basically soybean meal without the

water-soluble carbohydrates. Soy protein concentrate retains most of the fiber of the original

soybean. It is widely used as a functional or nutritional ingredient in a wide variety of food

products, mainly in baked foods, breakfast cereals, and in some meat products. Soy proteinconcentrate is used in meat and poultry products to increase water and fat retention and to

improve nutritional values (more protein, less fat).[37][39]

Flours[edit]

Soy flour is made by grinding soybeans into a fine powder. It comes in three forms: natural or

full-fat (contains naturaloils); defatted (oils removed) with 50% protein content and with either
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netically_modified_food#cite_note-Weingartner-37http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genetically_modified_food&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-Weingartner-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-Weingartner-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_(food)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genetically_modified_food&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-Sipos-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-Sipos-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakfast_cerealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_formulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_formulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whipped_toppinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nondairy_creamerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat_analoguehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salad_dressinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammer_millhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammer_millhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misnomerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genetically_modified_food&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-31


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high water solubility or low water solubility; and lecithinated (lecithinadded). As soy flour

isgluten-free,yeast-raisedbreadsmade with soy flour are dense in texture. Soy grits are similar

to soy flour except the soybeans have been toasted and cracked into coarse pieces.Kinakois a

soy flour used inJapanese cuisine.[37][40]

Textured soy protein[edit]

Textured soy protein (TSP) is made by forming a dough from soybean meal with water in a

screw-typeextruder,and heating with or without steam. The dough is extruded through a die into

various possible shapes and dried in an oven. The extrusiontechnologychanges the structure of

the soy protein, resulting in a fibrous, spongy matrix similar in texture to meat. TSP is used as a

low-cost substitute in meat and poultry products.[37][41]

Highly processed derivatives containing little to no DNA or protein[edit]

Lecithin[edit]

An example of a phosphatidylcholine, a type of phospholipid in lecithin. Red - choline and

phosphate group; Black - glycerol; Green - unsaturated fatty acid; Blue - saturated fatty acid

Corn oil and soy oil, already free of protein and DNA, are sources oflecithin,which is widely

used in processed food as anemulsifier.[42][43]

Lecithin is highly processed. Therefore, GM

protein or DNA from the original GM crop from which it is derived is often undetectable with

standard testing practices - in other words, it is not substantially different from lecithin derived

from non-GM crops.[44][45]

Nonetheless, consumer concerns about genetically modified food

have extended to highly purified derivatives from GM food, like lecithin.[46]

This concern led to

policy and regulatory changes in Europe in 2000, when Regulation (EC) 50/2000 was

passed[47]

which required labelling of food containing additives derived from GMOs, including

lecithin. Because it is nearly impossible to detect the origin of derivatives like lecithin with

current testing practices, the European regulations require those who wish to sell lecithin in

Europe to use a meticulous system ofIdentity preservation(IP).[45][48]
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and then dried. This process is calledwet millingand results in pure starch. The products of that

pure starch contain no GM DNA or protein.[44]

Starch can be further modified to createmodified starchfor specific purposes,[57]

including

creation of many of the sugars in processed foods. They include:

Maltodextrin,a lightly hydrolyzed starch product used as a bland-tasting filler and thickener. Variousglucose syrups,also calledcorn syrupsin the US, viscous solutions used as

sweeteners and thickeners in many kinds of processed foods.

Dextrose,commercial glucose, prepared by the complete hydrolysis of starch. High fructose syrup,made by treating dextrose solutions with the enzymeglucose isomerase,

until a substantial fraction of the glucose has been converted to fructose. In the United

States,high fructose corn syrupis the principal sweetener used in sweetened beverages

because fructose has better handling characteristics, such as microbiological stability, andmore consistent sweetness/flavor. One kind of high fructose corn syrup, HFCS-55, is

typically sweeter than regularsucrosebecause it is made with more fructose, while the

sweetness of HFCS-42 is on par with sucrose.[58][59]

Sugar alcohols,such asmaltitol,erythritol,sorbitol,mannitolandhydrogenated starchhydrolysate,are sweeteners made by reducing sugars.

Sugar[edit]

Structure of sucrose

The United States imports 10% of its sugar from other countries, while the remaining 90% is

extracted from domestically grownsugar beetand sugarcane. Of the domestically grown sugar

crops, half of the extracted sugar is derived from sugar beet, and the other half is from sugarcane.

After deregulation in 2005, glyphosate-resistant sugar beet was extensively adopted in the United

States. 95% of sugar beet acres in the US were planted with glyphosate-resistant seed in

2011.[16]

Sugar beets that are herbicide-tolerant have been approved in Australia, Canada,

Colombia, EU, Japan, Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Russian Federation, Singapore,

and USA.[60]
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the total maize harvest was used for livestock feed (including the percentage of waste

fromdistillers grains).[73]

"Despite methods that are becoming more and more sensitive, tests

have not yet been able to establish a difference in the meat, milk, or eggs of animals depending

on the type of feed they are fed. It is impossible to tell if an animal was fed GM soy just by

looking at the resulting meat, dairy, or egg products. The only way to verify the presence of

GMOs in animal feed is to analyze the origin of the feed itself."[74]

In some countries, recombinantbovine somatotropin(also called rBST, or bovine growth

hormone or BGH) is approved for administration to dairy cows in order to increase milk

production. rBST may be present in milk from rBST treated cows, but it is destroyed in the

digestive system and even if directly injected, has no direct effect on humans.[75][76]

TheFood

and Drug Administration,World Health Organization,American Medical Association,American

Dietetic Association,and theNational Institute of Healthhave independently stated that dairy

products and meat from BST treated cows are safe for human consumption.[77]

However, on 30September 2010, the United States Court of Appeals, Sixth Circuit, analyzing evidence

submitted in briefs, found that there is a "compositional difference" between milk from rBGH-

treated cows and milk from untreated cows.[78][79]

The court stated that milk from rBGH-treated

cows has: increased levels of the hormoneInsulin-like growth factor 1(IGF-1); higher fat content

and lower protein content when produced at certain points in the cow's lactation cycle; and more

somatic cell counts, which may "make the milk turn sour more quickly."[79]

Update with new

research showing rGBH is not safe for humans or livestock[80]

Foods made from GM animals[edit]

As of November 2013 there were no genetically modified animals approved for use as food, but

aGM salmonwas awaiting regulatory approval at that time.[81][82][83]

Animals (e.g. goat,) usually used for food production (e.g. milk,) have already been genetically

modified and approved by the FDA and EMA to produce non-food products (for example,

recombinantantithrombin,ananticoagulantprotein drug.)[84][85]

One of the biggest obstacles for GM animals to enter the food market is the social acceptance ofit. There is currently in huge debate as the first GM animal, salmon is approaching commercial

market. The possibility of modifying other animals as food has also been discussed but not yet

under way. Research and experiments have gone into adding promoter genes into animals to

increase growth speed, and increasing resistance of disease. (e.g. injection of a-lactalbumin gene

into pigs to increase the size)
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ified_food#cite_note-Brennand-77http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Nutrition_and_Dieteticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Nutrition_and_Dieteticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Medical_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovine_somatotropinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#cite_note-NCGA-73http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillers_grains


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Controversies[edit]

Main article:Genetically modified food controversies

The genetically modified foods controversy is a dispute over the use of food and other goods

derived fromgenetically modified cropsinstead of fromconventional crops,and other uses

ofgenetic engineeringin food production. The dispute involves consumers, biotechnology

companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists. The key

areas of controversy related to GMO food are whether GM food should be labeled, the role of

government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of GM

crops on health and the environment, the effect on pesticide resistance, the impact of GM crops

for farmers, and the role of GM crops in feeding the world population.

There is broadscientific consensusthat food on the market derived from GM crops poses no

greater risk than conventional food.[4][86][87]

No reports of ill effects have been documented in thehuman population from GM food.

[5][7][88]The starting point for assessing the safety of all GM

food is to evaluate itssubstantial equivalenceto the non-modified version. Further testing is then

done on a case-by-case basis to ensure that concerns over potential toxicity and allergenicity are

addressed prior to a GM food being marketed. Although labeling ofgenetically modified

organism(GMO) products in the marketplace is required in 64 countries,[89]

it is not required in

the United States and no distinction between marketed GMO and non-GMO foods is recognized

by the US FDA.

Advocacy groups such as Greenpeace, The Non-GMO Project and Organic ConsumersAssociation say that risks of GM food have not been adequately identified and managed, and

have questioned the objectivity of regulatory authorities. Opponents say that food derived from

GMOs may be unsafe and propose it be banned, or at least labeled. They have expressed

concerns about the objectivity of regulators and rigor of the regulatory process, about

contamination of the non-GM food supply, about effects of GMOs on the environment and

nature, and about the consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell

GMOs.

Regulation[edit]

See also:Regulation of the release of genetic modified organismsandRegulation of genetic

engineering

Governments have taken different approaches to assess and manage the risks associated with the

use ofgenetic engineeringtechnology and the development and release ofgenetically modified

organisms(GMO), includinggenetically modified cropsandgenetically modified fish.There are
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iki/Genetic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_cropshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genetically_modified_food&action=edit&section=20


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differences in the regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked

differences occurring between the USA and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country

depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering. For example, a crop

not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.[20]

One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled. Labeling

can be mandatory up to a threshold GM content level (which varies between countries) or

voluntary. A study investigating voluntary labeling in South Africa found that 31% of products

labeled as GMO-free had a GM content above 1.0%.[90]

In Canada and the USA labeling of GM

food is voluntary,[91]

while in Europe all food (includingprocessed food)orfeedwhich contains

greater than 0.9% of approved GMOs must be labelled.[92]

As of 2013, 64 countries require GMO labeling.[93]

Detection[edit]

Main article:Detection of genetically modified organisms

Testing on GMOs in food and feed is routinely done using molecular techniques likeDNA

microarraysorquantitative PCR.These tests can be based on screening genetic elements (like

p35S, tNos, pat, or bar) or event-specific markers for the official GMOs (like Mon810, Bt11, or

GT73). The array-based method combinesmultiplexPCR and array technology to screen

samples for different potential GMOs,[94]

combining different approaches (screening elements,

plant-specific markers, and event-specific markers).

The qPCR is used to detect specific GMO events by usage of specificprimersfor screening

elements or event-specific markers. Controls are necessary to avoid false positive or false

negative results. For example, a test forCaMVis used to avoid a false positive in the event of a

virus contaminated sample.

In a January 2010 paper,[95]

the extraction and detection of DNA along a complete industrial

soybean oil processing chain was described to monitor the presence of Roundup Ready (RR)

soybean: "The amplification of soybean lectin gene by end-point polymerase chain reaction

(PCR) was successfully achieved in all the steps of extraction and refining processes, until the

fully refined soybean oil. The amplification of RR soybean by PCR assays using event-specific

primers was also achieved for all the extraction and refining steps, except for the intermediate

steps of refining (neutralisation, washing and bleaching) possibly due to sample instability. The

real-time PCR assays using specific probes confirmed all the results and proved that it is possible

to detect and quantify genetically modified organisms in the fully refined soybean oil. To our
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what is genetically modified food

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