West Virginia

SongbirdForest Management

Guidelines

Scarlet Tanager

T  his publication had its genesis with the West Virginia Partners in Flight (WV PIF) Working Group. This organization, part of an international conservation effort, works to identify songbirds and habitats of con-servation concern, facilitate collection of basic life history information of little known species, and promote

dissemination of educational and informational material to help the public better understand conservation issues. We would like to thank the contributors listed below as well as the scores of researchers, naturalists and citizen scientists who, through long hours in the field, have provided us with the information to produce this document.

Susan Olcott - West Virginia Division of Natural Resources, EditorNanci Bross-Fregonara - West Virginia Division of Natural Resources, Publication Design

Contributors:Jane Bard – USDA Forest Service

Barbara Breshock - West Virginia Division of ForestryMark Ford - USDA Forest Service

Jim Fregonara - West Virginia Division of Natural ResourcesBill Grafton - WVU Cooperative Extension Service

Drew Jones - Williams College, MAKathy Leo - West Virginia Division of Natural ResourcesPatty Morrison - USDI U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Kieran O’Malley - West Virginia Division of Natural ResourcesLynette Otto - USDA Forest Service

Allen Waldron - West Virginia Division of ForestryJo Wargo - USDA Forest Service

Petra Wood - WVU Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit

Cover forest images are by Elizabeth Byers, WVDNR; Cover inset photo of a scarlet tanager is a WVDNR archives image.

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West Virginia Songbird

Forest Management Guidelines

Table of ContentsPreface andIntroduction.............................................................................................................................2

A Primer on Habitat Alteration in West Virginia

BasicBirdEcology.........................................................................................................................6

ShortTermEffectsofaTimberHarvest............................................................................................8

Management Plans and Contracts

ProtectingandEnhancingYourWoodlot.....................................................................................11

Forest and Timber Harvesting Practices

Even-ageManagement...............................................................................................................13

Uneven-agedManagement.........................................................................................................14

IntermediateManagement.........................................................................................................14

Bird-friendlyTimber Harvesting Practices..........................................................................18

Management Guidelines For West Virginia Habitat Groupings............................................20

Appendices

I.WestVirginiaLoggingSedimentAct...................................................................................24

II.RoadsandReclamation...........................................................................................................25

III.TechnicalAssistance..............................................................................................................28

IV.WVPIFPrioritySpecies..........................................................................................................30

V.ExpectedResultsofForestManagementPractices.......................................................................32

VI.Glossary...............................................................................................................................33

VII.ChecklistofWestVirginia’sBreedingBirdSpecies..........................................................36

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WestVirginia,with78percentofitslandareacovered

byforests,isthethirdmostdenselywoodedstateinthenationbehindMaineandNewHampshire.Itstimber

resourcesarelargerinsizethantheyhavebeenforthepast100years.AlthoughWestVirginia’sforestsandforestproductshavegreateconomicimportance,theyalsoproviderecreationalop-portunities,scenicviews,freshairandcleanwater.Mostimportantly,theseforestsprovideinvaluablehabitat(for unfamiliar terms see Glossary starting on page 33) forthousandsofplantsandanimals.Seeingandconservingwildlifeareamongthemostcitedreasonslandownersgiveforowning,main-tainingandmanagingtheirland.

Realizingthattheirwoodlotsarematureandhavesubstantialvalue,manylandownersareconsid-eringaharvestbutareconcernedabouthowthehar-vestwillaffectwildlife.Thispublicationexaminestherelationshipbetweenharvestingintensityanditseffectprimarilyonsongbirds,althoughtheimpactsonotherwildlifeismentionedaswell.Wehopethatthisdocumentwillgivelandownersandlandmanag-erstheadditionalinformationtheyneedtodevelopcomprehensivelandmanagementplansthatmeetnotonlysilviculturalandaestheticexpectations,butalsoprovidehealthyanddiverseforeststobepassedontosucceedinggenerations.

Introduction: Songbirds and Population Declines

MostpeopledonotrealizethatthemajorityofbirdsinWestVirginiaaremigratory,spendingthewinterinthesouthernUnitedStates,theCarib-bean,CentralandSouthAmericaandraisingtheiryounghereduringthesummer.WestVirginiaisimportantintheconservationofmanyspeciesofsongbirdsthataredecliningelsewhere.Becauseofourextensiveforestlands,thosespeciesthatrequirelargetractsofforestsforbreedingfindhabitathere.WestVirginiahostssignificantbreedingpopulationsoftheceruleanwarbler(27percentoftheworld’sbreedingpopulation),worm-eatingwarbler(20percent)andLouisianawaterthrush(19percent).

WestVirginiaalsoservesasasourceofthesespeciesandothersthat,duetohabitatloss,havedecliningpopulations.Theseotherareasaretermedsinks;breedingpopulationsmayexistthere,buttheproductionofyoungissolowthatthepopulationsareunabletosustainthemselveswithouttheaddi-tionofindividualsfromtheoutside,suchasfromWestVirginia.

Populationdeclineshavebeennotedinmanyspeciesofbirdssincethe1960s.Althoughthereasonsbehindthedeclinesarenumerous,severalmajoronesstandout:

West Virginia is host to approximately 20 percent of the world’s breeding population of worm-eating warblers.

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Early days of logging in the Monongahela National Forest.

Preface and Introduction

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•Permanent or longterm destruction and degradation of habitat onbreeding,stopoverandwinteringareashascreatedthemostpressureonmigratorybirds.Onbreedinggrounds,roadconstructionandsurfaceminingcombinedwithcommercialandresidentialdevelopmenthasresultedinfewerplacesformanyspeciestoraisetheiryoung.Slashandburnagricultureandclearingforpas-turesandcom-mercialdevelop-mentintropicalwinteringareas,especiallyCen-tralAmerica,hasdiminishedtropicalrainforeststoafractionoftheirformerarea,relegatingmanyspeciesofreturningmigrantstomarginalhabitatandincreasedcompetitionwithresidenttropicalspecies.Coastaldevelopmentforresorts,secondhomesandindustryendangersmigratingbirdsbydecreasingrequiredstopoverareasforrestingandfeedingduringmigration.

•Fragmentation,thebreakingupoflargeblocksofcontinuoushabitatintosmallerones,hasmademanyareasunsuitableormarginalforspe-ciesthatrequirelargeexpansesofsimilarhabitat(area-sensitivespecies).Fragmentationcreatesedge,thetransitionzonebetweenonehabitattypeandanother.InWestVirginiathisedgeistypi-callybetweenaforestandafield.Thistransitionzonemaybesoftandconsistofwildflowers,shrubsandsmalltrees,oritmaybehardwithanabrupttransi-tionbetweengrasslandsnexttolargetrees.Softedgehabitatisvaluableformanyspeciesofbirdssuchassongsparrows,common

yellowthroatsandindigobuntings.Butbothsoftandhardedgesproviderichhuntinggroundsforavarietyofpredators,suchasraccoonsandcrows,becauseofthecloseproximityofthetwohabitattypes.Ifalandscapeishighlyfragmented(see photo below), forestpatchsizeissmall.Thesmallerthepatch,themoreitisinfluencedbyedgeef-fects.Manyinteriorforestspeciesarenotadaptedtopredatorsattheedgeandtheirnestsareeasilyfoundbypredators,resultinginverylowrepro-ductionandeventualpopulationdecline.Thisincreasedpredationisduetotheedge effect.Spe-cies,suchasthesongsparrow,thatareadaptedtotheedgehavenestingstrategiesthathindertheedgepredatorsenoughtobeinbalancewiththem.

Increasedpredationisn’ttheonlyresultofafragmentedlandscape.Warmeranddriercon-ditionsattheedgesupportstheformationofadifferentinsectcommunity,affectingthetypeoramountoffoodavailabletoaforestinteriorspe-cies.Inaddition,brown-headedcowbirds,whicharecommoninagriculturalareas,laytheireggsinotherbirds’neststohatchandberaisedbythehostbird,usuallyatthehostbrood’sexpense.Mostopenlandandedgespecieshavesomestrategiestocountercowbirds,butinteriorforestbirdsdonot.

•Vegetative successionisthenaturalgrowthofafieldintoaforest;fromgrassestoshrubstosaplingstomaturetrees.Abandonedfarmland

thatisnotmaintainedgoesthroughthisprocess,resultinginthelossofearlysuccessionalhabitatssuchasfields,oldfieldsandscrublands.Theseimpor-tanthabitatsareshort-lived,andthebirdspeciesthatneedthemforbreedingmustfindsuitable,andsometimesveryspecific,habitatatotherloca-tions.Althoughedgehabitatiscommon,itdoesn’toccurinlargetracts,buttypicallyinnar-rowbands.Withoutmanage-ment,earlysuccessionalhabitatgrowsintoforest-aboonforforestbreedingspecies,butalosstothosespeciesrequiringrelative

largeexpansesofopenland,suchasthegolden-wingedwarblerorprairiewarbler.

Aerial view of forest fragmentation.

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Coastal development impacts stop-over areas.

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•Theneedforfarmstomaximizeprofits,oftentostayinbusiness,hasaltered farming practices,resultinginmoreintensivemanagementoftheland.Thelossofhedgerowsandfallowfields,earlierhaying,increasedpesticideuse,theswitchtorowcropsandintensivegrazinghaveallseverelyaffectedthebreedingandsurvivalofbirdsthatnestinopenareas,suchasmeadowlarks,bobolinksandgrasshop-persparrows.

Humaninducedprocesses(habitatloss,fragmentationandalteredfarmingpractices)coupledwithsuccessionandothernaturalpres-suresonmigratorybirdssuchaspredation,highdeerpopulations,invasivespeciesanddisease,haveallcontributedtothedeclineofseveralspecies.Notallspeciesaredeclining,andthosethataredeclininglocallymaynotbedecliningthroughouttheirrange.Some,suchasrobinsandhousewrens,areincreasingtheirpopula-tionsand/orexpandingtheirrange.Butappro-priatemanagementchoicesneedtobemadetosloworhaltthedeclineofmanyspeciesinWestVirginia.

ThosespeciesofconservationconcerninWestVirginiahavebeenidentifiedbyWVPartnersinFlight(WVPIF),astatebirdconser-vationorganization,basedonacombinationoffactorsincludingpopulationsize,distribution,threatsandpopulationtrends.ThesespecieshavebeenidentifiedasofconcerninWestVir-ginia,inpart,becauseofsignificantlydecliningpopulationsandbecauseasignificantpercentageofthetotalglobalpopulationbreedsinthestate.

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As a field matures to a forest, or goes through vegetative succession, both plants and bird species change throughout the process.

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West Virginia Bird Species of Conservation Concern*Forest Species Early Successional SpeciesWhip-poor-will Blue-wingedwarblerEasternwood-pewee Golden-wingedwarblerAcadianflycatcher PrairiewarblerWoodthrush FieldsparrowCeruleanwarbler Worm-eatingwarbler LouisianawaterthrushKentuckywarbler

Otherspecieswithsignificantlydecliningpopulationsand/orotherconservationconcernsalsobreedinWestVirginia.Thefollowingspecies,however,haveamuchlowerpercentageoftheirpopula-tioninthestate.

Additional North American Species of Conservation ConcernForest Species Early Successional SpeciesBlack-throatedbluewarbler Red-headedwoodpeckerProthonotarywarbler LoggerheadshrikeSwainson’swarbler OrchardorioleCanadawarbler Olive-sidedflycatcherScarlettanager WillowflycatcherRose-breastedgrosbeak Chestnut-sidedwarbler Hoodedwarbler Grasshoppersparrow Henslow’ssparrow

Interestedlandownersmaywanttoenhancehabitatforthesevulnerablesongbirdsbyestablishinggoalsfortheirforestlandsandimplementingtheappropriateforestmanagementpractices.Notallprac-tices,ofcourse,willaffectall27speciesandsomecanhaveeitherpositiveornegativeimpactsonspecieshabitat.

Thefollowingmanagementguidelinesandtimberharvestinginformationaretoolsforinterestedlandownersandresourcemanagerstoaidtheminmakinginformeddecisionsabouthowtheirmanage-mentpracticesmayimpactsongbirduseofforestlandinWestVirginia.

Loggerhead shrike Louisiana waterthrush feeding young

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*The WVDNR’s strategic planning document, the West Virginia Wildlife Conservation Action Plan, has identified 74 bird species of conservation concern. The lists presented here represent those species most responsive to management actions described in this publication.

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Seventy-eightpercentofWestVirginia’slandareaiscoveredbytrees,animmenseandeconomicallyvaluableresource.Products

producedfromWestVirginiaforestsincludeeverythingfrompapertofinefurniture.Itisaresourcethatmustbemanagedwisely,frombothaconservationandeconomicviewpoint.Mostoftheforests(83percent)areownedbyprivateindividuals,notgovernmentalagenciesorcommercialtimbercompanies.ThemajorityofWestVirginia’sforestsarematureornearingmaturityand,asacommodity,havethepotentialtoimproveanindividual’sorfamily’seconomicresources.Butwhenshouldaforestbeharvested?Whyorwhenshoulditnotbeharvested?Howdoesharvestingfitinwithforestmanagement?Howcanlandownersmanagetheirpropertyforbotheconomicandconservationgoals?

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Mature West Virginia hardwood forest with complex vegetative structure

Basic Bird EcologyBirds,likeallwildlife,needfourbasicele-

mentstosurvive:food,water,shelterandspace.Thesearethefourcomponentsofhabitat.Innature,birdssatisfytheseneedsindiverseways.Somespeciesarespecialiststhatrequirespecifichabitatsforsurvival,likethebeltedkingfisherwhichneedsclean,shallowstreamrifflesforfeed-ingandverticalbaresoilbanksfornesting.Oth-ersaregeneralists,liketheAmericanrobin,thatadaptreadilytochangesintheenvironmentandusehabitatsfromremoteforeststosuburbanbackyards.Somebirdscanspendtheirentirelifetimeinasmallareafindingeverythingtheyneedandadaptingtoseasonalchanges,whileotherstravelthousandsofmilestoescapesevereweatheranditshardships.SomebirdsinWestVirginiaareadaptedtolifeinmoreopenareassuchaspasturesandoldfields.Mostbirdsthatliveinthestate,however,areforestbirdswitheachspeciesrequir-ingsomewhatdifferenttypesofforesthabitattosurvive.Survivalheremeansnotonlythecontin-uedlifeofanindividualbird,butalsotherepro-ductivesuccessofthatbird—raisingyoungtoindependence.

Birdsselecttheirhabitat,whetherforbreed-ing,winteringorduringmigrationstopovers,basedprimarilyontwocharacteristics:vegetativestructure(shelter)andfood.Vegetativestructurereferstothenumberofhorizontallayerspresent:aforesthasmorevegetativestructurethanagrass-land.Someforests,orpartsofforests,havemorestructurethanothers;fromdensestandsoftrees,shrubsandgroundcovers(see photo at left) topark-likestandsoftreeswithlittleundergrowth.Differ-entbirdspeciesareadaptedtodifferentamountsofstructureforcover,nestingandforaging.

Birdsalsoselecthabitatbasedontheabun-danceandonthevarietyortypeoffoodresourcespresentinanarea.Forexample,grasslandareaswillhavedifferenttypesandnumbersofinsectsthanaforestedarea.Birdspreferareaswheretheycanfindfamiliartypesoffoodstheyknowhowtoforageforandinsufficientabundancetofeedthemselvesand(ifduringbreedingseason)their

A Primer on Habitat Alteration in West Virginia

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young.VirtuallyallsongbirdsinWestVirginiaprimarilyeatinsectsandotherinvertebratesdur-ingthesummer.Somespeciesspecializeincertainspeciesorgroupsofinsects.Cuckoosspecializeinhairycaterpillars,whicharerarelyeatenbyotherbirds.Theirnumbersmayincreaseinanareawithhighcaterpillardensity,suchasthesiteofagypsymothoutbreak.Manypermanentresidentsswitchtoseedsandothervegetationinthewinter.

Likeotherwildlife,differentspeciesofbirdsrequirevaryingamountsofspace.Somespecies,likethecommonyellowthroatorAmericanredstart,onlyneedafractionofanacretosuccessfullyraisetheiryoung.Otherspecies,liketheceruleanwarblerorpi-leatedwoodpecker,needtensorhundredsofacresofcontinuoushabitattomaintaintheirpopulations.

Theselatterspeciesaretermedarea sensitive.Thatis,theyaremorelikelytooccurinareaswithlargeblocksofpre-ferredhabitat.Butmorethanthat,theyaresensitivetoandimpactedbyareduc-tionintheselargeblocksofhabitat.Theeffectismarginalinsomespeciesandextremeinothers.Forexample,althoughtheymayphysicallyuseanddefendonly2to3acresofmatureforest,aceruleanwar-

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The scarlet tanager is a neotropical migrant found in West Virginia.

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blerpairneedsapproximately200acresofcontin-uousforestsurroundingthatterritorytoattempttobreed.Henslow’ssparrowsneedlargetractsofgrasslandsandprairiewarblersneedlargetractsofshrublands.Inordertosuccessfullyraiseyoung,theseandapproximately74otherspeciesinWestVirginiarequirelargetractsofunbrokenhabitat.

Breedingseasonforforestsongbirdstypicallylastsfrommid-Maythroughmid-August.Duringthistime,dependingonthespecies,birdswillraiseonetoseveralbroodsoftwototenyoung.Manylong-distancemigrantsraiseonlyonebroodoftwotofiveyoungandarefinishedbreedingbyearlyJuly.Ifthatnestisdestroyed,theyoftenwillnotattempttorenest.ResidentspeciestypicallyraisemultiplebroodsandmaycontinuenestingintoSeptember.Birdsbuildnestsfromgroundleveltohighintheforestcanopy,againdependingonthespecies.Alargenumberofsongbirdsaregroundnesters,placingtheirnestsundershelteringover-hangsofgroundcoversandwoodydebris.

Ofthe172speciesofbreedingbirdsinWestVirginia,87arelong-distancemigrants,travelingtwiceyearlybetweenthestateandwinteringareasinCentralandSouthAmericaandtheCaribbean.Another28speciesareshort-distancemigrants,movingonlyasfarasthesouthernUnitedStatesornorthernMexicoforthewinter.MigrantsleaveWestVirginiafromlateAugustthroughOctoberandreturninAprilandMay.Mostforestbreedingsongbirdsinthestatearelong-distancemigrants.

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Forestsarenotstatic,butareconstantlychanging,sometimesgradually,othertimesdra-matically.Thematureforestthatisdevelopingoldgrowthcharacteristicshasoldtreesthatdieandfall,creatingopeningsorwindthrows.Theseopeningsarecolonizedbyplantsfoundinmoreopenareas,suchasbrambles,andbyyoungtreeseedlings,creatingmini-habitatswithinthematureforestthatcanbeusedbyshrublovingbirdslikethehoodedwarbler,Carolinawrenandeasterntowhee.Overall,aforestthatsupportsthegreatestnumberofwildlifespeciesisonethatconsistsofalargediversityoftreespeciesandadiversityoftreeages,fromsaplingtodominantcanopytree.

Timbercuttingroughlymimicsthisdynamicaspectofamatureforest,creatingopen-ingsandearlysuccessionalhabitat,typicallybenefitingearlysuccessionalspecies.Thecreationofearlysuccessionalhabitatmeans,however,thatbirdsusingmaturehabitataredisplaced.Displacedbirdsoftenabandonnestingat-temptsthatyearandarealsoinitiallymoresusceptibletopredationandtherigorsoftheenvironmentbecauseoftheirunfamiliaritywiththeirnewhome.

Theshort-termposi-tiveandnegativeeffectsofatimberharvestarecomplexandvarywithmanyfactors,butdependlargelyontwovariables:theintensityoftheharvestandthesizeoftheharvestcomparedwiththesurroundinglandscape.

Light intensity:Forexample,ifalightthinningor

timberimprovementcutisdone,fewtreesarere-moved.Therewouldbelittlechangetotheforestenvironmentand,therefore,thespeciesandtotalnumberofbirdsorotherwildlifeusingtheareaswouldlikelybesimilar.

Small relative size: Similarly,ifthetractthatiscutissmallwhencomparedtotheforestcoverinthesurroundinglandscape(5-10acresina100acrelandscape),eveniftheharvestmethodismoreintense,thenumberofspecieswilllikelynot

Typical Songbird Community In A Mature WV Allegheny Hardwood Forest

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DOWNY WOODPECKER

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KENTUCKY WARBLER

WOOD THRUSH

TUFTED TITMOUSE

PILEATED WOODPECKER

YELLOW-THROATED WARBLER

SCARLET TANAGER

REDSTART

CERULEAN WARBLER

Short-term Effects of a TimberHarvest

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GRAY CATBIRD

NORTHERN CARDINAL

SONG SPARROW

INDIGO BUNTING

FIELD SPARROW

COMMON YELLOWTHROAT

Typical Songbird Community In a 4 to 5-year old WV Clearcut

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changeandmayevenincrease.Mostofthesamespecieswillremainaftertheharvest.

High intensity and large relative size: Ontheotherhandifaclearcutisdone(alltreesarehar-vested),andifthecutislargecomparedtotheforestcoverinthesurroundinglandscape(30-40acresina100acrelandscape),thehabitatiscompletelyaltered.Thespeciesofbirdsandotherwildlifethatwilloccupythenewhabitatwillbeverydifferent.Thestructurewillchangedra-maticallyandtheclimateoftheareawillchangefromarelativelycool,moist,dimenvironmenttowarm,dryandbright.Thischangeofclimateandstructurewillchangetheinsectcommu-

nitytoonemoreadaptedtoanopenenvironment,andrequiredifferentforagingmethodsfrombirds

thatfeedonthem.Amaturefor-estspecieswillnotthriveinaclearcutbecausethehabitatanditssurvivalskillsdon’tmatch.

Birdsneedingamatureforesthabitatliketheeasternwood-pewee,Acadianflycatcherandceruleanwarblerwillbedisplaced.Inaddition,birdsthatareareasensitivemaybeaffected.Theageandtypeofvegetationcover-ingthelandscapesurroundingtheproposedcuttingareawillinflu-encethepresenceorabsenceofareasensitivespeciesafterthehar-vest.Ifnotenoughcontinuoushabitatremains,somespeciesliketheceruleanwarblerandscarlettanagerwilllikelyabandonsmallremnantforestedpatches.Overtime,astheclearcutregrows,birdsneedingearlysuccessionalhabitat,

Shrub loving hooded warblers prefer gaps in mature forests caused by tree falls or other disturbance.

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Turkey populations are impacted differently by different timber manage-ment practices.

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suchastheprairiewarbler,blue-wingedwarblerandfieldsparrow,willcolonizethearea.Earlysuccessionalspeciescanthrivetherebecausetheyareadaptedtoelementsofamoreopenhabitatintermsofvegetativestructure,foodresourcesandforagingmethods.

Othercharacteristicsthatwillaffecttheuseofthestandbyvariousbirdspeciesinclude:

• thesizeofthestandbeingmanaged• thetypesandareasofhabitat(s)surround-

ingthestand(forest,agricultural,devel-oped)

• theelevationandaspect(north-,east-,south-orwest-facing)ofthestand

These two landscape areas show the results of fragmentation by removing a portion of the forest cover. The interior area decreases by 50 acres or 30 percent with a subsequent increase in edge area and altered habitat. A timber harvest would continue to provide habitat to a different community of birds. Development, however, would permanently remove the altered habitat from use by all but a few species.

Total area = 200 acres (100%)Interior area = 166 acres (83%)Edge area = 34 acres (17%)

Total area = 200 acres (100%)Interior area = 116 acres (58%)Edge area and opening = 84 acres (42%)

• ifregenerationalreadyisestab-lishedinthestand

• white-taileddeermanagement•previouslanduse(forexample,

agricultural,stripmine)•currentorproposedlanduse

(forexample,livestock)ResearchinWestVirginia

indicatesthataclearcutwillsup-portforestinteriorspecies35to45yearsaftertheharvest,butthatolderstands(80to100yearsold)providesignificantlyhighernestingsuccessbecauseoflowerpredationratesonnests.Eventimberingthatisdoneoutsideof

thebreedingseasonmaydisruptanddisplacesomemigratorybirdsthefollowingbreedingseasonbecausesomespeciesreturntothesamestandyearafteryeartobreed.Mostresidentspecies,suchasthetuftedtitmouseandwildturkey,however,areusuallyabletoadapttoachangingenvironment,becausetheytypicallyuseavarietyofhabitatstosurvivethroughouttheyear.Theyareusuallyaf-fectedlessbyanintenseharvest(orcatastrophicnaturaldisturbancesuchasaseverewintericestorm)thantheoftenmorespecializedmigratorybirdsandwilloftenstillusetheharvestedareatosomeextentaswellasthematureforest.

Edge Area Interior Area Altered Habitat

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Examplesofactivitiesandusesthataland-ownermaydoontheirpropertycouldinclude:

•Recreationalactivities--hiking,hunting,fish-ing,birdwatching,naturestudyandmoun-tainbiking

•Wildlifeandbotanical--feehuntingand/orfishing,medicinalplants,watchablewildlife

•Spiritualfulfillmentandaestheticenjoyment•Harvestingwoodproducts--firewood,sawtim-

ber,chips,postsandveneer

Severalpublicationscitedonpage19givedetailedstep-by-stepinformationfordevelopingaforestmanagementplan.

Ifadecisionismadethatatimberharvestiscompat-iblewiththegoalsandobjectivesofthelandowner,heorsheshouldenlisttheser-vicesofaprofessionalforestertomonitoranddirectthehar-vest.Thebenefitsofusingaforestertypicallyincludeawell-planned,envi-

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Taking a diameter breast height (DBH) measurement.

Management Plans and Contracts:Protecting and Enhancing Your Woodlot

Anylandownerconsideringanytypeofforestryprac-ticeshouldfirstdevelop

acomprehensiveforestmanage-mentplan.Withinthisplanallgoalsandobjectivesarelistedalongwithdetailedinformationandproceduresthatwillbeusedtomeetthesegoalsandobjec-tives.Alargevarietyofmanage-mentpracticesandtechniquesareavailabletothelandownerfromprofessionalforesterstohelpmeetabroadarrayofobjectives.TheownershouldseekthehelpofprofessionalresourcemanagersattheWestVirginiaDivisionofForestryorDivisionofNaturalResourcesofficestodeveloptheirplan.

Consultingforestersandforestindustryforestersalsodevelopplans.Alloftheseindividu-alscanhelpdevelopplansthatarefeasible,com-patiblewiththelandowner’sinterestsandneedsandbeneficialtotheforestandwildlife.Oncethelandownerhasafinishedplan,heorshemaybeeligibleforfinancialassistancethroughfederallyfundedprogramsthatoffercost-sharingforspecificforestryandlandmanagementpractices.ContactyourlocalWVDivisionofForestry,UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture–FarmServicesAgencyorNaturalResourceConservationServiceformoreinformation.(See Appendix III, page 28).

Aforestmanagementplanisawritten,detaileddocumentthatincludesthreeimportantelements:

•Aspecificlistofthelandowner’sgoalsandobjectives,

•Athoroughdescriptionofthepropertyandthewildlife,timber,aquaticandculturalresourcesonit,and

•Ascheduleofactivitiestobeperformedonthepropertyifneededtohelpmeetgoalsandobjectives.

Skidder hauling logs to a log landing.

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Riparian zones protect waterways.

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ronmentallyfriendlyharvestingoperationthatmeetsorexceedsexpectations,andtypicallyreceivesahigherprice.Thelandownershouldasktoseewhatthepro-posedharvestpracticeactuallylookslike.Whatdoesitreallymeantoremove30percentoftheoakand50percentofthecherry?Ideally,thelandownershouldhaveaclearvisualizationofwhatheorshewouldlikethelandtolooklikeandtohavetheopportu-nitytoseewhatthesameharvestpracticeactuallylookslikeontheground.Asktoseeanexample.

Itisstronglyrecommendedthatawrittentimberharvestingcontractbeusedforthesaleoftimberandthatthecontractbeen-teredintoonlywiththeadviceofanattorneyandaforester.Thepurposeofthecontractistodetailtheresponsibilityofeachpartyinvolvedinthetimberharvest,thusprotectingboththelandownerandthetimberbuyer/logger.Thesedetailsshouldincludebutarenotlimitedto:

•paymentschedule•descriptionoftimberbeingsoldandhowitis

designated(marked,diameter,volume,etc.)•anticipatedstartingandcompletiondateand

timeperiodcoveredbythecontract•penaltiesforcuttingundesignatedtrees•provisionsprohibitingexcessivedamagetoun-

designatedtreesandimprovedproperty•assignmentofliabilityforlossesduetofire

causedbybuyer/loggerorhisagents•provisionsforprotectionofsoil,waterand

recreationalvalue(forexample,suspendingoperationsduringwetweather)

•owner’srighttoinspectsaleareaduringharvestoperations

•righttosuspendtheharvestoperationifthecontractisviolated

•provisionforarbitrationtoresolvedisagree-ments

•rightofingressandegressofthebuyer/logger•locationofroadsandlandingsagreedonbefore

harvestbegins•compliancewithallwaterqualitylawsandthe

LoggingSedimentControlAct(1992)•designationofseller’sagent•severancetaxliability•protectionfromworkers’compensationclaims,

liabilitysuitsandpropertydamageforthelandowner

•considerationforthreatenedandendangeredplantsandanimalsifpresent,andforhistori-callyandbiologicallysignificantsites

•stabilizationandrepairofloggingroadsandlandingstoaspecifiedconditionuponharvestcompletion

•handlingofloggingdebris(topsandslash)inrelationtoroads,landingsandstreams

•performanceofapost-harvestinspectiontoensurecompliancewiththecontract

•releaseofbuyer/logger,throughawrittenletter,fromfurtherobligations

Seller beware Never consider selling timber without a plan and con-tract or without advice from a lawyer and forester. To do so puts plans and desires at risk, could leave your land and its resources damaged and could drastically reduce present and future income and enjoyment.

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Landownersshouldneverconsidermanagingtheirforestresourceswithoutthebenefitsofaprofessionallyprepared,wellthoughtout

managementplanthatlaysoutspecificgoalsandobjectives.Notestablishingthesegoalscanleadtounwelcomeandpoorresultsifmanagementprac-ticesareperformedwithoutaplan.Iftheforestmanagementplanrecommendsatimberharvest,itcanbeimplementedusingeven-agedmanagement,uneven-agedmanagementand/oranintermediatemanagementpractice.Thechoiceofusingoneormoreofthesetechniquesdependsonthelandown-er’sgoalsandexpectationsandthecharacteristicsofthetimberandthesite.

Themanagementtypealandownerchooses,orthecombinationofseveral,basicallycontrolstheamountoflightreachingtheforestfloor,sinceremovingtreesremovescanopyandallowsdirectlightin.Morelightallowsforgrowthofsun-lovingtreespecies,likeoak,blackcherry,yellowpoplarandpine.Lesslightallowsforgrowthofspeciesthatrequirelesslightlikebeech,hemlockandsugarmaple.

Thefollowingvariablesaffectthepotentialquality,quantityandtreespeciescompositionofthefuturestand:presenceorabsenceofseedlingsand/orsaplingsofthedesiredspecies,highdensi-tiesofplantsthatmayinterferewiththegrowthofthenewstand(ferns,grass,grapevine,stripedmaple),sitelimitationssuchaswetorverystonysoilsandcurrentdeerdensitiesanddeermanage-ment.Aprofessionalforesterand/orwild-lifemanagercanevaluatethesefactors.Oncetheyhavethisinformation,theycanmakerecommendationsthatcandealwithpotentialchallengesthatwillallowthegrowthofanewstandcomposedofspeciesthatmeettheforestmanagementgoalsofthelandowner.

Decisionsastowhichpracticestoimplementinwhichspecificsituationsfromatimbermanagementviewpointarebeyondthescopeofthisguide.How-ever,theexpectedresultofthefollowingpracticesonsongbirdspeciesofconserva-

tionconcerncanbefoundinAppendix V, page 32.Avisualrepresentationofwhataharvestmaylooklikeatthetimeofthepracticeand10yearspost-harvestisonpage16.

Even-Aged Management Even-agedmanagementresultsintimberstandsconsistingoftreesthatareessentiallythesameage.Thispracticeisbestusedifthelandowner’sgoalistomaximizetheeconomicreturnofthetimberortoestablishand/ormaintainsun-loving(shadeintolerant)treessuchasoak,blackcherry,yellowpoplar,blacklocustorpine.Thesetreeswillnotgrowandthriveintheshadeofothertrees;theyneedfullsunlight.Clearcuttingandpartialcutpracticesarecuttingmethodstoestablishand/ormaintaineven-agedstands.

ClearcuttingAsthenameimplies,virtuallyallthetreesare

cutandremovedinoneoperation,resultinginafuturestandofoneage.Ifsufficientnumbersofseedlingsofthedesiredspeciesarealreadyinplaceandwellestablished,clearcuttingwillsatisfacto-rilyregrowanewstandwiththedesiredspeciescomposition.Stumpsproutsarealsoanimportantsupplementtoregrowthestand.InWestVirginia,clearcutsaretypicallybetween10and40acresinsize.

Partial Cuts – Seedtree and ShelterwoodThegoalofbothofthesepracticesisto

Shelterwood cuts are gaining acceptance for regenerating oak and cherry as prices for these species increase.

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New clearcut. Photo taken in 1970 in the Fernow Research Forest.

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The same clearcut six years later. Today it contains 50% black cherry.

produceseedlingsofthedesiredspe-ciesinordertoregrowanewstand.Thisisdonebypartiallycuttingthestandoneormoretimes,leavinggoodseedingtreestoproduceseedlingsandallowingtheresultingseedlingstogrowinunderhigherlightconditionsintothenewstand.Thispracticeisdonewhennotenoughseedlingsarecurrentlypresentintheuncutstandtoregrowitafterharvest.

Inaseedtreecut,thetreesleftstandingmayormaynotbecomepartofthepermanentstand.Inashelter-woodcut,moretreesareinitiallyleftstandingtosheltertheyoungseedlingsfromextremesofdirectsunlightandwind.Aftertheseedlingsbecomeestablished(approximately3–15years),oneormoreadditionalcutsaremadetoremovematuretrees.

Uneven-Aged ManagementUneven-agedmanagement

maybemostappropriatewhenthelandownerhasgoalsotherthantomaximizefinancialreturnandwishestomaintainanintacttreecanopy.Uneven-agedmanagementkeepsaforestcanopyontheareaatalltimesandavoidsthelargeopeningswithexposedstumps,slashandpossiblesoildisturbancethatarepresentaftereven-agedcuttings.Uneven-agedmanagementmaybeagoodchoicewhensiteandstandconditionsmakeeven-agedmanagementdifficultsuchasifthestandhasseveralageclassesinitorif,inareasofthestand,seedlingscan’tgrowbecauseofpoorsiteconditionssuchasverystonyorwetareas.Standsdominatedbyshadetolerantspecieslikehemlock,beechandsugarmaplearewell-suitedtouneven-agedmanagement.

Singletreeselectionisjustthat-selectingsingletreestobecutbasedoncriteriasetupaheadoftime(monetaryvalue,species,etc.)thatmeet

thelandowner’sgoals.Groupselectionischoosingagroupoftrees,typicallycovering½to1acre,basedonpredeterminedcriteria.

Seedlingandstumpsproutgrowthinun-even-agedstandsmustbeobtainedaftereachcut.Becauseconsiderableoverstoryisalwayspresent,growthwillbedominatedbyshadetolerantspecies.Toencouragefastergrowth,highertreespeciesdiver-

sity,thenumberoftreesleftstandinginacutareashouldbekeptlow.Smallopeningsof½to1acreshouldbecreatedtomeetlandownergoals.Forbothtimberproductionandthepersistenceofshadeintolerantspecies,thecombineduseofsingletreeandsmallgroupselectioncuttingpracticestendstobemostsuccessful.

Intermediate Management Thegoalsofintermediatemanagement

practices,insteadofregenerationofyoungtreesasineven-anduneven-agedmanage-ment,concentrateonmaximizinggrowthofyoungtreestoproducehighqualitysawandveneerlogsand/orhealthyanddiversewildlifehabitat.Thinned oak stand.

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Tolerant understory of beech that developed as a result of repeated single-tree selection cuts.

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Group selection can have minimal negative effects on existing forest bird communities.

Commercial thinningThismethodcullspoorlyformedorother-

wiseundesirabletreesfromastandsothatgrowthofselectedtreesismaximized.Thisisfirstdonewhenthestandisoldenoughandthetreesarelargeenough(usually20–40yearsold)tobesoldcommercially(oftenasposts,chipsorpulp)topayforthethinning.Standscanbethinnedmultipletimes(at15-20yearintervals).Laterthinningsharvestbothsmallandlargertrees,leavingsuperioractivelygrowingtreestoproduceseedandmain-tainthestand.

Crop tree managementInstandsmanagedusingthecroptreemeth-

od,individualtreesarechosenwhenapproximately20-40yearsoldtobereleased,ortohavecompet-ingtreesaroundthemremoved.Thisallowsmorelighttoreachthem,andtheytypicallygrowmorequicklywithbetterformandproducemoreseed.Thesecroptreesarechosenbasedontimbervalue,wildlifevalueand/oraestheticvalue,dependingonthegoalsofthelandowner.

Diameter Limit CuttingDiameterlimitcuttingisthemost

commonmethodofcuttingtimberinWestVirginiabecauseitiseasytoimplementandcheaptoapply.Becauseitiseasy,fastandcheap,limitingfactors(presenceofestablishedseedlings,seedsourcestoregrowthestand,treespeciesandsizetobeleft)tendtobeover-lookedorignored.

Inthismethod,thelandownerandpur-chaseragreeonastumpdiameteratorabovewhichalltreeswillbecut.Ifthediameter

selectedishigh(20ormoreinches),typicallyfewtreesarecutandtheeffectonthestandmaybesimilartoasingletreeorgroupselectioncut.Ifthiscriteriaisselectedevery10–20years,theresultingstandwillbeuneven-agedand,overtime,wouldmostlikelybecomposedofshadetoleranttrees(beech,sugarmaple,hemlock).Ifthediame-terselectedislow(10-12inches)mosttreeswouldbecut.Theeffectwouldbesimilartoaclearcutandamoreeven-agedstandwouldresult.

Diameterlimitcuttinghasseverallimitationsthatcan,overtime,negativelyimpactthehealthofthestand.Itdoesnotprovidecontroloverthenumberoftreesortheproportionofthespeciesoftreesthatremain,nordoesitimprovethequalityoftheremainingtrees.Standsrepeatedlyharvestedwiththismethodoftenregrowpoorly,andonlymarginalwildlifehabitatmaybepro-duced.Atitsworst,diam-eterlimitcuttingamountstohighgradinginwhichthebestofthetreesofthemostprofitablespeciesaretakenandthediseased,poorlygrownandundesirablespeciesareleft.

Beingabletocontrolandmanipulatetreedensity,speciescompositionandpotentialre-growthistheheartofanygoodmanagementplan.Diameterlimitcuttingremovesthisimportantcontrol.

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Selected timber harvests in a typical mature mixed hardwood forest at harvest and ten years post-harvest. Regeneration height in feet (scale on the right side of figures) will vary with aspect, light, moisture, soil type and browsing pressure.

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1. Harvest the timber outside of the breed-ing season of April 15-August 1. Sincemanyofthebirdsthatusematureforestsareeitherlongdistancemigrants(thered-eyedvireomigratesallthewaytotheAmazon)orshortdistancemigrants(mosthermitthrushesmigratetothesouthernstates)theyortheiryoungwillnotbeintheareaandthereforecannotbedisturbedorinjured.

2. Leave dead snags, cavity trees and live trees that have the potential of becoming cavity trees at the rate of at least five per acre. Standingdeadtreesanddeadpartsoflivetreesprovidefoodandshelterformanykindsofwildlife.Atleast35birdspeciesand20mammalsusetreecavitiesforshelterandtoraiseyoung.Snagsandrottedpartsoflivetreesarealsoexcellentplacesforbirdstofindinsectsandotherinvertebratesusedforfood.Thisfoodsourceisespeciallyimportantinwin-terforlocal,non-migratorybirds.Ifyourforestdoesnothaveenoughsnagsorcavitytrees,createsomebygirdling(killing)selectedlowvaluetreesthroughouttheforestattherateoffiveperacre(see Glossary, page 33).

3. Plan on leaving 100 foot buffers on either side of permanent streams and around natural

Bird-friendly Timber Harvesting Practices

seeps. Buffersareareasalongstreamsandseepswherefewornotreesarecutandnoroadsareallowed.TheseriparianareasareveryimportanttocertainsitesensitivebirdssuchastheLouisiana

waterthrush,Kentuckywarbler,Acadianflycatcherandbeltedkingfisher.Leavinganadequatebufferalsoprotectswaterqualityintheharvestareaandprotectsfishandotheraquaticorganismsintheharvestareaanddownstream.

4. Reclaim roads and landings with grasses, legumes, shrubs and trees that produce food and cover for wildlife. Trytousenativevarietiesthatbenefitbirdsandwildlifeinthewinterandearlyspring,themostdifficulttimeoftheyearforsur-vival.Avoidmowedorveryshortgrowinggrassesthatcanattractbrown-headedcowbirds.

5. If the border between open land and for-est is abrupt, practice forest edge cutting.Thispracticeinvolvescuttingand/orplantingtreesandshrubsalongtheedgeofaforest,fieldorroadinawaythatimproveswildlifehabitatbyincreasingthevarietyofvegetation,vegetativestructureandcreatingasoftedge.Improvedstructure(thelayersofvegetationfromtheshortestherbaceousplantuptothetallestcanopytree)increasesfoodandcoveravailabletowildlifebyprovidingmorelayerswhereanimalscanfeed,hideandnest.

6. If your property supports a high deer popu-lation, consider allowing hunters on your property to harvest deer, especially antlerless deer (does), if you don’t hunt yourself or if you hunt very little.Adeermanagementsection(deerhunting)canbeincludedinyourforestmanagementplan.Becausedeerarebrowsers(treeeaters),toomanydeercaneliminatesmalltreeseedlings(potentialregenera-

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Creating a soft edge improves wildlife habitat.

Additional habitat enhancement practices that can be part of a forest management plan:Construct or leave brush piles and windrows (great for attracting sparrows and other

ground dwelling birds).Construct and put up nesting structures.Preserve and plant conifers.Preserve, prune and release fruiting trees.

(For example, apple, serviceberry, crabapple, hawthorn and others.)

Control undesirable, non-native vegetation (Japanese knotweed, mile-a-minute weed, Japanese honeysuckle, Japanese stiltgrass, multiflora rose, tree-of-heaven) by disking, burning or judicious use of herbicides (spot treating).

Avoid insecticides and herbicides.Construction of ponds or water holes if appro-

priate sites are available.

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tion)andotherunderstoryvegetationonwhichmanywildlifespeciesdepend.Thereareseveralrecentstudiessuggestingthattheeliminationofunderstoryvegetationbydeerhashadsignificantadverseaffectsonbirdcommunitiesandotherwildlifespecies.ForadviceoneffectivedeermanagementcontactyourWVDivisionofNaturalResourcesdistrictwildlifebiologist.Overabun-danceofdeerisbestallevi-atedbyharvestingdoes.

Forestsoccupy78percentofthetotallandareainWestVirginia,withprivatelandownersowning83percentofthattotal(theforestindus-tryowns7percent,andfederalandstateagenciesown10percent).Inadditiontoprovidingvalu-ablesuppliesofwood,fiberandfuel,theseforests

Additional reading and websitesMaintaining Species Diversity in the Central

Appalachians byG.W.MillerandJ.N.Kochenderfer;JournalofForestry,July1998.

A Practical Alternative to Single Tree Selection?byG.W.MillerandH.C.Smith;NorthernJournalofAppliedForestry,1993.

The Land Manager’s Guide to Birds of the South byP.B.Hamel,TheNatureConservancy,Cha-pelHill,NC;1992.

Habitat Area Requirements of Breeding Forest Birds of the Middle Atlantic StatesbyC.Robbins,D.K.DawsonandB.A.Dowell;WildlifeMono-graphs;1989,volume103.

Neotropical Migratory Birds: Natural History, Distribution and Population Change byR.M.De-GraafandJ.H.Rappole;ComstockPublishingAssc.,Ithaca,NY;1995.

The Sibley Guide to Bird Life and BehaviorbyD.A.Sibley;AlfredA.Knopf,NY;2001.

The Birder’s Handbook: A Field Guide to the Natural History of North American BirdsbyP.R.Ehrlich,D.S.DobkinandD.Wheye;SimonandSchuster,Inc.,NY;1988.

Neotropical Migratory Birds of the Southern AppalachiansbyK.E.FranzebandR.A.Phillps;GeneralTechnicalReportSE-96;U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,SouthernResearchStation,Asheville,NC;1995.

2004 Partners in Flight North American Land-bird Conservation Plan byT.D.Rich,J.Pasdmere,H.Berlanga,P.J.Blancher,M.S.W.Bradstreet,G.S.

Butcher,D.W.Demarest,E.H.Dunn,W.C.Hunter,E.E.Inigo-Elias,J.A.Kennedy,A.M.Martell,A.O.Panjabi,N.Pasley,K.V.Rosenberg,C.M.Rustay,J.S.WendtandT.C.Will.CornellLabofOrnithology,Ithica,NY;2004.Website:http://www.partnersin-flight.org/cont_plan.(vers:March2005)

2003 Partners in Flight Landbird Conservation Plan: Physiographic Area 12: Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Valley byK.V.Rosenberg. CornellLabofOrnithol-ogy,Ithaca,NY;2004.Website:http://www.blm.gov/wildlife/plan/pl_12_10.pdf.

2004 Partners in Flight Conservation Plan: Physiographic Area 22: Ohio Hills byK.V.Rosen-berg.CornellLabofOrnithology,Ithaca,NY;2004.Website:http://www.blm.gov/wildlife/plan/pl_22_10.pdf.

Prescribing Silvicultural Treatments in Hard-wood Stands of the Alleghenies (revised) byD.A.Marquis,R.L.Earnst,andS.L.Stout.Gen.Tech.Rep.NE-96;U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,NortheasternForestExperimentStation,Radnor,PA;1992.

Pennsylvania State University School of Forest Resources:http://www.forestryexplorer.psu.edu/man-agement.

Partners in Flight-U.S.,servedbytheUSGSPatuxentWildlifeResearchCenter,Laurel,MD.http://www.partnersinflight.org.

West Virginia Wildlife Conservation Action Plan,http://www.wvdnr.gov/Wildlife/PDFFiles/wvwcap.pdf;2005.

providethenecessaryandindispensablehabitatforseveralhundredspeciesofanimalsandover2000speciesofplants.Anyusethataltersthestructureandcompositionoftheforesthasthepotentialtosignificantlyalterwildlifehabitatandwildlife

communitiesandpopulations.Whethertheseactivitiesresultingoodorbadwildlifeman-agementdependsontheland-owner’sforesightandabilitytoconsiderandplanforwildlife

needsheorsheisinterestedinpromoting.Hav-ingamanagedforestandabundantwildlifearetwoverycompatibleandachievablegoals—theyarenotmutuallyexclusive.Implementingthesuggestionspresentedherewillhelpyoutoenjoybetterbirding,abundantwildlifeandthemanybenefitsofawellmanagedforest.

Having a managed forest and abundant wildlife are two very compatible and achievable goals — they are not mutually exclusive.

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Thesehabitatgroupingscanbeusedtodeterminewhatgroupofbirdsmightbebestforthelandownertomanagefor

dependingonwhathabitatispresentanditscondi-tion.Forexample,choosingtomanageforspeciessuchasthescarlettanagerandceruleanwarblerthatrequirematureforestswhenalandowneronlyhasopenfieldstoworkwithwouldbefrustratingandhighlyunproductive.Managingforspeciesthatprefermoreopenareassuchastheprairiewarblerorgolden-wingedwarblerwouldbemorefulfill-ingandeffective.ThefollowinghabitatgroupingsdefinethebasichabitatsthatoccurinWestVirginiaandgivespecificsoneachgroups’habitatmanage-mentrequirements.Managementrecommenda-tionsarethosepracticesthatwillhelpmaintainorenhancethehabitatasitcurrentlyexists.

Certainbird-friendlymanagementpracticesarerecommendedacrossallhabitats.Thesein-clude:

• managingdeerandotherbrowserpopula-tionstopreventover-browsing

Golden-winged warblers prefer shrub and scrub habitat.

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•limitingmajormanagementandtimberhar-vestingoperationstothenon-breedingseason.

•practicingBestManagementPractices(BMPs)orbetterduringanytimberharvestingoperations(see Appendix I, page 24).

•maintainingatleast100footbuffersonbothsidesofstreamsandaroundseepsduringtimberharvestsandothermanagementoperationsthatdisturbthehabitat.

•limitingpesticideusetowhatisabsolutelynecessary.

AppendixVII(page 36)includesalistofWestVirginiabirdsandthenestingandfeedinghabitatsinwhichlandownersmaytypicallyseethem.

Closed Canopy Forestdefinition:closedcanopyoftreeswithgener-

allysparseunderstory,shrublayerandgroundcover(rhododendronmaybethickinwetareasandthebaseofledges);generallymoistmicrocli-mate.

management recommendations: • maintainclosedcanopy.• maintainlargetractsofcontinuousforest.• limitharvestoperationstosingletree,

groupselectionandsmallclearcuts(atotalof10percentofthecanopy)toprovidehabitatforspe-ciesrequiringamoreopenhabitat.

• maintainatleastfivesnags(atleast10-inchdiameteratbreastheightorDBH)peracrebyleavingdeadordyingtreesinplaceorbygir-dlinghealthyones.

Management Guidelines for West VirginiaHabitat Groupings

Indigo buntings nest and feed along forest edges.

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Riparian forests promote high water quality.

Edges and Forest Gapsdefinition:linearareaaroundtheperimeter

offorestsandtheareaswithinsmallopeningsinforestsconsistingofmoderatetodenseshruband/orsmalltreeandgroundcoverwithmatureforestononeormoresides.

management recommendations: • maintainareasofshrubgrowthalongexist-

ingedgesbymowing,cuttingorlightgrazingevery2-4years.

• encourageshrubgrowthbydisturbingthesoilalonghardedges(sharpboundariesbetweenfieldsandforest)bydisking,plowingorothersoildisturbance,orbyplanting.

• cutbackportionsofforestedgestoencour-ageshrubandsaplinggrowth.

• developforestgapseveryeighttotenyears(ifneeded)inforesttypesusinggroupselectionandsmallclear-cutstopromotehabitatdiversity.

Open Canopy Forestdefinition:mosaicofclosedtoopencanopy

forestwithsparsetowelldevelopedunderstory,shrublayerandgroundcover,oftenwithpines;drymicroclimatetypicallyfoundonridgetops,cedargladesandshalebarrens.

management recommendations: • maintainmatureforest-especiallytalltrees.

• usesingletree,groupselectionorsmallclearcutsfortimberharvesting.

• maintainamosaicofunderstoryandshrublayerdensitiesfromdensetosparse.

Riparian Forestdefinition: closedcanopyforestalongedges

ofpermanentstreams;denseunderstoryandshrubsalongpermanentstreams;largetractsofcontinuousforestinriverfloodplains.

management recommendations: • maintainforestcoveradjacenttostreams.• maintain

well-developedshrublayeralongstreams,usesingletreeandgroupselectionfortimberharvesting-cutatleast100feetfromstreams.

• promoteand/ormaintainhighwaterquality.

• retaintallesttreesfordiversityincanopystructure. The wood thrush is often

found in open canopy forests.

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Ripariandefinition:non-forestedareasadjacenttoriv-

ers,largerstreamsandwetlands.management recommendations: • promoteand/ormaintainwaterqualityto

supportahealthyaquaticcommunity.• maintainareasofpoolsandshallowriffles

(avoidchannelization).• maintainstable,vertical,sandynon-vegetat-

edbanks;maintainsnagsandtreesoverriffleareas.• fencestreambankstopreventoveruseby

domesticstock-developsmallstabilizedwateringareasinstreamsorwateringtroughsawayfromstreams.

Coniferous Forestdefinition: forestedstandsconsistingprimar-

ilyofconiferoustrees;sprucetypicallyfoundabove2500feetelevation;pineondrysitesatvariouselevations;hemlockincovesandalongstreams.

management recommendations: • maintainlargematureforesttracts.• usesingletree,groupselectionorclearcuts

toregeneratestands(dependingonthespecies)anddeveloppatchesofshrubbyhabitat.

• softenhardedgesbycuttingportionsofforestedgestoencouragesprouting.

Shrub/Scrubdefinition: earlysuccessionalareas;vegeta-

tionconsistingofvariousherbaceousvegetation

withshrubs,saplings,stumpsproutsincutareas,reclaimedsurfacemines,powerlineright-of-ways;sparsetodensevegetation.

management recommendations: • maintainoldfieldsandshrubbyareasby

selectivelycuttingoutlargersizedtrees(above4-to6-inchDBH)andstripmowing/brushhoggingeveryfivetotenyears

• encourageselectedareasofdensegrowthbycoppicingorstumpsprouts

• cutbackportionsofforestedgestoencour-ageshrubandsaplinggrowth

Old field habitat is used by a variety of songbirds and other wildlife.

Dense growth is encouraged by coppicing.

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Cliffsdefinition: areaswithvertical,generallylinear

seriesofcliffs;usuallyalongridges,riversorlargerstreams;littlevegetation.

management recommendations: • avoiddisturbing(typicallynoteconomically

feasiblefortimberoperations).• avoidextensiverecreationaluse,suchasrock

climbing.

Residential/Townsdefinition: areaswithhousesandother

buildings;maybedenselypopulatedwithhumans;variousvegetationincludingscatteredtrees,shrubsandlawns.

management recommendations:•avoiduseofinvasiveexoticplantspeciesfor

landscaping--usenativespecieswhenpossible.•provideavarietyofplanttypes:trees,

shrubs,groundcoverforshelterandfood.• providewaterthroughouttheyear.• avoidpesticideuseunlessabsolutelyneces-

sary–practiceintegratedpestmanagementstrategies.• keepcatsindoors--theykillverylargenum-

bersofbirds.

Grasslanddefinition:pastures,abandonedfields,

reclaimedsurfacemineswithprimarilygrassyveg-etationofvariousheights;mayhaveareasofdenseherbaceousgrowthand/orscatteredsmalltreesoroldfencepostsandadjacentshrubbyareas.

management recommendations: • maintaingrassyareasbygrazingormow-

ingtodiscourageextensivewoodyvegetation.•plantareasofmixednativewarmseason

grasses,legumesandwildflowers.Avoidplantinglargeareaswithjustonespecies.

• avoidhayingduringthebreedingseason-ifpossibledonotcutuntilafterJuly15.

• allowafewshrubsorsmalltreesinthefieldforsongperches.

• removeroadsideperchestoavoidvehiclecausedmortality.

• avoidovergrazing-rotatelivestockthroughpastures.

Wetlanddefinition:soilsaturatedformostoftheyear;

supportstypicalherbaceousand/orwoodywet-landvegetation;includesswamps,shrubswamps,marshes,fensandbogs.

management recommendations:• developandmaintainhighwaterquality

andappropriatewaterquantity.• maintainlargeareasofwetland.• avoidchannelizationofadjoiningstreams.

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Wetlands, including swamps, marshes and bogs, provide homes for many species of waterbirds.

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TheLoggingSedimentControlAct(LSCA)lawstatesthatafterSeptember1,1992,anyoneconductingaloggingoperation,

buyingtimberorbuyinglogsforresaleisrequiredtobelicensedbytheWestVirginiaDivisionofForestry(WVDOF).Beforealicensecanbeis-suedtheapplicantmustpossessabusinesslicense,beregisteredandbeincompliancewiththeDe-partmentofTaxandRevenueandwiththeWork-ersandUnemploymentCompensationDivisions.Bylaw,theacceptanceofalogginglicenseobli-gatesanoperatortoprotectsoilandwaterqualitybyjudicioususeofBestManagementPractices(BMPs).

BMPscanbedefinedastheproperuseofanypracticeordeviceusedtocontrolsoilerosionandwaterpollution.Sinceroadsandlandingsarethebiggestpotentialsourceofsoildisturbance,properlocation,layout,maintenanceandreclamationofthesefeaturesisthemostimportantBMPaloggerorlandownercanuse.Useofwatercontroldevicesandtechniquessuchaswaterbars,usingculvertsorbridgesforstreamcrossings,siltfenceandsedimentpondshelptocontrolsoildisturbanceandwaterdegradation.Otherpracticesincludeloggingindriermonths,temporarilysuspendingoperationsduringwetweather,keepingroadsoutofriparianareas,removingtopsfromstreamsandusingproperfellingtechniquestoprotectboththetimbercutterandremainingstandingtimber.

OtherimportantelementsoftheLSCAinclude:•Loggercertification–thepersondirectingtheloggingoperationmustbeacertifiedlogger,having

satisfactorilycompletedcoursesintreefellingsafety,personalsafetyequipment,firstaidandCPR,andforesthealth.

•TimberOperationNotificationForm–mustbesubmittedtotheWVDOFwithinthreedaysofthestartofaharvestoperation.ItsuppliesinformationabouttheoperationandobligatestheoperatortodeclarewhatBMPswillbeused.

•Postingtheoperation–asignmustbeerectedlistingtheloggingoperator’scompanynameandlicensenumberinthree-inchlettersorlargerattheprimaryloglanding.

•Reclamation–reclamationofalllandingsandroadsshouldbecompletedwithinsevendaysofthecompletionoftheharvestoperation.TheloggingoperatormustcontacttheWVDOFofanydelaysoversevendays(forexample,duetowetconditions).

•Violations–loggingoperatorsarerequiredtokeeptheirlicensesandnotificationscurrentandtouseBMPstocontrolsoilerosionandpreventstreampollution.Violationsoftheseorcertainwaterqual-itylawscanresultincomplianceorders,jobsuspensions,citationsorarrest.

Itshouldbenotedthatlandownersalsohavearesponsibilityinpreventingsoilerosionandstreampollution.UnderChapter22oftheWestVirginiaCode,theOfficeofWaterResourcesholdsnotonlytheloggingoperatorresponsiblebutcanalsoholdthelandownerresponsibleforallowingorcontribut-ingtostreamsedimentation.Forthisreasonalonelandownersshouldprotectthemselveswithawellwrittencontract.

TheaboveinformationismeanttobeabriefoverviewofLSCA.FormoreinformationaboutLSCA,BMPs,contracts,etc.,contactyourlocalDivisionofForestryoffice(see Appendix III, page 28).

Appendix I

Logging Sediment Control Act (LSCA)

U.S

. For

est S

ervi

ce P

hoto

Bridge constructed to skid logs across a stream helps maintain high water quality.

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Appendix II

Roads and Reclamation

Ahighquality,well-planned,lim-itedaccess(gated)roadsystemisanecessityforalmostanytypeof

comprehensivelandmanagementplan.Notonlyaretheyimportantfortheremovaloftimberandforwildlifeman-agementactivities,theycanbeusedforotheractivitiessuchashiking,biking,hunting,wildlifeviewing,horsebackridingandbirdwatching.Manyroadscanbedevelopedintoexcellentnaturetrails.Agoodroadsystemalsoprovidesaccessforfiresuppressionactivitiesshouldtheybeneeded.Aroadsystemcanbedesignedaspartofaforestman-agementplan.

Reclamationistheprocessofrevegetatingroadsandotherdisturbedareaswithgrasses,legumes,wildflowers,shrubsandtreestopreventerosion,improveaestheticsandprovidefoodandcoverforwildlife.Reclamationofland-ingsandspecifiedroadsandskidtrailsisrequiredundertheLoggingSedimentControlActandisaveryimportantcomponentofanyforestmanage-mentplan.Itshouldreceiveasmuchconsider-ationandthoughtasanyotherpartoftheplan.Reclamationprovisionsassociatedwithatimberharvestshouldbeincludedinthecontract.

Reclamationisoftennotstarteduntilalltreestobeharvestedhavebeencutandhauled

away.Becausethispracticeofdelayedreclamationexposesbaresoiltorainandrunoff,itcancauseincreasederosionandisdiscouraged.Reclamationshouldbecomepartofdailyoperationsonatimberharvestandshouldbecompletedbysectionasthejobprogresses.Whenthelasttreeinanareaisre-movedandtheskidtrailorroadleadingtoitisnolongerneeded,reclamationeffortsshouldbegin.First,roadsandlandingsneedtobesmoothedandgradedandwatercontroldevicesinstalled(waterbars,ditches,culverts,etc.).Limeand/orfertil-izer(ifindicatedbyasoiltest)andseedand/orplantingsarethenappliedatrecommendedrates.

U.S

. For

est S

ervi

ce P

hoto

Reclaimed roads and landings provide food and cover for wildlife.

Smooth sumac is a useful shrub to use for the reclamation of logging areas.

Dav

e Po

wel

l, U

SDA

/U.S

. For

est S

ervi

ce

Native grasses and wildflowers provide conservation buffers.

Lynn

Bet

ts, U

SDA

/ NR

CS

Phot

o

��

Landings,steeperslopes(20percentslopeorgreater)andcriticalareasatstreamcrossingsshouldalsore-ceivestrawmulchtohelpholdmoistureandtohelpprovidegreaterseedgerminationandplantsurvival.Afteranareahasbeenreclaimed,motorizedtrafficshouldbelimitedusinggatesorotherbarrierstoal-lowthenewvegetationtobecomewellestablished.

Thechoiceofplantspeciestouseforreclama-tionisalsoimportant.Plantingthecheapestseedingblendthroughoutatimberharvestwilllikelyprovideerosioncontrol,butwilldolittletoenhancewildlifehabitatoraesthetics.Recentresearchhasimplicatedtallfescue(Festuca arundinacea),acommonseed-ingmixturecomponent,withdecreasedsurvivalofseveralbirdspeciesduetoendophyticfungusandbyaggressivelycrowdingoutnativeplantspecies.Fescueandotherquickgrowingplantsareveryimportantforerosioncontrolonsteepslopes.Inlesserosionproneareas,however,nativespeciessuchasswitch-grass,deertongueandCanadawildryeaswellasshrubslikedogwoodandwillowprovidesuperiorfoodandcovertoavarietyofwildlife.

Atthistime,nativespeciesarenotasavailableoreconomicalasthetraditionalseedingmixturesthatcontaintallfescueandothernon-nativespecies.Butbecauseofconcernsaboutnon-nativespecies,theyarebecomingmoreavailable.Timberharvestsonna-tionalforeststrytousenativespeciesforreclamationwherepossible.TheWestVirginiaDivisionofNatu-ralResourcesandtheNaturalResourceConservationServiceofficescanprovidethelandownerinforma-tiononwheretoobtainnativespecies.Speciestobeplantedduringreclamationcanalsobeincludedinthetimberharvestingcontract.

Roadsandlandingareasaretypicallyplantedwithamixtureoffourtoeightspeciesdependinguponthesiteconditionsandgoalsofthelandowner.Ataminimum,themixshouldincludeanursecropthatwillgerminaterapidlyforerosioncontrol(oftenanannualspecies),twoormoreperennialgrassesforwildlifecoverandfoodandone(ormore)legumestohelpimprovesoilfertility.Forbs(wildflowers)andshrubscanalsobeplantedtoimprovehabitat.Be-foreplanting,thesoilshouldbeamendedwithlimeand/orfertilizerifindicatedbyasoiltesttoimprovegerminationandsurvival.Fertilizermaynotbeindi-catedwhenplantingsomespecies.

BIG

BLU

ESTE

M G

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SS/N

RC

SSU

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��

Plant Species For Reclamation

Sandbar willow provides excellent cover for a variety of wildlife .

Paul

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y, Io

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Stat

e U

nive

rsity

/ww

w.in

vasi

ves.

org

Nurse speciesAnnualryegrass–Loium multiflorumWinterwheat–Triticum aestivumOats–Avena sativa

GrassesSwitchgrass–Panicum virgatumIndiangrass–Sorghastrum nutansRedtop–Agrostis albaCreepingredfescue–Festuca rubraCanadawildrye–Elymus canadensisFoxtailmillet–Setaria italicaOrchardgrass-Dactylis glomerataDeertongue(Tioga)–Panicum clandestinum

LegumesWinterAustrianpea–Pisum arvenseBirdsfoottrefoil–Lotus corniculatusRedclover–Trifolium pratenseLathcoflatpea–Lathyrus sylvestrisPerennialpea–Lathyrus latifoliusTuberosasweetpea–Lathyrus tuberosus

Hereareshortlistsofspeciesthatcanbeusedforreclamation.Manymorespeciesareavailablethanarelistedhere.ContacttheWestVirginiaDivisionofNaturalResourcesortheNaturalResourceConservationServiceforinformationonadditionalspecies.

Shrub Species For Reclamation of Logging Areas

Silkycornelorkinnikinnik-Cornus amomumGrayorpaledogwood-Cornus racemosaWinterberry-Ilex verticilliata (needmaleandfemaleplants)Scruborturkeyoak-Quercus ilicifoliaSandbarwillow-Salix exiguaDwarforshiningsumac-Rhus copallinumSmoothsumac-Rhus glabraBlackelderberry-Sambucus canadensisRedelderberry-Sambucus racemosaorSambucus pubensSouthernarrowwood-Viburnum dentatumBlackhaw-Viburnum prunifoliumSmoothornorthernarrowwood-Viburnum recognitum

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Appendix III

Technical Assistance STATE AGENCIESWV Division of Natural ResourcesQuestions on wildlife and habitat, wildlife management practices (such as hunting, fishing and trapping)

Headquarters-Charleston:(304)558-2771WildlifeDiversityProgram-Elkins:(304)637-0245District1–Farmington:(304)825-6787District2-Romney:(304)822-3551District3-FrenchCreek:(304)924-6211District4-Beckley:(304)256-6947District5-PointPleasant:(304)675-0871

District6-Parkersburg:(304)420-4550

WV Division of ForestryQuestions on forest health, forest management, BMP enforcement, Forest Land Enhancement Program (FLEP)

Headquarters-Charleston:(304)558-2788District1-Fairmont:(304)367-2793District2-Romney:(304)822-4512District3-FrenchCreek:(304)924-6266District4-Beckley:(304)256-6775District5-Milton:(304)743-6186District6-Parkersburg:(304)420-4515

FEDERAL AGENCIESNatural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS - formerly Soil Conservation Service (SCS))Works in conjunction with Farm Service agencies,technical assistance for landowners,Wildlife Habitat Incen-tive Program (WHIP), Conservation Reserve Program (CRP)

MostcountieshaveaUSDAServiceCenterand/orNRCSoffice(oneofficemayserveseveralcounties).LookinthetelephonebookbluepagesunderUnitedStatesGovernment-DepartmentofAgriculture.

Headquarters-Morgantown:(304)291-4351EastTeams-Philippi:(304)457-1118or4516SouthTeams-Beckley:(304)255-9225or9226WestTeams-Parkersburg:(304)422-9082or9083PlantMaterialsCenter-Alderson:(304)445-3005

USD

A/N

RC

S Ph

oto

Use native warm season grasses to provide cover and food for wildlife.

��

Farm Service Agency/ USDA Service CentersQuestions on many federally funded programs for wildlife habitat enhancement or timber stand improvement.

LookinthetelephonebookbluepagesunderUnitedStatesGovernmentforlocaloffices.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program for habitat conservation and enhancement for private landowners

U.S.FishandWildlifeServiceWestVirginiaFieldOffice-Elkins:(304)636-6586

BIRD SURVEY RESOURCESThesevolunteer,non-profitorganizationsmaybeabletohelpyoudeterminewhatbirdspeciescur-

rentlyuseyourpropertyandwhatspeciesmaycomeinafteratimberharvest.

Brooks Bird ClubWheelingChapter-POBox4077,Wheeling,WV26003HandlanChapter-2720LakeviewDr.,St.Albans,WV25177BibbeeNatureClub-126FincastleLn.,Bluefield,WV24701LeonWilsonBirdClub-111JeffersonParkDr.,Huntington,WV25705

WV Audubon SocietyMountaineerChapter-POBox422,Morgantown,WV26507PotomacValleyChapter-POBox578,Shepherdstown,WV25443

Oglebay Good Zoo-EducationDepartment-(304)243-4068

Schrader Environmental Education Center -(304)242-6855

WV Partners in Flight-c/otheWVDNR-(304)637-0245

Three Rivers Avian Center-(304)466-4683or(800)721-5252

WV Raptor Rehabilitation Center -(800)540-6390

Additionally,stateandfederalagencypersonnelmaybeable,iftimeallows,toaidlandownersindeterminingsongbirduseoftheprop-

erty.LocalDivisionofNaturalResources,DivisionofForestryorNaturalResourceConservationSer-viceoffices(see adjacent page for contact information),theCanaanValleyorOhioRiverIslandNationalWildlifeRefuges,ortheMonongahelaNationalForestRangerStationsmaybeabletoaidlandownersinfindingqualifiedpersonstoconductabirdsurvey.Localcollegesanduniversitiesmayalsohaveperson-nelassociatedwiththemthatcouldhelplandownersdeterminewhatbirdspeciesareontheirproperty.

CanaanValleyNWR-HC70,Box200,DavisWV26260,(304)866-3858

OhioRiverIslandsNWR-POBox1811,ParkersburgWV26101,(304)422-0752

Monongahela National ForestSupervisor’sOffice-200SycamoreSt.,Elkins,WV26241,(304)636-1800CheatRangerDistrict-POBox368,ParsonsWV26287,(304)478-3251MarlintonRangerDistrict-CemeteryRd,MarlintonWV24954,(304)799-4334GauleyRangerDistrict-MarlintonRd.,RichwoodWV26261,(304)846-2695PotomacRangerDistrict-HC59Box240,PetersburgWV26847,(304)257-4488GreenbrierRangerDistrict-RangerStation,BartowWV24920,(304)456-3335

Bob

Woo

d

Blue-winged warbler

�0

ThislistofprioritybirdspeciesisatoolforalllandownersconcernedaboutbirdstomakemoreinformeddecisionsonlanduseinWestVirginia.ThelistwasdevelopedbyWVPartnersinFlight

(WVPIF),astatebirdconservationorganization.Itisdividedintothreeparts.Firstarethosebirdswhicharerareinthestate,suchastheHenslow’ssparrow,orwhichhaveanunknownstatusinthestate,suchasthegreatblueheron.Secondarethosebirdsofconservationconcern,specieswhosepopulationshavedeclinedinWestVirginiaand/orelsewhereandwhichhavealargepercent-ageoftheirbreedingpopulationinourstate,suchastheceruleanwarbler.Thirdarespeciesthatarerelativelycom-moninselectedhabitatsandthatfunctionasindicatorsofthehealthofthathabitat,suchasthebeltedkingfisherforstreams.

Thesespecieswillbehighlightedformonitoring,re-search,conservationandeducation,butthelistisdynam-ic.WVPIFwelcomesnewinformationandchangestothislistareexpectedovertime.WVPIFcanbecontactedthroughtheWestVirginiaDNRElkinsOperationsCenter:(304)637-0245oronlineatwww.wvdnr.gov.

Appendix IV

West Virginia Partners In Flight Priority Species

Bria

n M

cDon

ald,

WVD

NR

Rare, Little Known and Status Unknown Species in West Virginia

Common yellow throat

Pied-billedGrebeAmericanBitternLeastBitternGreatBlueHeronYellow-crownedNightHeronBlack-crownedNightHeronBlackVultureAmericanBlackDuckGreen-wingedTealHoodedMerganserOspreyBaldEagleNorthernHarrierNorthernGoshawkCooper’sHawkSharp-shinnedHawkPeregrineFalconNorthernBobwhiteKingRailVirginiaRailSora

BobolinkCommonMoorhenAmericanCootSpottedSandpiperUplandSandpiperWilson’sSnipeBlack-billedCuckooBarnOwlLong-earedOwlShort-earedOwlNorthernSaw-whetowlCommonNighthawkChuck-Will’s-WidowRed-headedWoodpeckerYellow-belliedSapsuckerOlive-sidedFlycatcherYellow-belliedFlycatcherAlderFlycatcherHornedLarkBankSwallowPineSiskin

CliffSwallowBrownCreeperAppalachianBewick’sWrenSedgeWrenMarshWrenSwainson’sThrushGolden-wingedWarblerNashvilleWarblerYellow-rumpedWarblerBlackburnianWarblerProthonotaryWarblerSwainson’sWarblerNorthernWaterthrushBachman’sSparrowVesperSparrowLarkSparrowGrasshopperSparrowHenslow’sSparrowDickcissel

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Red-eyed Vireo

Grasshopper Sparrow Golden-winged Warbler

Black-throated Blue Warbler

Species of Conservation ConcernWhip-poor-will EasternWood-peweeAcadianFlycatcherLoggerheadShrikeWoodThrush Blue-wingedWarbler Golden-wingedWarblerPrairieWarblerCeruleanWarblerWorm-eatingWarblerLouisianaWaterthrush

Percentage Of Change Per Year

KentuckyWarblerFieldSparrow

Indicator SpeciesBeltedKingfisher Red-eyedVireoBlack-throatedBlueWarblerYellow-throatedWarbler Yellow-breastedChatScarletTanagerEasternMeadowlarkIndigoBunting

Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) Population Trends For Selected Songbirds 1966-2003

Significant decrease

See the USGS BBS site www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/bbs.html for

more maps and information

Using long-term breeding bird data, the BBS calculated trends and produced these maps to give a vi-sual representation of what breeding bird populations are doing. Note that each species’ trends may vary con-siderably across its range, increasing in some regions while declining in others. Predominate trends indicate, however, that while species such as the black-throated blue warbler is generally increasing across its range, the golden-winged warbler is declining. The grey areas of the maps indicate no BBS coverage.

PossibleDecrease

Unchanged PossibleIncrease

Significant Increase

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Expected Results of Forest Management Practices on Songbird Species of Conservation Concern Habitat

Assumes cutting with subsequent forest regrowth and no human development

Appendix V

+ = practice enhances or produces sufficient habitat- = practice degrades or produces insufficient habitat

1 = needs wooded riparian habitat2 = needs agricultural landscape3 = needs large rivers4 = breeds above 2,000 feet in West Virginia5 = needs mast producing trees in winter6 = breeds above 2,000 feet in West Virginia bogs7 = very short term habitat gain, if any8 = effects after compeletion of 2- to 3-stage process

Prothonotary warbler

John

and

Kar

en H

ollin

gsw

orth

/USF

WS

Phot

o

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Appendix VI

WV PIF Management Guidelines GlossarybreedingrangeThetotalcombinedland

areawhereaspeciesofbirdproducesandraisesyoung.Migratorybirdsusuallyreturntothisareaeveryyear.Thisareacanbequitelarge,i.e.,Cana-da,orfairlysmall,i.e.,north-centralMichigan.

breedingpopulationThegroupofbirdsofonespeciesinalocalareathatmateandraisetheiryoung.

BreedingBirdSurvey(BBS)Annualbirdsurveysthatstartedin1966andarecoordinatedbytheU.S.FishandWildlifeService.ThesurveysarerunduringJunebyvolunteersthroughoutthecontinentalUnitedStatesandsouthernCanada.Eachrouteis25mileslongwithstopsevery½mile.Theobserverrecordseverybirdseenorheardduringathree-minuteperiod.WestVirginiahas38BBSroutes.

broodparasitismThefemalesofafewbirdspecieslayseggsinthenestsofahostspe-cieswhichraisestheparasiticspeciesasoneof

itsownbrood.Oftenthelargerparasiticnestlingpushesthehostnestlingsoutofthenestorout-competesthemforfood,causingthatnesttofail

toproducebirdsofthehostspecies.AcommonbroodparasiteintheUnitedStatesisthebrown-headedcowbird.

bufferzonesLandwherehumanactivitiesarecontrolledorrestrictedtoprotectanadjacentsensitivearea.Examplesincludelandsurroundingabaldeaglenestsiteorthestripoflandrunningparalleltoastreamwherehumanactivitiesshouldbeminimized.

canopyTheuppermostlayeroffoliageinaforestformedbythecrownsoftrees.

coniferplantationEvergreentreesusuallyplantedinrowswithpredeterminedspacingtoen-couragerapid,straightgrowth.InWestVirginia

theseareoftengrownforChristmastrees.

coniferousCone-bearingtreesorshrubs,mostlyevergreen,withneedle-shapedorscale-likeleaves.Examplesinclude:hemlock,pine,spruce,cedarandlarch.

contiguousLandareasthatareadjacenttooneanother.

continuousLandwithsimilarvegetationthatisuninterruptedinstructure.

coppicingTheprocessofencouragingthesproutingofyoungtreesfromalivestump.

corridorAstripoflandconnectingtwoormoreareaswithsimilarvegetationthatisusedbyanimalsandplantstomovefromoneareatotheother.

cowbirdparasitismSee brood parasitism.

DBHForestmanagementacronymforDi-ameterofatreeatBreastHeight(measuredat4.5feetfromtheground).

DDTDichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.Apersistentorganochlorineinsecticidethat,alongwithitsbyproductDDE,worksitswayupthefoodchainbyaccumulatinginfattytissuesofmanyspeciesofwildlife.Thischemicalinterfereswithbirdreproductionbycausingthineggshellsandbehaviorchanges.DDTusewasbannedintheUnitedStates,butitisstillmanufacturedintheU.S.andsoldtoothercountries.

deciduousPlantsthatshedtheirleavesusu-allyduringautumn.

Mar

shal

l Ilif

f

Brown-headed cowbird

In coppicing, the stump sprouts connected in a “U” shape as shown by the two outside stems are acceptable choices for crop trees; but “V” connection sprouts (center) generally should not be considered.

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earlysuccessionalThevegetationthatgrowsonanareafollowingsignificantdisturbance.Itusuallyreferstoareasdominatedbygrasses,briers,wildflowersand/orshrubs.Example:thevegetationgrowingonnewlyclearedland,suchasaroadcut.

edgeThetransitionalareawheredifferenthabitatscometogether.Anexampleistheareabetweenafieldandadjacentforest.

feralAcultivatedplantordomesticanimalthathasrevertedbacktoawildstate.Forexam-ple:feralhousecats.

fledgling Thestageofayoungbird’slifeafteritleavesthenestandbeforeitbecomes

anadult.Usu-allythebirddoesnotreturntothenestandreceivesdecreasingparentalcare.

fragmenta-tionThelong-termsubdivisionorisolationofoncelargeandcon-tinuoustractsofhabitatintosmaller

areassurroundedbyamatrixofunlikehabitats.Thisisusuallyassociatedwithlossofforestedorgrasslandhabitattohumaninducedchanges,suchasagricultureordevelopment.Thedegreeoffrag-mentationdependsontheshapeofthefragmentsandtheirarrangementinthelandscape.Gener-ally,themoreirregulartheshapesandthemoreisolatedthefragments,thegreatertheeffect.

girdlingTheprac-ticeofcuttingintoatreeatleastoneinchdeepintwolocationsatleastfourinchesapartcompletelyencirclingthetrunktocutofffoodandwatertransporttokillthetree.Thestandingdeadtreeservesashabitatforwildlifeandprovidesotherecologicalfunctions.

habitatThepresenceandarrangementoffood,water,shelterandspacethatananimalorplantrequiresforsurvival.

herbaceousVegetationwithsoftstemsthatdiebackeveryautumnandarereplacedbynewgrowthinthespring.Examplesarewildflowersandmostferns.

herbicideAchemicalusedforkillingun-wantedplants.Theyvaryintheirspecificity;somekillingawidevarietyofplants,othersonlybroad-leavedplants,andothersonlygrasses.Manyareverytoxictoaquaticlife.

hybridizationThematingofindividualsofdifferentspeciesthathavedifferentgeneticcom-position,creatingahybridoffspringwithcharac-teristicsofbothspecies.Anexampleisthematingofgolden-wingedandblue-wingedwarblersthatproducesindividualscalledBrewster’swarblers.

incubationTheamountoftimeabirdspendssittingonitseggsbeforetheegghatches.Somebirdswillbegintoincubatetheireggsimme-diatelyafteraneggislaid(hawksandowls),whileotherbirdswaituntilthelasteggoftheclutchislaid(ducks,mostsongbirds).

insecticideAchemicalusedforkillingin-sects.Insecticidesvaryintheirtoxicityandspecific-ity.Someareverygeneral,ornon-specific,andwillkillabroadvarietyofinsectsandsometimesotherwildlife;othersarespecifictoaspeciesorasmallgroupofinsects.

matureforestAdescriptivetermthatrefersmainlytoforeststhathaveattainedmostoftheirheightgrowthandhaveatleastsomeofthefollow-

WV

DN

R P

hoto

Robin fledgling

Girdling.

Spotted jewelweed is an example of herbaceous vegetation that dies back in autumn.

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Olc

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WVD

NR

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Jam

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. Pac

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Thinned black cherry stand showing herbaceous understory.

ingcharacteristics:avarietyoftreespeciesandagesfromseedlingstooldindividuals;leavesoccurringatmanyheights;avarietyofgroundcovers;stand-ingordowndeadtreesandotherwoodymaterial;openingsintheforestcanopythatletinlight.

migratoryAdescriptivetermforbirdsandotheranimalsthatseasonallytravellongdistancestoescapesevereweatherand/orfoodshortagesandreturnonceconditionsimprove.

mixedforestAforestcontainingamixtureofbothconiferousanddeciduoustrees.

neotropicalmigrantBirdsthatreturntobreedinnorthernclimatesofNorthAmericaeveryspringandmigrateduringthefalltotropicalareassuchasCentralAmerica,MexicoandSouthAmericatospendthewinter.

nest site fidelityAdescriptivetermforbirdsthatshowapreferencetoreturntothesameareaeitherwheretheywerehatchedand/orhadprevi-ouslyraisedaclutch.

pesticideAchemicalusedforkillingun-wantedpests,eitheranimals,typicallyinsectsorfungi.

riparianThelandadjacenttostreams,riversandwetlands.

shrublayerThelayerinaforestconsistingofwoodyplantshavingmanystemsratherthanonemaintrunkandusuallylessthan20feettall.

shrub/scrubVegetationconsistingofsmalltreesandlowwoodyvegetation.

snagAstandingdeadordyingtree.Snagsprovidehabitatsforavarietyofbirdsandotheranimals.

stumpsproutsSproutsgrowingfromthestumpofatreeafterithasbeencut.See coppicing.

successionThegradualnaturalprogres-sivechangeoveryearsofonehabitatintoanother.Example:Agrassyfieldgrowingtoashrubbymeadowandthenintoaforest.

understoryThelayerofvegetationgrowingunderanotherhigherlayerofvegetation.Exam-ple:shrubsgrowingundertreesinaforest.

uplandLandlocatedonplateaus,hills,mountainsandridgetops.

warm season grass Grassspeciesthatachievemostoftheirgrowthduringthemiddleofsum-mer;theytypicallyhavedeeprootsystemsandprovidecoverduringthewinterbecausetheystayerect.

Sue

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WVD

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Woodland streams provide habitat and resources for many forest nesting species.

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Checklist of West Virginia’s Breeding Bird Species

Appendix VII

WV Breeding Bird Species

Clos

ed C

anop

y Fo

rest

Edge

s & G

aps

Open

Can

opy

Fore

st

Conif

erou

s Fo

rest

Shru

b and

Sc

rub

Ripa

rian

For

est

Ripa

rian

Wetl

and

Gras

sland

Cliff

Resid

entia

l/ To

wn

DUCKS AND GEESE

Canada Goose NF NF FWood Duck N N F FBlack Duck NF NFMallard NF NFBlue-winged Teal NF NFHooded Merganser N F FGROUSE

Ring-necked Pheasant NFRuffed Grouse NF NFWild Turkey NF NFNorthern Bobwhite NF NF NFWADERS

American Bittern NFLeast Bittern NFGreat Blue Heron N N F FGreen Heron NF NFHAWKS AND ALLIES

Black Vulture NF F NF F NTurkey Vulture NF F NF F NOsprey N NF F FBald Eagle N F F FNorthern Harrier NF NFSharp-shinned Hawk NF NFCooper’s Hawk NF NF NF FNorthern Goshawk* NF NFRed-shouldered Hawk NF NF NF FBroad-winged hawk NF NFRed-tailed Hawk NF NFPeregrine Falcon F F N NFAmerican Kestrel N NFRAILS AND ALLIES

King Rail NFVirginia Rail NFSora NFCommon Moorhen NF NFSHOREBIRDS

Killdeer NF NFSpotted Sandpiper NF NFUpland Sandpiper* NFWilson’s Snipe NFAmerican Woodcock NF NF NF

Key: N=nesting habitat; F=feeding habitat; NF=nesting and feeding habitat; *=typically nests at elevations above 2,000 feet in WV

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WV Breeding Bird Species Cl

osed

Ca

nopy

For

est

Edge

s &

Gaps

Open

Can

opy

Fore

st

Conif

erou

s Fo

rest

Shru

b and

Sc

rub

Ripa

rian

Fore

st

Ripa

rian

Wetl

and

Gras

sland

Cliff

Resid

entia

l/ To

wn

DOVES

Rock Pigeon N NFMourning Dove N NF F F NFCUCKOOS

Black-billed Cuckoo NF NF NFYellow-billed Cuckoo NF NF NF NFOWLS

Barn Owl NF NFEastern Screech Owl NF NF NF NF NFGreat-horned Owl NF NF F NFBarred Owl NF NFLong-eared Owl* NF NFNorthern Saw-whet Owl* NF FGOATSUCKERS

Common Nighthawk F N NFChuck-will’s-widow NFWhip-poor-will NF NFSWIFTS

Chimney Swift F NFHUMMINGBIRDS

Ruby-throated Hummingbird NF NF F NF NFKINGFISHERS

Belted Kingfisher NFWOODPECKERS

Red-headed Woodpecker NF NFRed-bellied Woodpecker NF NF NF NFYellow-bellied Sapsucker* NF NFDowny Woodpecker NF NF NF NF NFHairy Woodpecker NF NF NFNorthern Flicker NF NF NF NF NFPileated Woodpecker NFFLYCATCHERS

Olive-sided Flycatcher* NFEastern Wood-Pewee NF NF NF NF NFYellow-bellied Flycatcher* NFAcadian Flycatcher NF NFAlder Flycatcher* NFWillow Flycatcher NF NFLeast Flycatcher* NF NFEastern Phoebe NF NF NF NFGreat-crested Flycatcher NF NF

Key: N=nesting habitat; F=feeding habitat; NF=nesting and feeding habitat; *=typically nests at elevations above 2,000 feet in WV

��

WV Breeding Bird Species Cl

osed

Ca

nopy

For

est

Edge

s &

Gaps

Open

Can

opy

Fore

st

Conif

erou

s Fo

rest

Shru

b and

Sc

rub

Ripa

rian

Fore

st

Ripa

rian

Wetl

and

Gras

sland

Cliff

Resid

entia

l/ To

wn

Eastern Kingbird NF NF FSHRIKES

Loggerhead Shrike NF NFVIREOS

White-eyed Vireo NF NF NFBlue-headed Vireo* NF NF NFYellow-throated Vireo NF NFWarbling Vireo NF NFRed-eyed Vireo NF NF NF NF NFCORVIDS

Blue Jay NF NF F NF NFAmerican Crow NF NF F F F NF F F NFFish Crow NF N F NFCommon Raven NF F F F F F F N FLARKS

Horned Lark NFSWALLOWS

Purple Martin NF F NFTree Swallow NF N F NF NFNorthern Rough-winged Swallow NF F F FBank Swallow N FCliff Swallow N F N NFBarn Swallow F F NFPARIDS

Black-capped Chickadee NF NF NF NFCarolina Chickadee NF NF NF NF NFTufted Titmouse NF NF NF NF NFNUTHATCHES

Red-breasted Nuthatch* NF NFWhite-breasted Nuthatch NF NF NFCREEPERS

Brown Creeper NF NFWRENS

Carolina Wren NF NF NF NF NFBewick’s Wren NF NFHouse Wren NF NF NF NF NFWinter Wren* NF NFSedge Wren NFTHRUSHES AND KINGLETS

Golden-crowned Kinglet* NF NFBlue-gray Gnatcatcher NF NF NF NF NFEastern Bluebird NF F NF NF

Key: N=nesting habitat; F=feeding habitat; NF=nesting and feeding habitat; *=typically nests at elevations above 2,000 feet in WV

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Key: N=nesting habitat; F=feeding habitat; NF=nesting and feeding habitat; *=typically nests at elevations above 2,000 feet in WV

WV Breeding Bird Species

Clos

ed C

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rest

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Open

Can

opy

Fore

st

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s Fo

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Ripa

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Fore

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Ripa

rian

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and

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Resid

entia

l/ To

wn

Veery* NF NFSwainson’s Thrush* NFHermit Thrush* NF NF NF NFWood Thrush NF NF NF NFAmerican Robin NF NF NF F NFMIMICS

Gray Catbird NF NF NF NFNorthern Mockingbird NF NF F NFBrown Thrasher NF NFSTARLINGS

European Starling NF NF F NFWAXWINGS

Cedar Waxwing NF NF NF NFWARBLERS

Blue-winged Warbler NF NFGolden-winged Warbler NF NFNashville Warbler* NF NF NF NFNorthern Parula NF NF NFYellow Warbler NF NF NF NF NFChestnut-sided Warbler* NF NF NFMagnolia Warbler* NF NF NFBlack-throated Blue Warbler* NF NF NFYellow-rumped Warbler* NF NF NFBlack-throated Green Warbler NF NFBlackburnian Warbler* NF NFYellow-throated Warbler NFPine Warbler NF NFPrairie Warbler NF NFCerulean Warbler NF NF NFBlack-and-white Warbler NF F NFAmerican Redstart NF NFProthonotary Warbler NFWorm-eating Warbler NFSwainson’s Warbler NF NFOvenbird NF NFNorthern Waterthrush* NF NFLouisiana Waterthrush NFKentucky Warbler NF NF NFMourning Warbler* NF NF NFCommon Yellowthroat NF NF NF NFHooded Warbler NF NF

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WV Breeding Bird Species Cl

osed

Ca

nopy

For

est

Edge

s &

Gaps

Open

Can

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Fore

st

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rest

Shru

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Ripa

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Fore

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entia

l/ To

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Canada Warbler* NF NF NFYellow-breasted Chat NF NFTANAGERS

Summer Tanager NF NF NFScarlet Tanager NF FSPARROWS

Dickcissel NFEastern Towhee NF NF NF NFBachman’s Sparrow NFChipping Sparrow NF NF NFField Sparrow NF NFVesper Sparrow NFLark Sparrow NFSavannah Sparrow NFGrasshopper Sparrow NFHenslow’s Sparrow NFSong Sparrow NF NF NFSwamp Sparrow NFWhite-throated Sparrow* NF NFDark-eyed Junco* NF NF NF NFGROSBEAKS/BUNTINGS

Northern Cardinal NF NF NF NF NFRose-breasted Grosbeak NF NFBlue Grosbeak NF NF NFIndigo Bunting NF NFBLACKBIRDS

Bobolink NFRed-winged Blackbird NF NF NFEastern Meadowlark NFCommon Grackle NF NFBrown-headed Cowbird NF NF NFOrchard Oriole NF NF NFBaltimore Oriole NF NF NFFINCHES

Purple Finch* NF NFHouse Finch NFPine Siskin* NFAmerican Goldfinch NF NF F NFHouse Sparrow NF

Key: N=nesting habitat; F=feeding habitat; NF=nesting and feeding habitat; *=typically nests at elevations above 2,000 feet in WV

Funding for this publication was provided by:

Additional copies may be obtained from:

West Virginia Division of Natural ResourcesWildlife Resources Section

The Handlan Chapter of the Brooks Birding Club

The Natural Resources Conservation Service West Virginia Plant Materials Center

Natural Resources Conservation ServiceWest Virginia Plant Materials Center

Old Prison Farm RoadP.O. Box 390

Alderson, WV 24910 304-445-3005

West Virginia Division of Natural ResourcesWildlife Resources Section

Ward RoadP.O. Box 67

Elkins, WV 26241304-637-0245

www.wvdnr.gov

West Virginia Division of Natural Resources

Wildlife Resources SectionWildlife Diversity Program

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