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Foundation for Leadership

Leadership Behaviors and Styles

Participative Leadership

Authoritarian Leadership

Paternalistic Leadership

The use of work-centered behavior designed to ensure task accomplishment.The use of work-centered behavior coupled with a protective employee centered concern.The use of both work- or task-

centered and people centered approaches to leading subordinates.

Leader–Subordinate InteractionsLeader–Subordinate Interactions

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Adapted from Figure 13–1: Leader–Subordinate Interactions

Authoritarian Leader

Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate

One-way downward flow of information and influence from authoritarian leader to subordinates.

Leader–Subordinate InteractionsLeader–Subordinate Interactions

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Adapted from Figure 13–1: Leader–Subordinate Interactions

Paternalistic Leader

Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate

Continual interaction and exchange of information and influence between leader and subordinates.

Leader–Subordinate InteractionsLeader–Subordinate Interactions

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Adapted from Figure 13–1: Leader–Subordinate Interactions

Participative Leader

Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate

Continual interaction and exchange of information and influence between leader and subordinates.

12

34

56

78

9

Con

cern

for P

eopl

e/R

elat

ions

hips

High

Low

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Concern for Production/Task HighLow

The Managerial GridThe Managerial Grid

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Adapted from Figure 13–2: The Managerial Grid

1,1 Management StyleExertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership

9,1 Management StyleEfficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interface to a minimum degree

5,5 Management StyleAdequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level

9,9 Management StyleWork accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through a “common stake” in organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect

1,9 Management StyleThoughtful attention to needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo

Leadership in the International Context

How do leaders in other countries attempt to direct or influence their subordinates?

Are their approaches similar to those used in the United States?

Research shows that there are both similarities and differences – most international research on leadership has focused on Europe, East Asia, the Middle East, and developing countries such as India, Peru, Chile, and Argentina.

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Leadership in the International Context

Attitudes of European Managers Toward Leadership Practices

Capacity for Leadership and Initiative

European managers tend to use a participative approach. Researchers investigated four areas relevant to leadership.

Does the leader believe that employees prefer to be directed and have little ambition? (Theory X)

OR

Does the leader believe that characteristics such as initiative can be acquired by most people regardless of their inborn traits and abilities? (Theory Y)

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Leadership in the International Context

Attitudes of European Managers Toward Leadership Practices

Capacity for Leadership and Initiative

Sharing Informationand Objectives

Does the leader believe that detailed, complete instructions should be given to subordinates and that subordinates need only this information to do their jobs?

OR

Does the leader believe that general directions are sufficient and that subordinates can use their initiative in working out the details?

Most evidence indicates European managers tend to use a participative approach. Researchers investigated four areas relevant to leadership.

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Leadership in the International Context

Attitudes of European Managers Toward Leadership Practices

Capacity for Leadership and Initiative

Sharing Informationand Objectives

Participation

Does the leader support participative leadership practices?

Most evidence indicates European managers tend to use a participative approach. Researchers investigated four areas relevant to leadership.

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Leadership in the International Context

Attitudes of European Managers Toward Leadership Practices

Capacity for Leadership and Initiative

Sharing Informationand Objectives

Participation

Internal Control

Does the leader believe that the most effective way to control employees is through rewards and punishment?

OR

Does the leader believe that employees respond best to internally generated control?

Most evidence indicates European managers tend to use a participative approach. Researchers investigated four areas relevant to leadership.

Leadership in the International Context

• Higher-level managers tend to express more democratic values than lower-level managers in some countries – in other countries, the opposite was true

• Company size tends to influence the degree of participative-autocratic attitudes

• Younger managers were more likely to have democratic values when it came to capacity for leadership and initiative and to sharing information and objectives

Attitudes of European Managers Toward Leadership Practices

The Role of Level, Size, and Age on European Managers’ Attitudes Toward Leadership

Leadership in the International Context

• Most European managers tend to reflect more participative and democratic attitudes – but not in every country

• Organizational level, company size, and age seem to greatly influence attitudes toward leadership

• Many of the young people in this study now are middle-aged – European managers in general are highly likely to be more participative than their older counterparts of the 1960s and 1970s

Attitudes of European Managers Toward Leadership Practices

Conclusion About European Leadership Practices

Differences in Middle Eastern and Differences in Middle Eastern and Western ManagementWestern Management

Adapted from Table 13–5: Differences in Middle Eastern and Western Management

Differences in Middle Eastern and Differences in Middle Eastern and Western ManagementWestern Management

Adapted from Table 13–5: Differences in Middle Eastern and Western Management

Summary

Management and working styles 1

JAPAN WESTgeneralists specialists

promotion by seniority promotion by performance

conflict is solved privately conflict is solved in public

people-oriented task-oriented

long-term planning short-term planning

informal communication formal communication

decision by consensus decision by majority

interdependency interdependency is viewed sceptically

Summary

Management and working styles 2

 

JAPAN WESTreciprocal commitment between managers and workers

less bonds

open-plan offices working space is structured according to individual needs

formalized and ritualized interactions informal interactions more common

intuitive, nonverbal communication is important

analytical, logical argumentation style

face-to-face communication more important

written communication more important

• Advantages and Disadvantages of the Leadership Styles Each of the leadership styles has advantages and  disadvantages.  Usually  a  good  leader  is  a combination of several of these styles. You must tailor  your  personal  leadership  style  to  fit  each situation. The  coercer  style  is  especially  effective  during a  wartime  situation  when  the  command  is  in combat   or   under   fire.   However,   this   style   of leadership can have some negative effects if the command, work center, or individual is performing at a high rate of efficiency. Subordinates will not respond  well  to  the  repeated  use  of  threats  during normal  situations. You might find the authoritarian leadership style useful when seeking information on a particular situation  or  before  inspections.  However,  it  is normally  not  a  good  style  to  use  in  personal counseling sessions. This leadership style doesn’t allow  enough  flexibility  to  provide  alternative solutions   to   subordinates’   personal   problems. Using this style by jumping in and taking over in situations when you have technically competent workers  is  counterproductive. 3-16

DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

Russia -authority is clearly centred at the top and strikes are illegal

Trade Unions in Russia appear to serve the employer (state) rather than the workforce and the attempt to set up a free (unofficial) trade union for representation of the actual workforce has been countered by repression.

Spain• Not so long ago the authority in Spain was

clearly centred at the top and strikes were illegal but the workers did strike and bitter confrontations and struggle developed between workers and employers. This placed Spain pretty close to the completely authoritarian end of the scale where authority is centred at the top and strikes are illegal.

USA• The United States is a democratic country and it is more difficult to

determine to what extent authority is centred at the top and to what extent it is balanced by the authority of the working population exercising their power through the withdrawal of their labour. The Taft-Hartly Act limits the right to strike, seemingly shifting responsibility for declaring a strike from the factory floor to the union head office. A cooling-off period may be ordered which delays the beginning of a strike by some months, in this way giving management and workers another chance to negotiate an agreement before engaging in open confrontation, giving both sides another chance to avoid large scale national economic damage which could otherwise arise.

• The relative position of one country with respect to another on the scale seems fairly clear. The right to strike exists and is openly used but the right to strike is limited. Ownership is in private hands rather than in the hands of the state as in Russia and so we place the USA a good bit further towards the participative style of management, roughly just over half of the way along the scale towards participative management

• United Kingdom-Hence it would seem in this case that movement along the scale, towards greater freedom to withdraw one's labour, was countered by giving greater power to the union's establishment. One is left with the impression that the style of management moved further towards a more authoritarian style of management, under a supposedly pro-Labour government