Meghan O’Leary

ENGL 399

Implications of the Different Versions of Irish Myths: Deirdre Myth

Listening to Irish poet Tony Curtis, perched on a stool in an old Irish schoolhouse, tell

the story of Deirdre, my imagination calls up the gory battle in the big field that he

describes so eloquently. The beautiful heroine is carried away, her lover dead, and

throws her upper body out of the carriage in order to bash her head open on the rocks

and branches. I can almost hear the clanging of armor, or hear the shocked cries of a

passerby watching Deirdre fling herself headfirst into death rather than live without

her love. Later, my teacher tells a less dramatic version. Deirdre dies in grief over her

dead lover, after he and his brothers are tricked out of their tent and ambushed.

Deirdre is dead even before the villain comes to claim her. The variable nature of myth

is present simply in the memories of these two adults, the versions they have always

known or been told, without knowing exactly where they heard it.

In Ireland, legend plays a large part in remembrance of the country’s history.

While events in Irish legends may be fictional, the attitudes and values they exhibit

have survived to become an embedded part of modern Irish culture. Various

characters and stories in Irish lore have survived from ancient Celtic mythology, and

can be learned now only from retellings written or translated by authors far

removed from the original storytellers. Many versions of many Irish myths exist in

the written form, and each has slight, or occasionally radical, differences. The myth

of Deirdre and Naoise, told in a series of stories known as the Ulster Cycle, provides

an effective example of a well-known Irish legend that is represented in many

different ways by different authors now. The original version of the story can never

be known, and the versions today may be far from what the original storyteller

conceived. Despite this departure from its original form, the various portrayals of

the myth in more modern times are just as, if not more important, as they indicate

the author’s intentions to cast the story in a specific light. The story has been tackled

by many authors, particularly some very influential Irish writers, and can be seen

from a nationalist perspective as a representation of the struggle between Ireland

and England as portrayed through Naoise and Deirdre against Conchobar. Versions

of the Deirdre myth as told by William Butler Yeats and John Millington Synge, and

translated by Lady Augusta Gregory, contain various differences that indicate the

unfixed nature of mythology and the ways in which the story can be molded to

portray different intentions.

Like other folklore, Celtic myths were first passed down through oral

tradition. As stories passed down through generations by word of mouth, they could

change depending on who was telling the story and when and where it was being

told. As time went on, the different versions that were eventually recorded in

writing may have varied greatly from their genuine templates, while still most likely

retaining their most important aspects. The Deirdre myth, as part of the Ulster

Cycle, is one of the stories that “were recorded from oral tradition between the 8th

and 11th century and are preserved in the 12th-century manuscripts The Book of

the Dun Cow (c. 1100) and The Book of Leinster (c. 1160) and also in later

compilations, such as The Yellow Book of Lecan (14th century)” (Ulster Cycle).

Deirdre specifically features in The Fate of the Sons of Usnech, describing the love

story between Deirdre and Naoise, one of the titular sons of Usnech, and their flight

along with his brothers from King Conchobar of Ulster, who wanted to marry

Deirdre. While Deirdre, Naoise, and Conchobar feature in the different versions of

the story, the events of the plot and the ways in which these events come about

differ in the voices of Yeats, Synge, and Lady Gregory.

Lady’s Gregory’s Cuchulain of Muirthemne is a translation including “Fate of

the Sons of Usnach.” Lady Gregory introduces her translation by reminding the

reader, “there is very little of the history of Cuchulain and his friends left in the

memory of the people, but only that they were brave men and good fighters, and

that Deirdre was beautiful” (Gregory). Deirdre’s beauty, and the ruin it created of

Ulster’s men, comes with a story, which Lady Gregory knew was important enough

to translate for future generations. Yeats provides a preface to the book, in which he

describes the ways in which translators translate manuscripts as best they can from

retellings of various versions of the story. He praises Lady Gregory’s translation, as

she consolidated and edited the many stories into one version that is as accurate

and understandable as she could make it. He starts off with, “I think this book is the

best that has come out of Ireland in my time,” and only continues to flatter the

version from there, making sure to note her commitment to upholding the lyrical

quality and meandering dialect used to describe the epic drama of these stories.

Lady Gregory’s translation of the Deirdre myth does appear to contain more detail

than Yeats’ own short story or Synge’s play.

Yeats’ version of the Deirdre myth includes a cast of romanticized characters.

Yeats is known for considering people in his works as symbols, and Deirdre and

Naoise prove to be no exception, as he emphasizes the love story between the two.

He highlights the romance of Naoise sweeping Deirdre off her feet and away from

Conchobar, as well as their unwavering devotion to each other until they very end.

The tragedy comes inevitably to Yeats, a construction of fate, and the only course of

action for the lovers is to remain loyal until the end and refuse to live without one

another. The pair is seemingly uninterested in any kind of resistance to the death

they know is coming for them, accepting their intertwined tragic fates like true

idealized heroic lovers. Yeats uses this characterization of a stoic acceptance of

one’s fate to portray his idea of how one should behave; not that he expects his

readers to act like his heroes, but that these mythological figures represent an ideal

for the common people to strive for, even if they may never truly achieve the

greatness he envisions.

Synge’s play Deirdre of the Sorrows features a more independent Deirdre, less

passive than her character as portrayed by Yeats or Lady Gregory. Battle and honor

are particularly evident themes in this play, as the warlike nature of man is explored

through the actions of the heroes. There are more political undertones in Deirdre of

the Sorrows than in the other works, exhibited in Synge’s questioning of the rights of

King Conchobar to simply take what he wants because of his position. Deirdre and

Naoise can stand for the freedom and romanticized traditional Ireland, facing

against the foreign power of Conchobar and his desire to part the lovers and impose

his will upon everyone. Synge also provides a nationalist portrayal of the

importance of Irish culture. Ireland struggled to prove that its culture was individual

and worthwhile during its history of interference from other nations, and Synge

makes a point to identify the importance of Irish traditions and people. In resistance

to her future as Conchobar’s wife, Deirdre proclaims, “from this day I will turn the

men of Ireland like a wind blowing on the heath” (Synge). In Synge’s portrayal of

Deirdre, he recognizes a woman as more of an active participant of her life rather

than doomed to her fate, as in Yeats’ version, or commanded by men in Lady

Gregory’s translation.

In her translation, Lady Gregory chose to display the passive, innocent

Deirdre rather than the aggressive representation, although both types can be found

in earlier versions. Making this choice indicates a generally traditional view of

women, that they are there to provide the damsel to the men’s war hero stories. One

academic review states, “Lady Gregory's treatment of the Deirdre story in her

Cuchulain saga has often been cited as an example of self-imposed censorship;

critics have variously explained her adaptation of the story as indicative of her own

antifeminist inclinations, her tendency to romanticize, or her intention to uphold

Victorian ideals of femininity and propriety” (Golightly). By downgrading Deirdre’s

role in her story, she elevates Naoise and his brothers, Ainnle and Ardan, lending

credence to the nationalist glory of the male soldier fighting for justice against a

tyrant king. The translation gives the power to the men, which supports the

idolization of the hero and allows the everyday person to admire and strive to be

like Naoise, but in order to do so, Deirdre cannot be the propelling force in the story.

Many of the discrepancies among the three works are not in the form of the

events themselves, but in the characters’ reasoning behind what happened. Keeping

the bare bones of the story while changing the traits and intentions of the characters

allows for the artistic license that makes for all these valid versions of the Deirdre

story. Rising action occurs in the form of the group’s return to Ireland after fleeing

and hiding from Conchobar and his retribution for so long. The reason they return

differs depending on how the author wants to portray the characters’ thoughts and

interactions. In Yeats’ version, Naoise takes Conchobar’s word, conveyed through

Fergus, that he and Deirdre will be safe if they return to Ireland. Alternately, in

Synge’s play, Deirdre convinces Naoise to return to Ireland, even though Owen goes

into a fit and reveals Conchobar’s plan to renege on his word. Deirdre urges Naoise

to consider their need for a homeland, as they do not belong in hiding and all things

must come to an end. Fergus taunts Deirdre with her fear that remaining in hiding

as they age will cause Naoise to tire of her anyway. Deirdre does not want to be

known for being old and abandoned, and so she convinces Naoise, Ainnle, and Ardan

to return to Ireland to meet their destiny, whether they die or not. While she is

returning to almost certain death that really could have been avoided, she is also

refusing to hide from Conchobar any longer and chooses to put an end to her

waiting one way or another. She glorifies death and willingness to fight for Ireland,

professing, “It may be we do well putting a sharp end to the day is brave and

glorious, as our fathers put a sharp end to the kings of Ireland…Fergus, it’s a

lonesome thing to be away from Ireland always” (Synge). Giving Deirdre the power

to sway the men into returning gives Deirdre autonomy rather than painting her as

Naoise’s beautiful prop. Celtic roots in matriarchy lend credence to this version of

Deirdre, as well as appealing to the nationalist cause in Ireland which required the

participation, sacrifice, and inclusion of all its members, including women. This

sequence of events is slightly reversed in Lady Gregory’s translation, in which

Naoise welcomes Fergus, and forces Deirdre to return to Ireland even after she

protests that they will meet almost certain death and reveals that she has had very

strong premonitions against going back to Conchobar. Deirdre interprets her dream

with “Fergus that is coming to us with a message of peace from Conchobar, for

honey is not sweeter than a message of peace sent by a lying man” and Naoise

responds, “”Is there anything in it but troubled sleep and the melancholy of

woman?” (Gregory). Naoise ignores her caution and belittles her premonitions,

choosing instead to go back to the comfort and familiarity of his old land and taking

Fergus and Conchobar’s word that the lovers will find sanctuary in their previous

enemy’s old age and newfound forgiveness.

Embedded in the Deirdre story are the themes of magic and mysticism that

are still prevalent in Irish culture. The way the authors choose to represent the

influence of magic also influences the way in which traditional Irish culture is

represented. In Yeats’ story and Synge’s play, the only real reference to

otherworldly forces comes from the prophecy, referenced by Synge in his repetitive

use of “the troubles that are foretold” while Yeats merely implies the presence of the

prophecy as the catalyst of the events he describes, relying on fate to serve as the

only otherworldly force really guiding his story. Both authors seem to downplay the

role of specific magic, accounting for a more modern Irish audience that relied on

earthly forces to protect them from the unrest in their own lives. In contrast, Lady

Gregory includes more of the magic that would be evident in earlier translations,

giving Cathbad the druid, who initially gives the prophecy “Let Deirdre be her name;

harm will come through her…O Deirdre, on whose account many shall weep, on

whose account many women will be envious, there will be trouble on Ulster for your

sake” (Gregory). Conchobar’s resultant expectations of her beauty and her role in

history cause him to hide her away until she can become his wife. This greed and

recklessness is put into motion by the prophecy, and it is not the last the reader sees

of Cathbad the druid’s meddling. Conchobar requests his help later, assuring

Cathbad that his enchantment on the sons of Usna will foster peace, and then

brutally slaying them. Cathbad’s anger at being tricked manifests in a curse on

Conchobar’s descendants that none of them shall rule. Lady Gregory including the

force of magic affecting the line of succession casts magic in an important role as a

force that can affect history. This choice can be seen as a decision to stick to earlier

translations, which undoubtedly emphasized magic before religion found its way to

Ireland, and provides a counterpoint to many translations by Christian monks who

would have downplayed or left out as much mysticism, perceived as paganism, as

possible. Reclaiming Irish culture and asserting its importance requires

acknowledgement of ancient customs and beliefs, which Lady Gregory showcases as

a vital part of the events of Deirdre’s story.

Honor and heroism also feature in Celtic culture. While gallantry and chivalry

may make one think of medieval times, literature describing traditional Celtic

stories stresses the value of honor and the dangers of disgrace. Understanding the

importance of honor and reputation is vital to a true interpretation of Deirdre’s

story, as it guides the characters’ actions and motives. Fergus is unanimously

featured as a character who is tricked by Conchobar. He truly believes Conchobar’s

word that he wants a peaceful reunion with Naoise and Deirdre and means them no

harm, and Yeats paints Naoise as an honorable man who would take a gentleman at

his word. Naoise remarks, “Being High King, he cannot break his faith. I have his

word and I must take that word, or prove myself unworthy of my nurture under a

great man’s roof” (Yeats). This expectation makes Conchobar’s attack even more

onerous, as he betrays the ideals of his time and not only condemns his own

reputation, but causes Fergus to also break his promise of safety. In all three

versions of the death of the sons of Usna, Fergus is angry that Conchobar lied to him

and vows revenge. Synge’s Fergus sets fire to the house for revenge, perpetuating

the cyclical violence and warlike nature that permeates Ulster’s men. Vengeance

does not mean victory for Conchobar, and reneging on his oath results in his men

turning on him. Fergus struggles with his sense of honor and duty in Lady Gregory’s

version, as Conchobar chooses him as his messenger because he says that even if

Naoise and Deirdre came to harm, he could not hurt his king. Conchobar rewards

Fergus’s loyalty by forcing him to attend a welcome feast, which his sense of honor

would not allow him to avoid, forcing him to abandon his charges to whatever

Conchobar has planned for them. Emphasizing the strengths and pitfalls of the

mythic Celtic warriors’ sense of honor notes the consequences of breaking one’s

word and glorifies the perfect chivalric knight figure, a stock character the average

reader knows to look up to and attempt to emulate in his or her own actions. Using

literature as a guide for how to act is one purpose of stories and why legends are

used to explain people and the world in general.

Deirdre’s story is ultimately a tragedy, resulting not only in her death but in

the deaths of Naoise, Ainnle, and Ardan because of Conchobar’s treachery. In all

three versions, Naoise dies before Deirdre; however, the way the pair dies differs

depending on what the author chooses to convey with each death. Yeats, with his

romantic ideals and star-crossed lovers plot, writes Naoise and Deirdre accepting

their deaths with dignity. “What need have I,” Naoise announces nobly, “that gave up

all for love, to die like an old king out of a fable, fighting and passionate?” (Yeats).

They are willing to sacrifice for one another, and die with honor, as Deirdre

connives her way to Naoise’s body and conceals them both before quietly dying

herself over the body of her lover. In Synge’s version, Naoise and Deirdre seem to

know they are likely returning to face death at the hands of the king and his men,

and the brothers die after Naoise goes out to assist them in battle, and dies in the

process. Deirdre dramatically stabs herself over the grave and falls beside the sons

of Usna. Synge uses the drama to increase the tragedy and injustice of the noble

foursome’s deaths while still expressing admiration for their bravery in the face of

death. Lavarcham concludes the play by speaking remorsefully, “Deirdre is dead,

and Naisi is dead; and if the oaks and stars could die for sorrow, it’s a dark sky and a

hard and naked earth we’d have this night” (Synge). Even Fergus, usually so

energetic and brazen in his defense of the king, tells Conchobar dejectedly that the

war is ended, if only for the night. Lady Gregory’s version of the deaths of the

protagonists is more involved, as Ainnle, Ardan, and Naoise battle and are able to

return to the house where Deirdre waits. All three brothers are brutally decapitated

in one sword strike at Conchobar’s command. Deirdre, depressed and slightly mad

with sorrow, hollowly lives for months in a fishing village and eventually exchanges

her ring for a knife to stab herself in the water, throwing her knife into the sea so

that nobody can be blamed for her death. Drawing out Deirdre’s depression and

decision to kill herself brings Deirdre down from the level of a great heroine and

into a more relatable role of a widow, gutted by grief and abandoning her place as a

Great Woman to come to terms with Naoise’s death and her subsequent suicide.

This violence comes not only at the end of Deirdre’s story, but provides an

undercurrent through the whole tale, reflecting its background of a brutal and

ongoing war in Ulster. This war was between kings, while the events of The Ulster

Cycle, such as Deirdre’s story and The Fate of the Sons of Usna, tell of the men in

Ulster who are affected by the war. Men are represented as heroes, larger-than-life

characters who, juxtaposed with unsavory characters, provide tales of gallantry and

chivalry intended to impress and inspire listeners and readers. This comparison of

the fine line between heroism and violence, warriors and villains, exists primarily in

the male characters. While Naoise and his brothers fight and kill in battle, their

intentions to defend Deirdre make their violence necessary and honorable.

Meanwhile, Conchobar’s violence stems from deceit and dishonor, in an attempt to

satisfy his own greed. Conchobar kills the sons of his sister, Usna, imitating the real

war going on in the background pitting family members against one another for the

cause. Symbolizing strategy and control, a chessboard features in Yeats’ story

showing the pieces as all part of a larger structure, unable to avoid their fates, which

Naoise notes are ominous. One scholar reviews, “Even when it becomes obvious that

Conchubar means to kill them, Naisi does not apologize, but instead says they must

face their deaths with calm, chiding Deirdre for her weakness when she cannot sit

calmly with him and play chess” (“Deirdre: Beyond the Politics Into Poetry and

Myth”). Yeats uses the chessboard to continue to cast Deirdre as a feminine victim in

the game of war men play with such devastating skill. The chessboard also makes an

appearance in Lady Gregory’s version of the Deirdre story, as Deirdre tries to

distract Naoise from Fergus’s arrival at their hideaway by urging him to continue

playing with the board in front of them. She fails in this endeavor, another moment

where the woman tries and fails to play the game with the men.

Conchobar as a character raises the question of the rights of a governing

power. As king, Conchobar feels that he is owed the beautiful Deirdre as his wife,

despite the prophecy that she will bring ruin upon Ulster. Even though she does not

love him, he is obsessed with possessing her, and goes so far as to slay her lover in

an attempt to force her to marry him. He then expects Deirdre to contentedly live

out her life as his wife, despite his murder of Naoise. In Lady Gregory’s translation,

Conchobar’s villainy is further apparent by his desire to hunt down Deirdre and

Naoise only if Deirdre is still the most beautiful woman in the land. This is no quest

for true love, so Conchobar has nothing to redeem his greed. Synge points out the

errors of allowing Conchobar whatever he wants simply because he is in power,

noting through Lavarcham, “You’ll not have her though you’re ready to destroy

mankind and skin the gods to win her. There’s things a king can’t have, Conchubor”

(Synge). Yeats also emphasizes Conchobar’s faults, as the First Musician, who serves

as a sort of Greek Chorus for the story, repeats, “Yet old men are jealous” as a

condemnation of all the destruction caused by his actions. This commentary on the

dangers of absolute power resonate throughout Ireland’s history of tragedy and

resistance, as the country has had many invaders and foreign powers attempt to

place rules and restrictions on the country with no thought to the Irish people.

While Yeats, Synge, and Lady Gregory are the most renowned Irish authors

who have portrayed Deirdre’s story, there are various other versions of the story

which contain slight or major differences. Whether the author is writing a play or

short story like Yeats and Synge, translating like Lady Gregory, or simply providing

the version he or she knows on the internet for general knowledge, many

discrepancies exist. One major difference comes in the form of Deirdre’s mode of

death. In addition to the various means of suicide Lady Gregory, Yeats, and Synge

propose, another account of Deirdre’s actual death frequently exists. One website

centered on Celtic mythology notes, “In the simplest Deirdre is so moved at Naoise’s

death that she falls on his grave and dies. A variant says that…Conchobar presents

Deirdre to Eógan, but as he takes her in his chariot she contrives to leap out and

crushes her head against a stone. A third variant of Deirdre's ending has her

stabbing herself with a knife” (“Derdri”). The version of the story with Deirdre

dashing her head on the rocks does not appear in the versions by Yeats, Synge, or

Lady Gregory, but does seem to pop up online as an uncontested version of the

story. The desperation Deirdre must feel to drive her to such an act contributes to

the overall message of the damage that can be inflicted by unchecked power and

tyranny, and the graphic goriness of her method of death continues the theme of

violence in the Ulster Cycle.

Celtic mythology, which makes up a significant part of Irish culture, has been

rewritten and interpreted in various different ways; Yeats, Synge, and Lady

Gregory’s versions of the Deirdre myth exemplify the ways in which a myth can be

portrayed in literature in order to portray the author’s intended messages.

Advancing Irish nationalism, advocating for and against strong females, and

providing an ideal model for how to live are all reasons authors make choices to cut,

add, and draw attention to certain parts of Deirdre’s story, in addition to the many

known versions of the original myth. Deirdre’s story can be portrayed as both a war

epic and a war critique, spun as a romance or a tragedy, with specific levels of

emphasis placed on the characters or the events. The choices an author makes can

stem from various factors, but ultimately their decisions affect the meaning the

reader will take away from each version of the legend. The ways in which the myths

have been molded and retold through time reflect the values and attitudes of the

time. Ancient Celtic legends do still have an influence on modern Irish society, as it

serves as a way for the Irish people to remember their roots and the beliefs of their

ancestors. While the Irish people may not remember the specifics of Deirdre’s story,

the general themes and messages resonate and stick in the memory, in the same

way teachers and poets will tell two versions of the same story without knowing

why, except that it is how they have always known the myth.

Works Cited

"Derdri." CeltNet. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Aug. 2014. <http://www.celtnet.org.uk/gods_d/

derdri.html>.

Golightly, Karen B. "Lady Gregory's Deirdre: Self-Censorship or Skilled Editing?"

Project Muse. New Hibernia Journal. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Aug.

2014.<http://muse.jhu.edu.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/journals/new_hiberni

a_review/v011/11.1golightly.html>.

Gregory, Lady Augusta. Cuchulain of Muirthemne. N.p.: Charles River Editors, 1902.

Print.

Synge, J. M. Deirdre of the Sorrows. Boston: J.W. Luce, 1911. Print.

"Ulster Cycle." Encyclopedia Britannica. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web.

12 Aug. 2014.

<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613340/Ulster-cycle>.

Yeats, W. B. "Deirdre (1907)." The Yeats Reader: A Portable Compendium of Poetry,

Drama, and Prose, Revised Edition. S.l.: Scribner, 2002. N. pag. Print.