weathering & erosion

MA

GM

A

IGNEOUS

ROCKCYCLE

SEDI-MENTARY

META-

MORPHIC

SE

DIM

EN

TS

lithification

cooling

mel

ting

heatpressure

PRECIPITATION

RUNOFF

EV

AP

OR

AT

ION

WATERCYCLE

CONDENSATIONTRANSPIRATION

STOR

AG

E

WEATHER

CLOUDS

WINDSFRONTS

PPT

ATMOSPHERE

CLIMATE

FORECASTING

SOLARENERGY

Radioactivity fm CORE

SOIL

FRESHWATER GROUNDWATER RIVERS

LIFE CYCLEFUSION

SUN LIFE CYCLESOLAR CYCLESFEATURES

STARS

PLANETS

THE

UNIVERSE

LOCATIONATMOSPHERE

SPECIAL CHARASTEROIDS

MOONSCOMETS

GALAXIES Nature Types

PLATE TECTONICS

EARTHQUAKES

VOLCANOES

CONTINENTALDRIFT/SEA

FLOOR SPREADING

PLATEMOVEMENTS

GEO- HISTORY

VA PhysiographicProvinces

OCEANS

WAVES & TIDES

SEAFLOOR FEATURES

CURRENTS

COASTAL FEATURES

SCI INV

SCI METHOD

GRAPH READING

ENERGYRENEWABLE Hydro, Solar, Biomass NONRENEWABLE Nuclear, Coal, OilPro’s and Con’s

Relative/Absolute DatingRadioactive Half Life

FOSSILS

PreCambrianPaleo, Meso, Ceno ZOICS…

SEASONS

SUNMERCURY

VENUS

EARTH

MARS

MARS

JUPITERSATURN

URANUSNEPTUNE

PLUTO

Solar System AstronomySun - The Sun is a star at the center of our Solar System. Powered by FUSION. ~5BY old. Middle aged, average star.

TERRESTRIAL (ROCKY) Worlds:Mercury - Mercury is the planet closest to the Sun. Looks like Earth’s moon.

Venus - Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is the hottest planet. Runaway greenhouse due to CO2 (carbon Dioxide) Atmosphere.

Earth - Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the planet we live on. ONLY world with LIFE.

Mars - Mars is a red planet and the fourth planet from the Sun. Very thin atmosphere. Being probed for possible manned landings this century.

The GAS GIANTS:Jupiter - Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun. This gas giant is the largest planet. Most moons. Studied by GALILEO probe in ’90’s. Hit by comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 in 1994. Moon Europa is an ice covered ocean. Moon Ganymede bigger than Mercury.

Saturn - Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun. This gas giant has large rings. Currently being studied by CASSINI probe. Moon TITAN only moon with an atmosphere (nitrogen like earth – but very cold).

Uranus - Uranus is a gas giant and is the seventh planet from the Sun. Orbits with axis tilted 90 degrees.

Neptune - Neptune is a gas giant and is usually the eighth planet from the Sun. Fastest winds.

Last planet:Pluto - Pluto is a rocky planet that is usually the farthest planet from the Sun. It is the smallest planet. May be a comet..

Odds ‘n EndsAsteroid belt – loose rocks between Mars and Jupiter about the mass of a moon.

Comets– dirty snowballs that occasionally come near the sun. Tails form in close and are pushed away by solar wind.

Kuiper Belt – cloud of comets just beyond Neptune. Oort Cloud – outer limit of solar system (made up of comets)…

Stellar Life Cycle Astronomy

Hertzsprung Russel (HR)Diagram

TEMP

DIM

BRITE

Main Sequence

ALL STARS:• Start in a NEBULA (remains of an exploded star)• GRAVITY pulls material together• Once large enough, FUSION begins – turns hydrogen to helium -- the star is born• Enters MAIN SEQUENCE

• Big/hot stars have short lives (Blue/Red Giants)• medium/cooler stars live longer (Sun is an average star –will live about 10 BY)• smallest stars (Red Dwarves) live longest

• Small stars will eventually just burn out-a brown dwarf

• Medium Stars: Once hydrogen all burned up star will EXPAND to a red giant (destroying any planets present…) and start FUSION of Helium.

• Eventually blow off excess gasses to create a planetary nebula. The star itself will shrink to a WHITE DWARF

• Large Stars: Expand to Red Supergiants.• Large mass (5-10 suns) explode as SUPERNOVA and collapse into NEUTRON STARS.• Very large mass (10++ suns) explode as SUPERNOVA and collapse into BLACk HOLES

WhiteDwarf

Red Giant

FUSION

NEBULA

GALAXIES:Billions of stars orbiting a central point (usually a black hole). Stars are in random clumps. 3 types: Spiral Galaxies (Like ours – the Milky Way) Elliptical Galaxies – ‘ball of stars’ Irregular Galaxies – loose clumps.

UNIVERSE: Started about 12-15 BY ago in the BIG BANG. Expanding ever since. Galaxies arranged in irregular clumps.

GRAVITY DRIVES EVERYTHING!

MOST INTENSE or CONCENTRATEDSOLAR ENERGY. Not slanted.

LEAST INTENSE or CONCENTRATEDSOLAR ENERGY. Maximum slant.

LOWER INTENSITYSOLAR ENERGY. Some slant at surface.

Angle sunlight strikes the earth determines the amount of heat received per square foot. Called angle of incidence. The lower the angle, the less ‘warmth’ will be felt on the surface.

Isobars -Lines of EQUAL pressureCloser together = stronger winds

WEAKERWINDS

STRONGERWINDS

Types of Precipitation

SNOWRAIN

FREEZING RAIN -FREEZES ON CONTACT SLEET - FREEZES IN AIR

Types of Lifting - clouds form by LIFTING of moist air in cooler, lower pressure air - causing clouds to form when the temperature reaches DEWPOINT

CONVERGENCE - Low pressure area draws air in and

up.

CONVECTION - Warm Air rising - how

thunderstorms are formed..

FRONTAL - Cold or Warm fronts cause warm air to rise over cooler air -

creating clouds,

OROGRAPHIC - prevailing winds are lifted by mountain

ranges. Rains on UPWIND side, very dry on downwind side (rain

shadow effect).Californias Sierra nevada

mountains.This is why Nevada is a desert.

Occluded front

Weather Fronts

Reading Weather Station Models - SmokeHazeDustBlowing SnowLightningFunnel CloudLight FogHeavy Fog

Rain Shower

Snow Shower

ThunderstormFreezing DrizzleFreezing RainSleet

Pressure Rules: memorize how to calculate...1) Last digit always the decimal2) if 1st digit <=5 then put 10 in front EX: 138 = 1013.8 mb 3) if 1st digit > 5 then put 9 in front EX: 699 = 969.9 mb

Rising

Steady

Falling

Cloud Cover

W I

N D

Sbe

abl

e to

cal

cula

te

(F)

(F)

WARM FRONT

COLD FRONT

STATIONARY FRONT

OCCLUDED FRONT

curr

ent

wea

ther

sym

bol

s (d

on’t

nee

d to

mem

oriz

e th

ese…

)

Weather map front symbols - memorize….

1) You must use a psychrometer to calculate the Wet bulb and Dry bulb temperatures.

2) The DRY BULB TEMPERATURE will be listed down the left side of the table. If it falls between two listed numbers, then interpolate (estimate).: EX: Dry Bulb is 11 degrees - then the Dry-Wet Humidities will be: 88.5, 77, 66, 55.5, 45.5, and so on…

3) SUBTRACT the WET BULB TEMPERATURE from the DRY BULB TEMPERATURE. The result will be found along the top row of the table.

4) Now take the DRY BULB TEMP and DIFFERENCE TEMP - where the row and column cross, that will be the Percent Relative Humidity.

5) EXAMPLE:

Dry Bulb Temp = Td = 30º C

Wet Bulb Temp = Tw = 25º C

Td - Tw = 5º C

Relative Humidity = 67%

6) Given any TWO elements, you can easily calculate the third element.

Calculating Relative Humidity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20

2 84 68 52 37 22 8

4 85 70 56 42 29 26 3

6 86 73 60 47 34 22 11

8 87 75 63 51 39 28 18 7

10 88 76 65 54 44 33 23 14 4

12 89 78 67 57 47 38 29 20 11 3

14 89 79 69 60 51 42 33 25 17 9

15 90 80 71 62 54 45 37 29 22 14

18 91 81 73 64 56 48 41 33 26 19 6

20 91 82 74 66 58 51 44 37 30 24 11

22 91 83 75 68 60 53 46 40 34 27 16 5

24 92 84 76 69 62 55 49 43 37 31 20 9

26 92 85 77 70 64 57 51 45 39 34 23 14 4

28 92 85 78 72 65 59 53 47 42 37 26 17 8

30 93 86 79 73 67 61 55 49 44 39 29 20 12 4

32 93 86 80 74 68 62 56 51 46 41 32 23 15 8 1

34 93 87 81 75 69 63 58 53 48 43 34 26 18 11 5

36 93 87 81 75 70 64 59 54 50 45 36 28 21 14 8

38 94 88 82 76 71 65 60 56 51 47 38 31 23 17 11

40 94 88 82 77 72 66 62 57 52 48 40 33 26 19 13

42 94 88 83 77 72 67 63 58 54 50 42 34 28 21 16

44 94 89 82 78 73 68 64 59 55 51 43 36 29 23 18

T db

(°C)

Dry Bulb - Wet Bulb Temperatures (°C)

Td = 28º CRH = 85%Tw = ? >>> Td - Tw = 2º C

so Tw = 26º C

Motion pattern in deep water

HE

IGH

TW

aves

Tide Model

highest2ndhighest

Lowest

Lowest

THE MOON has the greatest effect on tides. This is because the moon is so

much closer than the sun to the Earth. The height of the high tides is related to

the phases of the moon as shown here.

SHALLOW WATER WAVE

Wave still deepwater tohere

Deep water waves are not moving water, only energy. Once

a wave reaches shallow water and starts to ‘feel’ the bottom (at

1/2 its wavelength does it begin to move water. Surfers sit on

their boards in deeper water and just bob up and down, in order

to ride a wave they have to paddle into shallow water.

Deep water and shallow water depend on the wave length.

NEW MOONFULL MOON

QTR MOON

QTR MOON

Ocean Currents Currents are drivenby the prevailing winds and the positions of the continents.

Currents carry heat away from the equator towards the poles.

Warm currents tend to make the winters less severe along the shorelines they pass near.

Cold currents tend to make the summers cooleralong the shorelines they pass near..

In general, a city on a seacoast will be cooler in summer and warmer in the winter than another city at the same LATITUDE, but located farther inland.

WARM Currents flow AWAY from the equator

.

COLD Currents flow TOWARDS the equator.

The Gulf Stream is the principle current

affecting the East Coast of the United States and

Northern Europe.

A) continental Shelf - extension of coastal land into the ocean. US East coast has very wide shelf. Still part of continent, so underlain with granite.

• B) continental Slope - true edge of continent - granite basement rock ends and basaltic ocean rock begins. Very steep dropoff.

• C) Continental Rise - debris broken off from continental shelf/slope and dropped on deep ocean floor.

• D) Abyssal Plains - wide, flat, featureless deep ocean areas covered with deep sediment deposits. The TITANIC lies on one of these.

• E) Seamounts - Underwater mountains. Volcanic in origin steeper than on land since water is denser that air, rock piles can be steeper. A seamount that breaks the surface is called an island.

• F) Mid Ocean Ridge - Starting point of Tectonic Plates. The centerline of the ridge is volcanically active and is the source of seafloor material that continues to widen the Atlantic Ocean. The Ridge has many Transform faults along it to relieve the strain of the uneven spreading. These transform faults give the mid ocean ridge system (the longest mountain range on earth - over 46,000 miles!) it ‘baseball seam’ appearance.

ATLANTIC OCEAN BASIN

SEA FLOOR FEATURES

GHI

I 0 m

5000m

10000m G) Mid Pacific Rise - not exactly mid anything! More along the eastern edge. Same as the Mid Atlantic Ridge (connected - so part of same ‘mountain range’.

H) seamounts/guyots - Underwater mountains. Guyots are seamounts that once were islands, but have been eroded and subsided (sunk) beneath the ocean. There are some in the Atlantic, but since the Pacific is much older, there are lots more. (see island evolution below).

I) Trenches - deepest points in the ocean. (Marianas Trench - Western Pacific is ~12,000 meters deep). Mark end of Plate Boundaries - SUBDUCTION ZONES. The western Pacific Trench (shown above) is where the Pacific Plate dives under the Asian Plate. On the Eastern edge (California coast) there is another (smaller) trench. This trench is partially blocked by the part of California moving north and is why there are so many earthquakes there.

PACIFIC OCEAN BASIN

A igneous

B sediments

C sedimentary

D metamorphic

Forms from molten material - intrusive or extrusive

Fragments of all types of rock.

Cemented together Fragments of all types of rock.

Rock that has been softened and changed by heat and pressure but NOT MELTED.

GroundwaterDiagramSaturated - full of water

Permeable - water can pass through or stay inside it.

Impermeable - waterproof. Water cannot pass through it.Impervious

Cone of depression is a dry zone that forms when water is drawn from a well.

evaporation

condensationprecipitation

transpiration

runoff

groundwater

HydrologicorWaterCycleDiagram

Karst TopographyRidge and Valley Province of VACaves, sinkholes, disappearing streams.Area made of limestone.Acids in rain and soil cause rock to chemically weather and form caves.

Stream Development

YOUTH - straight, fast flow. Rapids, V shaped valleys, waterfalls. MOSTLY EROSIONAL

MATURE - curves (meanders), slower flow. wide valleys, narrow flood plains. 50/50 EROSIONAL & DEPOSITIONAL

OLD - large meanders, slowest flowing.wide valleys & flood plains. Oxbow lakesMOSTLY DEPOSITIONAL

Porosity and Permeability - the ability of water to pass through a solid substance

Porous material is neededto create aquifers to store water.

Materials that prevent water from passing through are called non-porous or impermeable.

Inside the Earth

Types of Plate Boundaries

Divergent - pulling apart - mid ocean ridges

(26,000 miles along ocean floor)

Convergent - colliding - Continent to Continent

(India & Asia at Himalayas)

Convergent - colliding - Oceanic to Continent

(Pacific Northwest- Cascades)Oceanic to Oceanic

(Japan)Trenches and Subduction Zones

Transform - sliding past each other - any combination possible

(San Andreas Fault in Calif)

S Wave ShadowZone - since theearthquake secondary waves cannot travel though liquids -this was the first proof outer core was liquid...

Ocean-Ocean Convergence Ocean-Continent Convergence

Cont-Cont ConvergenceMid Ocean Divergence

A

B

C

D

Earthquakes and Faulting

A. UNFAULTED landscape -no cracks no movement, no pressures.

B. A NORMAL FAULT - land under TENSION (being pulled apart) block slides down the footwall

the ‘normal’ thing to do is slide down…

C. A STRIKE SLIP FAULT - land under SHEAR STRESS (pulled horizontally in opposite directions) associated with TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES California’s San Andreas Fault is a classic example

D. A REVERSE FAULT - land under COMPRESSION (being squeezed) block pushed up the footwall

A.

B.

C.

D.

AB

C

D

FOOTWALL

HANGINGWALL

Terms associated with Earthquakes:

A. Surface fault line

B. Epicenter

C. Focus

A-C-D Plane the movement fault

Earthquake energy waves:

A. Surface wave - most destructive. Slowest wave. Radiates from the epicenter. Combination of side to side and up and down motion.

B. Shear wave (S Wave) - 2nd fastest. Only travels through solids.

C. Pressure Wave (P Wave) - Fastest wave. Travels through solids, liquids, and gasses.

D. Normal or non-earthquake state.

The Rock Cycle

in Virginia

Coastal Plains- Compacted Sediments, too young for rocksRidge & Valley – Folded Layers. Karst (Caves)

Appalachian Plateau – Flat eroded layers

**

Blue Ridge – Some Basalt

* Piedmont- Gneiss, the ‘roots’ of the original Appalachians.

*

*

NOVOLCANOES!

melting

weathering&

erosion

cooling

Heat&

pressure

Sediments are everywhere-Rivers carry them to the ATLANTIC

Virginia rock and mineral resources including but not limited to coal, gravel, limestone, and titanium. Crushed stone is Virginia biggest mineral resource.

The Chesapeake Bay Estuary is a resource with high biological activity

and economic returns.It is the largest estuary in the world

and in one of the most densely populated areas of the world.

It is in great danger.

The Appalachians are the oldest mountain range in North America, they are FOLDED MOUNTAINS, formed when Africa and North America Collided about 250 MYA.

Virginia’s Physiographic

ProvincesThe five physiographic provinces of Virginia are Coastal Plain, Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge,

and Appalachian Plateau.

• The Coastal Plain is a flat area underlain by young, unconsolidated sediments. These layers of sediment wereproduced by erosion of the Appalachian Mountains and then deposited on the Coastal Plain.

• The Piedmont is an area of rolling hills underlain by mostly ancient igneous and metamorphic rocks. Theigneous rocks are the roots of volcanoes formed during an ancient episode of subduction that occurred before theformation of the Appalachian Mountains.

• The Blue Ridge is a high ridge separating the Piedmont from the Valley and Ridge Province. The billion-year-oldigneous and metamorphic rocks of the Blue Ridge are the oldest in the state. Some metamorphism of these rocksoccurred during the formation of the Appalachian Mountains.

• The Valley and Ridge province is an area with long parallel ridges and valleys underlain by ancient folded andfaulted sedimentary rocks. The folding and faulting of the sedimentary rocks occurred during a collision betweenAfrica and North America. The collision, which occurred in the late Paleozoic era, produced the AppalachianMountains.

• The Appalachian Plateau has rugged, irregular topography and is underlain by ancient, flat-lying sedimentary rocks.The area is actually a series of plateaus separated by faults. Most of Virginia.s coal resources are found in theplateau province.