WESTERN CIVILIZATION II

The Age of Nation-States

The Crimean WarOriginally between Russia & Ottomans

Ottomans give Catholic France control of the Holy Lands instead of Orthodox Russia

Russia vows to protect Christians in the Holy Lands - move to invade - Ottomans declare war

Russia invades Moldavia and Walachia (Rumania) - Austria forces out

The Crimean War

Britain & France fear Russian aggression - declare war

Both sides have naval interests in the Black Sea

Both sides blunder - large casualties

The Crimean War

First photographed war

Prussia neutral - but gains from Austrian/Russian conflict

Russia looses control of Black Sea in defeat

Concert of Europe unable to keep the peace - next generation not committed to power balance - each nation seeks own goals

Italian Unification

Sought unification since Congress of Vienna

Romantic Republicans lead insurrections -

Giuseppe Mazzini

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Wanted path of self-determination away from Austria

Plans for Italian Unification

Plan 1 - unite behind Pope (1848/9) - Austria and France defeat the Roman Republic

Plan 2 - unite behind only independent state, Piedmont (Sardinia) - made independent by Congress of Europe as a buffer between France and Austria

Piedmont Prime Minister aids France in Crimean War with 10,000 troops - thrusts Piedmont onto world stage

Camillo Cavour

Cavour & Napoleon III scheme to provoke war to drive Austria out of Italy

France gets provinces of Nice & Savoy for help

Piedmont/France drives Austria - Napoleon III fears Piedmont - signs own treaty with Austria

The New Italian State

Garibaldi unites southern Italy - Sicily and Naples

Northern Italy united with Piedmont

Garibaldi accepts total unification

Venetia and Rome added by 1870

Italy

Gain Venetia in deal with Prussians in war with Austria

Gain area around Rome after French lose Franco-Prussian War - city of Rome remains hostile

Form of government: monarchy - Victor Emmanuel from Piedmont

Franchise limited - corruption abounds

German Unification

Unification attempted by liberals since 1815

Prussia becomes dominant in German affairs

Prussian King Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck embrace “Small German” policy

Otto von Bismarck

Prussian nobleman

Liberal turned conservative

Pro-industrial

Pro-military

Anti-Parliament - seeks to unite Germans without legislature

Bringing Germany Together

Beats Danes who try to take Holstein and Schleswig out of German Confederation

Beats Austrians in 7 weeks to gain dominance over German speaking people

The North German Confederation

Bismarck annexes Hesse, Nassau, & Hanover (formerly supported Austria) in new group

King of Prussia as leader

Bicameral legislature with no real power

Bismarck steals thunder of some liberals who wanted unification

Bismarck seeks a war to bring southern German states into the Confederation

The Franco-Prussian War

Queen Isabella of Spain deposed

Spanish pick a Hohenzollern, Leopold (cousin to Wilhelm)

France objects, asks Wilhelm for support

Bismarck revises The Ems Telegram to look like Wilhelm insulted France

France declares war on the Northern Confederation

The Franco-Prussian War

Southern German states side with Bismarck

Germans capture Napoleon III

Defeat French in 9 months - forced to give up provinces of Alsace and Lorraine

German Empire proclaimed - most important event in Europe in the 19th century

Italy and Germany become new rivals to France and Austria

France: Liberal Empire

The Third Republic proclaimed after Napoleon III’s capture - France sues for peace

Paris Commune attempts to rule Paris independently of France

National Assembly kills over 20,000 to restore order

Government looks for a king to rule - Chambord refuses because of use of revolutionary flag

France: The Third Republic

Chamber of Deputies elected by universal male suffrage

Senate chosen indirectly - president selected from group

Government proves to be surprisingly efficient against corruption and ineptitude

Lasts until Germans march into Paris again in World War II

The Dreyfus Affair

Divided French society on the fairness of government

Captain Alfred Dreyfus convicted of espionage to Germany during Franco-Prussian War, convicted

The Dreyfus Affair

Accusations against the government

Corruption - cover-up for mistakes - Anti-Semitism

Government refuses new trial even with evidence of forgery

Writer Emil Zola reports on case - stirs public

New trial again convicts - President pardons

France remains politically divided

The Habsburg Empire

Excepting Russia, the least liberal of European governments

Franz Joseph comes to power in 1848 - rules in absolutist style

Problem of holding ethnically diverse population together - Magyars, Slavs, Italians

Loss of Italy suggested inefficient chain of command - Franz Joseph reorganizes twice - both rejected by Magyars

The Compromise of 1867

Franz Joseph creates two nations ruled by him - The Dual Monarchy - Austria & Hungary (Magyar)

Separate Parliaments created

Czechs want same deal - trialism - Franz Joseph agrees but Magyars oppose - did not want to give autonomy to its subject groups of Romanians and Croatians - continued unrest

The Dual Monarchy

Czech leaders appeased with jobs

Demonstrations in Reichsrat for Czech nationalism until WWI

Franz Joseph gives right of language in ethnic areas, introduces universal male suffrage in Austria

Russian Reform

Nicolas I dies during Crimean War - Alexander II institutes reforms including abolition of serfdom (U.S. and Brazil remain)

Former serfs given rights but no land - forced to buy from landowners over 49 year period - interest paid to the government

Russian Reform

Many fail to pay - debt not forgiven until 1906

Without landlords to control serf, new system of government needed - Village communes “Zemstovs” organized to adjudicate local matters

Military reformed to fill ranks after abolition of serfdom - terms of service shortened - rules relaxed

Russian Repression

Alexander II squelches revolt by the Polish nobility, emancipates their serfs, forces Russian language on Poles

Alexander becomes more repressive after assassination attempt in 1866 - creates police state

Radical opposition begins to mount - exiled Alexander Herzen leads effort

Revolutionaries in Russia

Social revolution preached in radical societies like “Land and Freedom”

Young revolutionaries go to peasants to educate them - peasants turn revolutionaries over to the police

Courts give light sentences in hope of support

Assassination of Alexander II

Attacks against government continue until Alexander II is killed

Son Alexander III rules with an iron fist

Britain: Toward Democracy

Continues to refine liberal form of government - symbol of the confident liberal state

Address issues of expanding suffrage, secret ballot, education, care for the poor

Parliament passes the Second Reform Act of 1867 - increases electorate by 1,000,000

British Prime Ministers

Benjamin Disraeli - conservative - hoped expanded middle class would favor conservatism

William Gladstone - liberal - backs government’s assumption of responsibility for education

Disraeli and Gladstone

Both seek reform

Take turns as Prime Minister

Gladstone gives support to Irish home rule, splitting Liberal Party

Irish hold balance of power in Parliament - Home rule passes on the third attempt

WESTERN CIVILIZATION II

The Age of Nation-States