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For the Lower Mississippi River Valley Waterfowl Habitat Management Handbook

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For th eLower Mi s s i s s i pp i

R ive r Va l l ey

WaterfowlHabitat

ManagementHandbook

Contents

Benefits of Habitat Management ....................................................................................................................................................... 6

Waterfowl ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Landowner and Landscape ............................................................................................................................................................ 6

Assistance to Landowners ....................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Waterfowl Feeding Habits ....................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Waterfowl Habitat Complexes ............................................................................................................................................................. 8

Site Selection ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Open Lands ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Habitat Development ......................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Levee Construction .............................................................................................................................................................................. 9

Water Control Structures ................................................................................................................................................................. 9

Habitat Management ............................................................................................................................................................................... 10

Harvested Fields ................................................................................................................................................................................... 10

Moist-Soil Wetlands ............................................................................................................................................................................. 11

Agricultural Plantings ...................................................................................................................................................................... 13

Forested Lands ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 15

Habitat Development ........................................................................................................................................................................ 15

Forest Habitat Management ........................................................................................................................................................ 15

Water Management ........................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Wood Duck and Beaver PondManagement ...................................................................................................................... 16

Levee Construction ............................................................................................................................................................................. 17

Water-Control Structures ............................................................................................................................................................... 17

Nuisance Plant and Animal Management .................................................................................................................................. 18

Aquatic Rodent Control ................................................................................................................................................................... 18

WeedManagement inWaterfowl Management Areas .............................................................................................. 18

ApplicationMethods and Calibration ................................................................................................................................... 18

Herbicide Recommendations ...................................................................................................................................................... 19

Recommendations and Restrictions for Commonly UsedHerbicides inWaterfowl Habitat Management ............................................................................................................... 21

Selected References .................................................................................................................................................................................... 23

Appendix .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24

To sustain waterfowl populations at levels of the 1970s, as prescribed

by the North AmericanWaterfowl Management Plan (1986), private

landowners must continue to provide habitat for wetland wildlife. Private

landowners oversee the majority of wetlands remaining in the United

States, so their cooperation is essential to anymajor conservation effort to

restore and sustain waterfowl populations in the Mississippi Flyway.

Many groups have worked together since the 1980s to develop water-

fowl habitat on private lands. Much progress has beenmade, and this pub-

lication helps guide continuing efforts. This publication is for private

landowners in the Lower Mississippi Flyway who want to improve their

lands for waterfowl. It is a reference landowners can use for information

about particular aspects of waterfowl management. For example, the pub-

lication answers questions such as these:

• How does managingmy land benefit waterfowl?

• Who is available to help memanagemy land for waterfowl?

• How do I manage soil, water, and plants to improve my land as water -fowl habitat?

Figure 1. The LowerMississippi River Valley Alluvial Plain (theDelta)showing remaining forested areas as of 1992. Map provided by theLowerMississippi RiverValley JointVenture,U.S. Fish&Wildlife Serv-ice, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Knowledge is thefirst requirementfor success in anyventure. This is

especially true whenmanaging waterfowlon private lands.

TheMississippi Alluvial Valley (MAV) or Delta was created byflooding of the Mississippi River, which drains 41 percent of thelandmass of the continental United States. The Delta extends500miles from Cape Girardeau, Missouri, to southern Louisiana,and it comprises more than 24million acres in seven states. TheDelta ranges from 20 to 80miles wide and once contained thelargest spread of forested wetlands in the United States.

Large-scale land clearing of seasonally flooded wetlands didnot occur in the Delta until the 1960s, and about one-third of theoriginal wetland acreage was converted to farmland from 1950to 1976. By 1991, only 4.9 million acres (20 percent) of forestedwetlands remained, mostly in Arkansas, Louisiana, andMissis-sippi. The Delta is one of the most productive agricultural re-gions in the world because of its fertile soils, subtropical climate,abundant rainfall, and long growing season. The Mississippi Fly-way is frequently referred to as the “mallard flyway,” becausehundreds of thousands to more than amillionmallards typi-cally winter in the Delta. The majority of these mallards are pro-duced in the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan, Alberta,

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Manitoba, and the prairie-pothole regionand upper midwest of the United States.Mallards fly along twomajor migrationcorridors in the Mississippi Flyway toreach important wintering grounds in theDelta states of Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky,Mississippi, Louisiana, Missouri, and Ten-nessee. Historically, mallards wintering inthe Delta depended primarily on acornsand other natural seeds and aquatic inver-tebrates found in extensive hardwood bot-tomlands to meet their nutritional needs.As red oak, acorn-producing forests werecleared, mallards began feeding in crop-lands, especially soybean and rice fields.Althoughmallards have adapted theirfeeding and other behaviors to the loss ofmore than 80 percent of the forested wet-lands in the Delta, their physiological con-dition and winter survival and perhapseven spring reproduction depend upon con-

tinued flooding and food availability in agri-cultural and natural wetlands in theDelta.

In the 1980s, populations of several wa-terfowl species, includingmallards, de-clined because of extensive and long-termdrought on the breeding grounds and lossand degradation of habitat throughoutNorth American flyways. In the Delta,changing bottomland hardwood systemsto croplands and other land uses and floodcontrol projects have decreased waterfowlhabitat. Public wildlife management areasand refuges continue toprovide an important“safety net” of habitat forwaterfowl, especially dur-ing winter-drought peri-ods. But federal and statewildlife conservationagencies don’t have ade-quate funding nor sup-

port to purchase andmanage extensivewaterfowl habitat on public lands in theDelta. This dilemma and research indicat-ing that mallards and likely other water-fowl species use private land in the Deltain proportion to its availability (more than90 percent in private ownership) under-score the need to manage private lands formigrating and wintering waterfowl andprovide management information forlandowners.

Figure 2. The migration route, known as the Mississippi Flyway, used by waterfowl to reach theLowerMississippi River Valley (theDelta) and other areas along theGulf ofMexico coast. From theNorth American Flyway Directory, 1996, U.S. Department of Interior, Fish &Wildlife Service.

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In the Delta, changingbottomland hardwood systemsto croplands and other land usesand flood control projects havedecreased waterfowl habitat.

Waterfowl survivaland body conditiontend to increasewhen extensiveflooding occursin winter.

aged flooding of agricultural lands outsidethe growing season can greatly reduce ero-sion. For example, research conducted byMississippi State University (MSU) in theDelta of Mississippi revealed that ricefields disked after harvest and left to drainduring winter lost nearly one-half ton ofsoil and organic matter per acre comparedto only about 30 pounds per acre for har-vested rice fields left in standing stubbleand allowed to flood during winter.

When you operate water control struc-tures to provide winter wetlands for water-fowl, soil and organics settle out, clearingwater through the settling process and re-leasing “clean” water when you drain fields.Also, surface water in agricultural fieldscan percolate through soil and helprecharge aquifers. Impounded and winter-flooded croplands help ease flooding dur-ing wet winters. You can improve soiltexture when you incorporate crop stubbleinto the soil by light disking or rolling fol-lowed by flooding fields in winter. Winterflooding also increases soil moisture, en-hances seed germination in spring, andlets young plants establish stronger rootsystems.

Waterfowl eat seeds, roots, and foliageof many agricultural pest plants, includingred rice and various grasses. Ducks andgeese eat about 10 percent of their bodyweight daily in plant matter. Research indi-cates that large seeds with fairly thin seedcoats (such as red rice) generally do notpass through the digestive system of water-fowl. Also, research byMSU scientists hasrevealed that rice fields left in standingstubble after harvest instead of beingdisked can reduce red rice infestations inproduction fields. In fields with standingstubble and “red rice,” red rice seed on thegroundmay germinate among the stubbleduring fall but then die after freezingtemperatures. In contrast, disking canbury red rice seed and keep it viable forlater germination.

If you winter flood rice and other crop-lands, youmay not have to “burn down”early season weeds with herbicides beforeplanting. MSU researchers found you canreduce weed-control costs by flooding riceproduction fields during winter months.You reduce planting costs this way becausetypical “winter weeds” do not grow onflooded landscapes. So, less land prepara-tion is required in spring. Many farmers

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Benefits of HabitatManagement

WaterfowlFrequency and intensity of precipita-

tion generally increase in the Delta in win-ter. When private lands flood, waterfowlspread from refuges and other public landsand use newly flooded agricultural landand wetlands. There they feed on wasteagricultural seeds, natural seeds and tu-bers, and aquatic invertebrates. Waterfowland other wetland-dependent wildlife ben-efit when this additional wetland habitatand resources become available onman-aged private lands. Waterfowl survivaland body condition tend to increase whenextensive flooding occurs in winter. Birdsreturning to the breeding grounds in animproved conditionmay have increasedreproductive potential and increasedproduction. Managing private lands formigrating and wintering waterfowl is criti-cal to sustaining viable and harvestablepopulations of waterfowl.

Landowner and LandscapeLandowners are increasingly aware

that wise stewardship of natural resourcesis in their best economic interests. Here’swhat protecting and restoring seasonal orpermanent wetlands can do:

• Decrease soil erosion;

• Enhance soil tilth andmoistureretention;

• Enhance ground-water stores;

• Decrease winter weeds, crop pests(such as red rice), and later crop-production costs;

• Lessen rice straw and other cropresidues;

• Improve quality of dischargewaters;

• Improve water managementcapabilities;

• Provide food and habitat for water-fowl and other wetland wildlife;

• Provide valuable recreationalopportunities; and

• Generate on-site and local revenues.

Although soil loss from fall-tilled crop-lands in the Delta averages 3 to 4 tons peracre per year (based on estimates from theUSDA, Agricultural Research Service), man-

Contacts for waterfowlconservation assistance

on private lands:

DeltaWildlife

Ducks Unlimited

Mississippi Department ofWildlife, Fisheries and Parks

Mississippi State UniversityCollege of Forest Resources

andExtension Service

United States Fish andWildlife Services

USDA Natural ResourcesConservation Services

Wildlife Mississippi

find they can use no-till or reduced-tillplanting during the following crop year,decreasing equipment use and fuel, labor,and herbicide costs.

Landowners also can benefit by mar-keting hunting and other recreationalactivities (such as bird watching). Addi-tionally, landowners and local economiescan gain valuable public relations benefitsfrom allowing outdoor activities on pri-vate lands.

Assistanceto LandownersAs part of a national cooperative effort torestore continental waterfowl populations,public and private conservation agenciesand organizations have implemented pri-vate lands programs in several states in theDelta region. These partners providewildlife management technical assistanceand infrastructure for developing wet-lands for wildlife. In some cases, where po-tential benefits to waterfowl are great andresources permit, an organization oragencymay provide incentives tolandowners willing to provide habitat forwaterfowl.

Waterfowl FeedingHabitsDucks in the Mississippi Flyway fall intotwomajor groups: 1) dabbling and perch-ing ducks and 2) diving ducks. Dabblersand perching ducks (mallard, gadwall,blue-winged and American green-wingedteals, northern pintail, American wigeon,northern shoveler, wood duck, and others)can walk well on land. They “tip-up” ordabble along the water surface to feedrather than dive, and they can fly up fromland or water. Their feeding habitats inthe Delta primarily include flooded (6 to 12inches deep) agricultural lands and natu-ral wetlands (such as hardwood bottom-lands andmoist-soil wetlands). They feedon agricultural seeds (such as rice, soy-bean, corn, andmilo), natural seeds, andother parts of a variety of native plants(see Appendix and the “WetlandManage-ment forWaterfowl Handbook” in the ref-erences section of this publication or athttp://www.ms.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/NRCS%20Wetland%20Mgt%20for%20Waterfowl.pdf) and aquatic invertebrates(such as snails, scuds, crayfish, isopods,and insects). Some species of dabblingducks, such as the gadwall and Americanwigeon, feed heavily on aquatic vegetation.

Diving ducks (such as lesser scaup,ring-necked duck, bufflehead, canvasback,redhead, goldeneye, hoodedmergansers,and ruddy duck) cannot walk well on land.They dive to feed and run along the surfaceof the water to get airborne. Some speciesmay congregate in large flocks and fre-quent lakes, rivers, coastal estuaries, reser-

Figure 3. Dabbling Ducks.

Figure 4. Diving Ducks.

Feeding

Rising

Feeding

Rising

MSU researchersfound you can reduceweed-control costsby flooding riceproduction fieldsduring winter

months.

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Waterfowl HabitatComplexesWaterfowl use and need different habitatsand foods in winter and before spring mi-gration. Habitat complexes (several habi-tat types close together) provide moresuitable habitat than single habitats. MSUresearchers found that the largest groupsof mallards and other dabbling ducks(more than 100 birds) in the Delta wereassociated with large tracts of floodedcropland (50 percent), natural emergentwetland (such as 15 to 20 percentmoistsoil), forested/scrub-shrubwetland (20 per-cent), and permanent wetlands (such as 10to 20 percent catfish ponds).

Food availability, habitat diversity, andsanctuary are keys to retaining waterfowlin an area during winter. Frequent distur-bance reduces waterfowl use. Usually youshould try to maintain at least 20 to 25 per-cent of managed waterfowl habitat assanctuary. Restricting the number of daysand hours of the day the areas are huntedalso may decrease disturbance. Suchman-agement options let waterfowl use sitesand prevent areas from being “shot out.”Some insightful managers do not let water-fowl hunting begin until an hour or soafter sunrise so waterfowl can feed inhabitats managed specifically for water-fowl. Even ATV and other vehicle trafficalong roads and levees next to managedhabitats should be avoided to minimizedisturbances.

Site SelectionPoorly drained areas are usually chosen fordeveloping wintering waterfowl habitats.Consider factors such as long-term landuse objectives, soil type, flooding fre-quency, accessibility, and freedom from dis-turbances, when selecting an area fordevelopment. It is especially important todetermine long-term objectives for yourproperty, because you should not developan area you can’t flood frequently or thatyoumay convert to an alternative use inthe near future.

Give special attention to the soil typein any area you are considering for devel-opment into waterfowl habitat. Clay soils,commonly found at lower elevations in theDelta, are best suited for constructing lev-ees because they tend to seal quickly whenflooded. Soil surveys of each county areavailable at your USDA Service Center.These surveys indicate soil types and pro-vide other valuable information on pro-posed sites. Consult private and publicconservation agencies or organizations forhelp in developingmanaged wetlands.When selecting a site for development,choose areas subject to regular, shallowflooding during the winter. Do not developsites prone to deep flooding or flooding fora long time, because they will not producewaterfowl foods reliably, andmaintenanceto repair levee damagemay be costly. Habi-tat sites should be accessible by farm equip-ment so you can produce food for wildlife,repair damaged levees, andmaintain watercontrol structures and levees. Areas awayfrom actively traveled roads are preferredfor development, and you will generallyfind it easier to control. Marginal agricul-tural lands, crop production fields, andforested wetlands are often suited for de-velopment as seasonally flooded waterfowlhabitat.

Open Lands

Habitat DevelopmentDeveloping waterfowl habitat usuallydoesn’t conflict with USDA program regu-lations. But agricultural and other landsmay contain wetlands protected underwetland conservation provisions of theFood Security Act, often called Swamp-buster. The USDA National ResourcesConservation Service (NRCS) will help you

voirs, and aquaculture ponds. Divingducks eat a variety of aquatic inverte-brates, plant seeds, and tubers but onlyrarely agricultural seeds. Lesser scaup,goldeneye, ruddy ducks, bufflehead, andmergansers feed primarily on animal mat-ter (mollusks, crustaceans, fish), while can-vasbacks, redheads, and ring-necked duckseat aquatic plant parts.

Private landowners in the Delta usu-ally do not develop waterfowl habitatspecifically for diving ducks because large,deep impoundments are required. Winter-ing diving ducks frequently use complexesof catfish and bait-fish ponds, though. Also,many projects developed for dabblingducks often have deep areas that are suit-able habitat for diving ducks.

Four migratory species of geese winterin the Delta: Canada, white-fronted (speck-lebelly), snow, and Ross’s geese. In the1990s, rapidly growing and spreading pop-ulations of these species, especially snowgeese, have resulted in great abundances ofthese birds in the Delta in winter. Also, lo-cally established populations of Canadageese live year round in the Delta and else-where in the Southeast. Geese eat plantparts, such as seeds of waste wheat, rice,and corn, natural seeds, tubers, greenbrowse, and roots. Favored foraging areasof all species of geese are harvested and un-harvested croplands, cool-season grassfields (such as winter wheat), andmoist-soil areas.

20% forested wetland(willows, hardwoods)

10 to 20% permanent water(catfish ponds, sloughs, lakes)

20%moist-soil wetland(natural grasses, sedges, millet)

50% flooded croplands(corn, rice, milo)

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Figure 5. Mallards and other dabbling ducks are found in Delta landscapes containing mixtures of habitats.

determine if any Swampbuster or CleanWater Act (CWA) permitting issues apply.You will also be referred to the U.S. ArmyCorps of Engineers (COE) district office ifyou need a CWA 404 permit. Many agri-cultural activities are exempt from permitrequirements. Cost-share for waterfowlhabitat development and enhancement onagricultural lands is often availablethrough USDA conservation programs.Contact your USDA Service Center formore information. NOTE: Waterfowl habi-tat development by private landownersnormally does not require wetland permitsor affect participation in USDA programs.But always check with the FSA, NRCS, andCOE district offices before starting any ac-tivities within an existing wetland to en-sure you comply with federal regulations,especially if you intend to do any earth-moving work or clearing.

Levee ConstructionOn lands not already leveled and sur-rounded by levees, construction of low lev-ees is often necessary to create seasonalwetlands for waterfowl and other wildlife.Before youmove any soil to construct anew levee, either disk or strip the vegeta-tion from the right-of-way to assure thenew levee will form a tight seal with thesoil already there. Also remove all woodyvegetation in the right-of-way. Apply thesame treatment to borrow areas if they arenot within the right-of-way. If water isstanding on the right-of-way, drain it soequipment can operate efficiently. Next,put fill material in lifts approximately 6 to8 inches thick and compact it by runningover the entire surface with the earth mov-ing equipment. Continue this process untilyou reach the levee height you want. Buildthe levee 5 to10 percent higher than designheight to make up for settlement. You canuse various equipment to construct levees:bulldozers, draglines, trackhoes, rubber-

tired backhoes, motor graders, terraceplows, self-propelled scrapers, and dirtpans pulled by tractors. When site condi-tions are good, tractors pulling dirt pansgenerally are the most economical way tobuild levees, and you canminimize borrowareas. You can level adjacent fields by mov-ing soil from higher elevations to form thelevee or grade borrow areas to drain to ex-isting ditches or pipes. Also, loaded dirtpans provide excellent soil compactionwhen you put soil in 6- to 8-inch lifts.

You can build small levees with any ofthe equipment mentioned above. You canbuild medium-sized levees with bulldozers,trackhoes, or terrace-building machines.Include a heavy disk or sheepsfoot rollerfor compaction. After the fill material hasdried, bulldoze the levee for final shaping.You can use this method for small- tomedium-sized levees, but operating costsgenerally prohibit its use on larger projects.

If soil is borrowed next to levees duringconstruction, the borrow areas should besituated no closer than 10 feet away from

the base of the levee to prevent sloughingor caving of material away from the levee.The side slopes of the borrow area shouldbe no steeper than the slopes of the leveefor easier maintenance. Wide and shallowborrow areas are much easier to drain andare less likely to attract burrowing animalssuch as beavers, nutria, andmuskrats.

Levees with 4:1 slopes or flatter (sideslope of levee extends 4 feet for each foot ofdrop in levee height) are recommended toprovide safe operating conditions forgrass-cutting andmaintenance equipment.The top width or crown of the levee shouldbe at least 10 feet wide for maintenanceequipment. Levees impoundingmore than3 acres of water should have at least a 2-foot freeboard (the height of levee abovehighest planned water level). In mostcases, you should build an emergency spill-way at one end of the most downstreamlevee to reduce damage from overflow. Donot build the spillway in the levee. Instead,dig it in the existing ground (at least 25 feetwide and 1 foot below settled height of thelevee) where the slope of the ground is asflat as possible (5 percent or less is pre-ferred). Cover spillways with deep-rootedvegetation or rock riprap to prevent ero-sion. Also seed levees with dense sod-form-ing grasses you can regularly mow toprevent willows and other trees from be-coming established. Never let trees estab-lish on levees, because the trees weakenlevees and can cause breaching. Contactyour NRCS office for assistance when con-structing levees and spillways.

Water Control StructuresFlashboard risers made from steel or corru-gatedmetal are commonly used to managewater levels on fields by installing or re-moving boards. Although water controlstructures fabricated from steel pipe aregenerally more expensive than corrugatedmetal, they last a long time and are less

“When site condi-tions are good, trac-tors pulling dirt pansgenerally are the

most economical wayto build levees, andyou can minimizeborrow areas.”

Figure 6. Cross section on an impoundment levee with a 4:1 slope used to hold water on areas managed for waterfowl.

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MSU researchers have determined thatmore than 70 percent of the waste ricefrom harvest operations decomposes, ger-minates, or is eaten by birds and rodentsafter harvest between early fall and earlywinter. Clearly, availability of waste agri-cultural seeds for wintering waterfowl ismarkedly less nowadays. Nevertheless, har-vested croplands provide important habi-tat for migrating and wintering waterfowlif the fields are not disked after harvestingand are shallowly flooded during winter (6to 18 inches).

habitat for wintering waterfowl, and croplands are one of the most prevalent landuses in the Lower Mississippi Flyway. But,waste agricultural seeds (such as those ac-cidentally lost during harvest) potentiallyavailable for waterfowl have declined sig-nificantly since the 1980s. Recent esti-mates by theWaterfowlWorking Group ofthe Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Ventureof the North AmericanWaterfowl Manage-ment Plan indicated that harvested soy-bean fields contain about 50 lbs/acre ofwaste seed, rice fields about 70 lbs/acre,and corn andmilo fields about 130 lbs/acre.

Figure 7. Half-round flashboard riser used to control water levels in open wetlands.

SELECTED SPECIFICATIONS FOR STRAIGHT-PIPEWATER CONTROLSTRUCTURES EQUIPPEDWITH SLOTTED-BOARD RISERS*

Drainage Areas (0.0 foot head) Riser SpecificationsRound Pipe Half-round Riser Box Riserdiameter 4 inches/24 hr 6 inches/24 hr diameter L xW(inches) (acres) (acres) (inches) (inches)

12 12 8 18 9 x 18

15 21 14 24 12 x 24

18 34 23 30 15 x 30

21 49 33 36 18 x 36

24 68 46 42 21 x 42

30 119 80 54 27 x 54

36 190 127 66 33 x 66

EXAMPLE: A 12-inch-diameter pipe with an 18-inch half-round riser drains 4 inches of water in 24 hours froma 12-acre field. You can also use schedule 80 PVC (polyvinyl chloride) water control structures (pipe drops)equipped with a drainage valve to control water levels. PVC pipe is widely available, requires little mainte-nance, and can be put together on the construction site. But it is easily damaged by farming equipment or fire.

*Reprinted from the USDA NRCS, Grade Stabilization Structure Design, Data Sheet MS-Eng-410AA (Delta).

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likely to be damaged by farming or mainte-nance equipment. Another advantage ofusing the steel pipe is that you don’t need aconcrete base to anchor the riser. Watercontrol structures fabricated from corru-gated aluminum pipe or corrugated steelpipe with a protective polymer coating(you have to be careful not to damage thecoating during installation) also have along life expectancy. Flashboard risers aregenerally preferred to other types of watercontrol structures because they are self-regulating when you know the correctelevation of the boards in the control struc-ture. Onemore choice of materials forpipes and flashboard risers is HDPE (high-density polyethylene) pipe. Except for asteel pipe and flashboard riser combina-tion, all these structures must be anchored(usually in concrete) to prevent flotation.

Full-round risers are an alternative toflashboard risers and are generally pre-ferred in locations where beavers are aproblem. The initial cost of full-round ris-ers is greater than flashboard risers, butthese structures are equipped with fea-tures to prevent beavers from entering thepipe or getting to the boards in the riser.For more information on full-round risersand their benefits, refer toWater ControlStructures in the Forested Lands section ofthis publication on page 15.

Habitat Management

Harvested FieldsWinter flooded croplands, both harvestedand not, can provide important forage and

Rice fields are especially important towaterfowl. Harvested rice fields are amongthe most economical areas to manage forwaterfowl, because often you can repair ex-isting levees after harvest and shallowlyflood the rice stubble to create waterfowlhabitat. In many areas, farmers have in-stalled permanent levees that let rice fieldsbe flooded again after harvest. MSU scien-tists have determined that the most wasterice in late autumnwas in fields left instanding stubble, followed by burned,mowed, rolled, or disked stubble. The scien-tists also found on a large rice productionfarm near Stuttgart, Arkansas, that mal-lard and other dabbling duck use wasgreatest in rice paddies burned or rolledafter harvest and flooded in winter, andduck use was least in paddies containingstanding stubble. The scientists recom-mended leaving stubble or burning fieldsto save waste rice and create a mix of stub-ble and water after flooding. Also, researchindicates waterfowl feeding in rice fieldsalso reduces red rice and other weeds thenext production cycle.

Agricultural seeds decompose at differ-ent rates when flooded. Milo and cornkept above water and rice either above orbelowwater persist well during wintercompared to soybeans, which break downrapidly when they absorb water. Also, soy-beans contain a biochemical that inhibitsuse of protein by waterfowl, and theneeded energy ducks get from soybeans islower than other agricultural seeds andmany other natural seeds and tubers. Ide-ally, 10 percent of the waterfowl manage-ment area should be flooded frommid- tolate August to late September 2 to 6 inches

deep to provide habitat forearly migrants such as blue-winged teal, shorebirds,and other waterbirds.

Waterfowl benefit mostwhen you gradually in-crease flooding rather thancovering managementareas quickly and com-pletely. By increasingwater levels slowly, youflood new areas, andmorefood becomes available towaterfowl. This helps savefood during winter and

provides a range of water depths that at-tract a variety of waterfowl. You can planttall and robust grain crops (corn or milo) inareas where water will be deeper. Floodfields from late October to mid-November,andmaintain them at least until earlyMarch the next year. Gradually drain man-aged areas in the spring to concentrateaquatic invertebrates andmakeit easier for foraging by ducks and otherwaterbirds.

Moist-Soil WetlandsAlthough croplands are important forag-ing habitats for waterfowl, agriculturalseeds do not provide a nutritionally com-plete diet for waterfowl. Managedmoist-soil areas are natural wetlands with a widevariety of plant species but are usuallydominated by grasses and sedges that pro-duce lots of seeds and tubers. Also, moist-soil wetlands harbor diverse aquaticinvertebrate communities. MSU scientistsdetermined that managedmoist-soil areasin the MAV average more than 12 timesgreater duck foraging potential (such as in-dexed by duck use days) than harvestedrice fields in this region. Managedmoist-soil areas can provide rich and completeforaging habitats and cover for waterfowland canmake up for the lack of waste agri-cultural seeds nowadays. Also, moist-soilwetlands are fairly economical to establishandmanage because plant communitiesemerge from natural “seed banks,” andother typical costs of crop production aregreatly reduced or gone (such as irrigation,herbicide, fertilizer, and the like).

Two of the most important things toconsider whenmanagingmoist-soil unitsare the timing of the annual drawdownand the number of years since soil distur-bance (such as disking). Total seed produc-

tion from grasses and sedges is generallygreater whenmoist-soil units are drainedin early to mid-growing season. Early sea-son drawdowns occur within the first 45days of the growing season, midseasonwithin the second 45 days, and late-seasondrawdowns during the remainder of thegrowing season at specific locales. To get adiversity of habitats for waterfowl andother wetland wildlife, try to develop acomplex of multiple units that enable vari-ous drawdown dates and rates, intervalsbetween soil disturbance, and habitat ma-nipulations (such as mowing, burning, anddisking). Research has shown that wet-lands with a 50:50 interspersion of vegeta-tion to water (“hemi-marshes”) areattractive to waterfowl and other birds onboth breeding and wintering grounds. So,autumnmowing or light disking of densemoist-soil vegetation to create a “hemi-marsh” after floodingmay help attract wa-terfowl, especially in early winter beforevegetation naturally topples. Manipulat-ing natural vegetation is legal and does notcreate a “baited” site, but a “baited” site iscreated bymanipulating crops in the yearof planting. If earlier planted vegetation“volunteers” (such as naturalized vegeta-tion) in later growing seasons, as milletsand rice sometimes do, it is legal to manip-ulate this naturalized vegetation if noplanting was done within the naturalizedvegetation in the current year.

Two of the mostimportant things to

consider when manag-ing moist-soil units are

the timing of theannual drawdown andthe number of yearssince soil disturbance(such as disking).

Moist-soil wetland

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ACTIVITY SCHEDULE FORMANAGINGMOIST-SOIL AREAS FORWATERFOWL

Activity Timing Management Recommendations

Early season drawdown First 45 days after last killing frost. Slow drainage (decrease water levelsin 6-inch increments every 2 to 4weeks until area is drained); permitswildlife to use food resources andyoung wood ducks to fledge.

Midseason drawdown 46 to 90 days after last killing frost. Slow drainage as described above.

Late-season drawdown More than 91 days after last killing frost. Slow drainage as described above.

Vegetationmonitoring About 14 days after drawdown. Monitor the occurrence ofcocklebur, coffeeweed, and woodyplants every 14 days, and implementcontrol when these species covermore than 50 percent of the ground.

Weed control After monitoring and as needed. After cocklebur, coffeeweed, andother broadleaves have emerged,control with an appropriate selectivebroadleaf herbicide (see Table on page19 for specific herbicide recommendations).

Fertilization (not required) When desirable grassy-weedy 75 to 100 pounds of urea/acre; or forplants are 2 to 6 inches high. maximum seed production, conduct

a soil test and follow recommendations.

Flooding August 15 to September 30. Shallowly flood (2 to 6 inches) 10 percent of thetotal managed area to provide habitat for earlymigrants, such as blue-winged teal.

September 30 to November 15. Increase water levels slowly until entire area isflooded by November 15.

December to Early January. Somemanagers save several moist-soil areas forflooding in December through January whenmore waterfowl are present.

To produce the most seed, keep nativeplant communities in an early successionalstage, that is, plants dominated by seed-and tuber-producing annual grasses andsedges and not perennials, such as rushes,cattails, and woody vegetation. The per-centage of nonfood-producing-plantspecies generally tends to increase in eachconsecutive year when you don’t disturban area. Soil disturbance greatly affects theresponse of native plants to different man-agement techniques. Generally, you needto disk moist-soil units every 1 to 3 years tocontrol perennial forbs, trees and shrubs,and other unwanted vegetation. Fre-quently, entire fields or parts of them thatare cropped in one year produce excellent

stands of moist-soil plants the next year.Disk as early as possible in spring for seedsto germinate and plants to grow. But ifmoist-soil units stay wet and a tractorcan’t get to them until late summer or fall,MSU scientists have shown that soil distur-bance at this time prepares the site andpromotes moist-soil vegetation next grow-ing season. Sometimes deep disking orplowing is needed to bring deeply buriedseeds and tubers near the surface to pro-mote germination and growth.

Inspect areas managed for nativeplants or agricultural crops weekly. Nui-sance plants, such as cocklebur, sicklepod,morning glory, coffeeweed (Sesbania), andvines, can quickly germinate and compete

with desirable plants. Several small (1/4 to1/2 acre) patches of coffeeweed comprisingless than 10 percent of the total area to beflooded actually can be beneficial becausethey provide cover for waterfowl andhunters. If coffeeweed or other potentialnuisance plants invade 50 percent or moreof a management area, control themwithherbicides or bymowing and flooding thestubble. Chemical control is better if lots ofdesirable grasses and sedges are already onthe area. Controlling undesirable plantsby disking, mowing, herbicides, or flood-ing takes only about one-third as muchfuel as conventional row cropping for do-mestic small grains.

12

ity that agricultural seeds will be available whenwaterfowl arrive in early winter, because somecrop loss is likely to occur in summer-fall by black-birds, deer, hogs, raccoon, and/or coyotes. As saidbefore, it is illegal to manipulate in any way (suchas disk, roll, bush-hog, burn) planted crops in theyear of planting. For example, youmay have adense stand of rice or some other crop in front of aduck blind and you want to create an opening toset decoys for waterfowl hunting. If the crop is ma-nipulated in any way in the year of planting, youhave created a baited site and are subject to a “bait-ing” violation. Clearly, landowners and lesseesshould contact law enforcement personnel to an-swer specific questions about baiting.

You can broadcast browntop or Japanese mil-lets (12 to 25 lbs/acre) directly on a well-preparedseedbed and harrow to assure good germination.Because millets are in the grass family, they arehardy plants and normally require little care.Japanese millets are adapted to the heavy, wetsoils commonly found in the Delta. AlthoughJapanese millets cannot establish themselves on aflooded seedbed, they will tolerate several inchesof flooding after they reach about 4 inches tall.You can direct seed Japanese millets onmud flats,such as in drainedmanagement units or beaverponds. Browntopmillet is better suited for driersites.

You can also mowmillet before they produceseed heads to set back their date of maturity. Thisstrategy is valuable when you have to plant milletsearly (as in May-June) to take advantage of soilmoisture. If youmowmillet to set back its matu-rity date, leave 6- to 12-inch stubble to provideenough “green stem” for plant regrowth. Controlheavy infestations of armyworms and other pestsin crop fields with appropriate insecticides.See your county Extension agent for insecticideinformation.

Rice also is an excellent crop to plant and en-rich waterfowl foraging habitats:• It is a wetland grass adapted to clay soils andflooding;

• It produces hundreds, possibly thousands, ofpounds of seed per acre; and

• Its seeds persist well when flooded during thewinter.

Rice seed planted for waterfowl does not have tobe certified or treated with a fungicide, but we rec-ommend treated seed to prevent decompositionduring the cool, moist, spring planting period. Toprevent straight heading (blank seed heads) andensure best seed production, plant rice where youcan irrigate by pumping or where you can catchrain and runoff. Sheath blight is the commoncause of blank seed heads in rice, so be sure to useblight-resistant varieties and fungicides for control.

When rice plants are 6 inches tall, you canshallowly flood (2 to 4 inches) to keep downweedgrowth. Rice survives and forms seeds undermoist-soil conditions. These moist-soil conditionsalso will promote growth of native vegetation.Somemanagers refer to a mixture of rice andmoist-soil vegetation as “dirty rice.” This mixturedoes provide excellent foraging habitat for water-fowl. Varieties of rice are available that you canplant in the Delta in early spring (April) and har-vest in August. This may allow enough time forthe rice to produce a second seed head (or ratooncrop) for wintering waterfowl to use. Results fromUSGS andMSU scientists indicate that irrigationafter the first harvest is critical for ratooning. Youcannot manipulate ratoon crops in hunted areas,because this is baiting. Although rice is an excel-lent food for waterfowl, blackbirds also exploit riceand can deplete a field of rice before waterfowlhave a chance.

Corn andmilo also are excellent crops for wa-terfowl because they are high in energy. Althoughcorn andmilo do best on well-drained loam orlight-clay soils, you can grow them onmoderatelydrained soils. Early drawdowns (during the first 45days of the growing season) are necessary whenplanting corn because of its longmaturation pe-riod, intolerance of heat and drought, and suscep-tibility to insect and other pests. However,varieties called “tropical corn” are readily availableand adapted to late- and warm-season planting.Plant or drill corn in rows about 36 inches apart,with about 8 to 10 inches between plants (about18,000 to 20,000 seeds/acre), on well-preparedseedbeds, or broadcast and cover it with 1 inch oftopsoil. You can apply a preemergent herbicide orapply herbicide to glyphosate-resistant corn afterplants are about 10 inches tall. Then you can haltlater herbicide use to allow grasses and other de-sirable moist-soil vegetation to growwith the corn.This combination of corn andmoist-soil grasses,often termed “grassy corn,” provides high energy(“hot”) grain, natural seeds, and aquatic inverte-brates after flooding.

A particularly good waterfowl foraging habitatand hunting area is 18 or more rows of “grassycorn” adjacent to natural moist-soil vegetationwhere “grassy corn” was grown the previous year.Annual rotation of “grassy corn” andmoist-soilpatches is an excellent strategy to provide a diver-sity of “hot” and natural foods in managed habitatand hunting units. You can produce “grassy milo”similarly to “grassy corn” bywidely spacing plantedrows ofmilo to let sunlight promote grass cover be-tween rows. Also, if you harvest milo by early Au-gust, a ratoonmilo cropmay be produced from cutstubble.

Agricultural PlantingsYou can also plant fields or foodplots with agricultural seeds suchas Japanese millet (Chiwapamil-let), browntopmillet, corn, milo,and rice. These plants typicallyproduce lots of seeds for water-fowl. Landowners consideringplanting agricultural crops in wa-terfowl management areasshould consult Extension officesor farm cooperatives to deter-mine the best planting date andstrategies for specific geographiclocations and soil and waterconditions.

In establishing food plots, re-member to plant large enoughareas (at least 10 to 20 acres, forexample) to increase the probabil-

Japanese Millet

BrowntopMillet

Grassy Corn

13

ACTIVITY SCHEDULE FOR PRODUCING ANDMANAGING SMALL GRAINS FORWATERFOWL

Activity Timing Management Recommendations

Spring drainage About 2 weeks before planting dates Hold water on cropland until near planting time to control weedsrecommended by Extension and to encourage use of food bywaterfowl and other wildlife.for crop grown.

Ground preparation 14 days or more after drawdown. Disk as needed to prepare a seedbed or use “burn down” herbicidesand plant using no- or reduced-till.

Planting After seedbed preparation or best Recommended seeding rates:planting dates in your area; consult • rice – 90 lb/acreyour Extension agent. • Japanese and browntopmillet - 12 to 25 lb/acre

• corn – 18,000 kernels/acre

Fertilization Consult Extension agent for dates to apply. For best results, soil test and follow recommendations.General applications:• rice – up to 180 lb/acre of nitrogen and up to 40 lb/acre of phospho-rus and potassium. If you apply a blend, use 20-10-10 at a rate of 800lb/acre. For rice, divide the nitrogen into two applications – one preflood, one midseason.

• millets – up to 60 lb/acre of nitrogen and up to 40lb/acre of phospho-rus and potassium. If you apply a blend, use 300 lb/acre of 20-10-10or 450 lb/acre of 13-13-13.

• corn – up to 200 lb/acre of nitrogen and up to 60 lb/acre or phospho-rus and potassium. Apply one third of the nitrogen and all of thephosphorus and potassium at planting. Apply the remainingnitrogen at six-leaf stage. If you apply a blend, use 400 lb/acre of 13-13-13 and 350 lb/acre of 34-0-0 at six-leaf stage. Or apply 800 lb/acreof 20-10-10 all at once.

Weed control Early part of growing season. Selectively treat areas with herbicides, bushhog, or disk wheninfestation levels of cocklebur, coffeeweed, or other undesirablebroadleaved plants cover more than 25 percent of the ground.Review the “Herbicide Recommendations” section for a morethorough review of this topic. Be sure to read and follow all thelabeled instructions when applying herbicides.

Flooding May to June. For rice production, flood rice when plants are 5 to 6 inches tall, andkeep 2 to 4 inches of water throughout the growing season.

August 15 to September 30. Shallow flood (2 to 6 inches) 10 percent of the total managed area toprovide habitat for early migrants, such as blue-winged teal.

November 15 to January 1. Increase water levels gradually to flood entire management areabetween November 15 and early January.

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Forested Lands

Habitat DevelopmentForested and other wetlands with woodyplants meet special habitat needs for wa-terfowl that wetlands with herbaceousvegetation or flooded croplands don’t pro-vide. Woody habitats produce nutritiousplant and animal foods for waterfowl andprovide themwith roosting and loafingsites, cover from predators and badweather, and isolation for courtship andpair bonding.

Two broad categories of forested wet-lands are frequently managed as water-fowl habitat: 1) greentree reservoirs (GTR),which are tracts of bottomland hardwoodforest that can be flooded in winter bypumping or gravity flowing water or bynatural flooding, and 2) bald cypress-tupelo brakes, other swamp-tree brakes(such as willow, green ash, and redmaple),shrub-scrub sloughs (buttonbush, privet),and beaver ponds. MSU scientists discov-ered the greatest densities of mallards andother dabbling ducks were associated withlandscape complexes of several habitats,including about 20 percent forested orscrub-shrub wetlands.

Regarding GTRs, they may not beneeded in lowland forested areas thatflood naturally every year or frequently.If you are considering construction of aGTR, you should contact the Army Corps of

Engineers to determine if you need a sec-tion 404 permit to begin construction inyour wetland areas.

Forest Habitat ManagementWaterfowl management plans for GTRsshould maintain or increase the numberand quality of red oaks (such as water, wil-low and Nuttall) in the stand and encour-age crown development that increasesacorn (mast) production. Selectively apply-ing herbicides by injection (known as“hack and squirt”) to remove some non-mast-producing tree species can be used toalter stand composition and release mast-producing species, possibly increasingacorn production and availability forducks and other wildlife.

Creating small openings of three acresor less in forested wetlands can provideentry points into these wetlands for water-fowl and enhance hunting opportunities.These openings can be created by conven-tional timber harvest or by using a smallbulldozer-like implement (such as skid-steer loader) with mulching head. This de-vice has been used effectively in Deltaforests to fell andmulch densely over-grown areas (with trees up to 6 inches indiameter), understory trees and scrub-shrub (such as green ash, red maple, privet,swamp elms), and create individual open-ings or reduce dense understory to estab-lish a more open “park-like” habitat. Once

created, these openings typically are main-tained as hunting sites by regular mowingor disking to limit woody regeneration.

If mast-producing red oaks are scarcewithin lowland forests, managers mayplant red oak seedlings adapted to the siteconditions to increase availability of mast-bearing trees. Youmay have to inject mid-and under-story trees to make sure there isenough sunlight for seedling establish-ment and growth. Plant Japanese orbrowntopmillets in areas open to sunlightto supplement natural food availability inforested wetlands. Because of the potentialvalue of timber involved, it is always advis-able to use a professional forester beforemanaging lowland forests.

Based on estimates by the Lower Mis-sissippi Valley Joint Venture, average acornproduction in red oak stands (about 110lbs/acre) is similar to estimated availabilityof waste seeds remaining in harvested rice,soybean, corn, and grain sorghum fields inlate fall (about 100 lbs/acre). Research indi-cates that mallard ducks stop feeding inrice fields when waste rice declines toabout 45 lbs/acre. If this “giving-up” thresh-old for waterfowl feeding is similar for bot-tomland hardwood forests, there may be afairly small foraging “buffer” in these habi-tats. But oaks with a diameter at breastheight of 14 to 30 inches can produce lots ofacorns. So, you need to keep a basal area of40 to 80 square feet of desirable species per

Figure 8. Full-round flashboard riser used to control water levels in forested welands or other areas where beavers may cause problems..

15

acre. Also, try to keep a good age-class dis-tribution (seedlings, young trees, andma-ture timber) of a variety of oaks to ensurecontinuedmast production. Also keeplarge trees with cavities at a rate of onecavity per acre for cavity-nesting wildlife.

Water ManagementProlonged annual flooding of bottomlandhardwood forests in winter and intospring often causes changes in the foresttype. In such stands regeneration by desir-able mast-producing oaks is generally re-duced, andmature trees may be replacedbymore water-tolerant species such as wil-low, bald cypress, green ash, red maple,water locust, and overcup oak. Althoughpermanent timber damagemay occurwithin 1 to 2 years when forests remainflooded after trees leaf out in the spring,youmay not see it for 4 to 5 years.

Don’t flood hardwood forests untiltheir leaves change color in the fall. Somemanagers flood GTRs in late summer withwater drained from rice fields and otherharvested croplands. But we strongly ad-vise against flooding GTRs while trees arephotosynthesizing, because flooding canhalt this process, harm forest health, andeventually cause trees to die.

Also, GTRs should be drained in winterbefore tree buds begin to swell. A generalguideline for the Mississippi Delta andneighboring states is that dormancy forbottomland hardwoods is mid Novemberthrough February, so managers shouldstrive to have GTRs drained by late Febru-ary to avoid timber damage and enhanceregeneration of desirable tree species.GTRs should not be floodedmore oftenthan every other year or every two years.If red oak and other desirable hardwoodseedlings regenerate from acorns or otherseeds, GTRs should remain unflooded forat least 2 years to let the seedlings growhigher than typical flooding within theGTR.

It is important for seedlings not to beflooded outside the winter dormancy pe-riod to prevent killing seedlings. Whenyou do flood GTRs, do it gradually to imi-tate natural, local water flow patterns.Don’t flood GTRs deeply. Suitable foragingdepths for mallards and wood ducks areless than 18 inches and preferably 4 to 12inches. Consider the depth a duck can for-age, given the distance between its bill andits feet when tipping up, and gauge flood-

ing depths accordingly instead of floodingdeep enough for hunters operating boatsandmotors.

Wooded brakes and shrub-scrubsloughs that are permanently flooded pro-duce less food for waterfowl than GTRs.When these flooded habitats naturally dryor are drained in the summer (mid-June toearly July), they can produce good naturalwaterfowl food plants such as grasses,sedges, smartweeds, and duck potato. Youalso can seedmudflats of these drawn-downwetlands with commercially avail-able millets.

Wood Duck andBeaver Pond ManagementIn flooded areas with dense stands ofscrub-shrub thickets or robust emergentplants, you can increase waterfowl use byusing chemicals to create small openings (1acre or larger) and “hemi-marsh” condi-

tions. Youmust use herbicides approvedfor aquatic application in these wetlands.Research has revealed that wood duckduckling survival tends to be greatest inscrub-shrub wetlands, perhaps becausepredation on ducklings is less in these wet-lands. You can put wood duck boxes inscrub-shrub wetlands to enhance produc-tion of wood ducks and other cavity-nest-ing birds. But don’t put wood duck boxesin or around water bodies youmanage forlargemouth bass, because these aquaticpredators eat ducklings. For further infor-mation onmanaging for wood duck pro-duction, see “Wood Duck Broods in Dixie:Striving To Survive Early in Life” athttp://fwrc.msstate.edu/pubs/ducklings.pdf.

Beavers can provide waterfowl habitatin areas where landowners are willing tomanage them and tolerate some damagefrom their activities. Beaver ponds providenest sites (in cavities of live and dead trees),brood habitat, and roosting cover for woodducks and other cavity-adapted birds andwildlife. Permanently flooded beaverponds frequently do not provide abundantfood for waterfowl. If you are willing tomanage water levels by breaking damsand installing water-management devices,you can improve beaver pond wetlands forwaterfowl.

In July to early August, you can breakbeaver dams where the water is deepestand install a three-log drain or Clemsonbeaver pond leveler to manage water lev-els. Then you can drain beaver ponds andlet mud flats vegetate naturally or plant

Don’t flood hardwoodforests until their leaveschange color in the fall.Also, drain GTRs inwinter before treebuds begin to swell.

Figure 9. Three-log drain used to help control water levels in beaver ponds. Reprinted from Arner et al (1966).

16

with Japanese millet. Although Japanesemillet will not establish itself in standingwater, good stands often result when soil ismoist during the growing season.

Check drains in beaver ponds fre-quently during the growing season to besure they are not plugged and water is ac-cumulating and overtopping desired vege-tation. You can let beavers rebuild dams inOctober through November to create win-ter wetlands.

Levee ConstructionDeveloping habitat for waterfowl inforested wetlands poses unique challenges.Habitat development in forested areas isgenerally muchmore costly and complexthan developing in croplands or open wet-lands. If not planned, constructed, andmanaged properly, these projects oftenhurt forest stand health and vigor.

The first step is to get a 404 permitfrom the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (con-tact your NRCS office for help) before con-structing waterfowl habitat projects inforested wetland areas. Site conditionstypically are muchmore challenging inthese habitats because of wet conditionsand the presence of standing timber. Aswith levee construction in any type ofhabitat, remove all vegetation and woodymaterial from the levee right-of-way beforeplacing any fill material. Next, it is impor-

tant to be sure the soil beneath the leveecan support the additional weight of newfill material. If the area beneath the newlevee is soft or has a high organic content,youmay have to excavate some of the exist-ing soil and backfill the area with suitablematerial before building the new levee.Many times suitable borrowmaterial isnot readily available in forested areas, mak-ing it necessary to transport off-site mate-rial to lessen project impacts. For moreinformation on levees, refer to Levee Con-struction in the Open Lands section of thispublication.

Water-Control StructuresBecause water control structures inforested wetlands are subject to damagefrom beavers, control structures should bemade from steel pipe. We recommend afull-round riser equipped with an intaketrash rack to prevent beavers from impact-ing the inside the water control structurewith mud and debris. You can also installtrash racks on the outlet end of pipes toprevent beavers from getting to the riserstructure. But you have to check theseracks often to be sure debris does not col-lect on the inside and restrict water flowthrough the pipe.

Beavers are attracted to the sound andsight of running water. To reduce the noisecreated by water running, full-round risers

are equipped with a solid steel lid with anaccess door. Inlet and outlet pipes shouldsit below ground level so the pipe is not ex-posed until most or all of the water isdrained from the impoundment. Some-times beaver deterrent pits are dug at thepipe inlet. These pits are excavated 2 to 3feet beneath the pipe inlet. Despite allthese safeguards, beaver activity aroundthe structure will usually require periodicmaintenance. The inlet pipe should bewhere you can reach it by hand or with abackhoe or similar equipment to removebeaver debris.

Figure 10. Clemson beaver pond leveler used for controlling water levels in beaver ponds.

Beaver ponds can bemanaged forwood duck habitatwith proper water control.

17

COMMON FORMULAS USED IN CALIBRATING SPRAY EQUIPMENT

Description Formula

Determining howmany gallons per minute (GPA)(MPH)(NSI)(GPM) your spray apparatus puts out (5940)

Determining howmany gallons per acre (GPM)(5940)(GPA) your spray apparatus puts out (MPH)(NSI)

Determining the correct speed (MPH) (GPM)(5940)of your spray apparatus (GPA)( NSI)

Determining the proper width of your (GPM)(5940)nozzle spacing in inches (NSI) (GPA)(MPH)

*5940 is a constant used to eliminate units within the above equations.**Review Extension Publication 1532 for more information about calibrating spray equipment.

Nuisance Plant andAnimal Management

Aquatic Rodent ControlAquatic rodent control is often a necessarypart of waterfowl habitat management toreduce damage to levees and lessenmain-tenance to water control structures.

Beavers can dam almost any water sys-tem, including road culverts, bridges, andspillways. Beaver dens may be in river andstream banks, pond banks, and levees.When constructing dens, beavers also digtunnels. This weakens levees and eventu-ally causes levees to collapse.

The most effective tools for controllingbeavers are body gripping traps andsnares. Body gripping traps such as a No.330 Conibear® quickly dispatch animals.You can buy these at farm supply stores ortrapping supply companies. You can alsouse foothold traps set as a live capture or adrowning set. Snares are generally hand-made, lightweight, and can be set in vari-ous wetland sites. When using any trap orsnare, be aware of nontarget animals suchas cats and dogs. To avoid most nontargetanimals, put traps underwater.

Night shooting is another effective wayto control beavers. Before trying this,check with your local conservation officeror county sheriff to make sure this methodis legal. Be aware of safety, since manytypes of ammunition can ricochet off thewater surface. A 12-guage shotgun with aslug or buckshot is probably all you needwhen night-shooting beaver in a pond set-ting. Again, be aware of nontarget species,such as otter. Check with your state con-

servation agency for proper permittingwhen removing otters. Taking otters mayrequire a permit outside of trapping sea-son, and it does require a trapping per-mit/license during the open trappingseason.

Two other aquatic rodents cause simi-lar problems: nutria andmuskrat. Nutriaandmuskrat can burrow into levees andwill eat lots of plants intended for water-fowl if population levels get too high. Youcan trap for both these animals with bodygripping traps or snares. Because these an-imals are smaller than beaver, a No. 220 orNo. 110 Conibear® is preferred, especiallyfor muskrat.

For more information on state trap-ping laws and nuisance wildlife controllaws, contact the Mississippi DepartmentofWildlife, Fisheries and Parks (MDWFP).The Mississippi Extension Service andUSDA Animal Plant Health InspectionService (APHIS) Wildlife Services can pro-vide help and information on use of traps,snares, and other options to controlaquatic rodents.

Weed Management in Water-fowl Management AreasManaging weeds in waterfowl manage-ment areas requires an integrated ap-proach for success. Relying on onetechnique does not work well enough.Techniques may include burning vegeta-tion, disking, mowing, and using herbi-cides. Herbicides can offer a cost-effectivealternative for management of problem-atic plants. When using herbicides,always read labels and apply onlyprescribed label rates. Another impor-

tant factor is presence or absence of water.If there is water or if you are applying in adrained wetland, you are required to useherbicides with aquatic labels. An aquaticlabel means you can use the product instanding water at the recommended labelrates. Still another concern with use of her-bicides is the possible effect on desirablevegetation and nontarget plants and ani-mals through spray drift or volatilizationof the herbicide. Clearly, if you have anydoubts regarding spraying herbicides, con-tact the herbicide company representativeor your Extension office.

Application Methodsand CalibrationProper calibration and spray equipmentare musts for effective weedmanagementusing herbicides. Commonly used sprayequipment may include pump-up, hand-held, and backpack sprayers; ATV and trac-tor-mounted tank and boom systems; andairplane- and helicopter-mounted spraysystems. The last tools are typically usedby professional applicators for large-scaletreatments.

One of the most important aspects ofusing herbicides is proper calibration ofspray equipment. Improper calibrationcan cause serious problems, such as killingnontarget vegetation and increasing costof application by applying toomuch chem-ical. Calibration is equipment-specific, sodo it before applying herbicides. Formulasare available to make calibration easier. Itis also important to be able to change val-ues from one unit of measure to another(as in changing acres to square feet).

GPM =

GPA =

MPH =

NSI =

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HERBICIDE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COMMON PROBLEMATIC PLANTS INWATERFOWLMANAGEMENT AREAS IN THEMISSISSIPPI ALLUVIAL VALLEY

TroublesomeWeeds Herbicide Rate (fl oz/acre)

Alligatorweed 2,4-D 64(Alternanthera philoxeroides) Carfentrazone 6.7 - 16.5

Glyphosate 96Imazapyr 16 - 64Triclopyr 64 - 256

Beakrush Glyphosate 48 - 64(Rhynchospora corniculata) Imazapyr 32 - 48

Buttonbrush Glyphosate 48 - 64(Cephalanthus occidentalis) Imazapyr 32 - 48

Cattail Glyphosate 72 - 96(Typha spp.) Imazapyr 32 - 64

Coffee Senna 2,4-D 32 - 128(Cassia occidentalis) Dicamba 8 - 24

Glyphosate 16 - 32Triclopyr 42 - 192

Common Cocklebur 2,4-D 32 - 128(Xanthium strumarium) Aciflurofen 8 - 24

Bentazon 24 - 32Bromoxynil 16 - 32Carfentrazone 0.67Dicamba 8 - 24Glyphosate 11 - 32Flumetsulam* 0.8 - 1.33Imazapyr 48 - 64Triclopyr 42 - 192

Duckweed Carfentrazone 6.7-13.5(Lemna spp.) Diquat 128

Flouridone** 4Imazapyr 32 - 48

EurasianWatermilfoil 2,4-D 364(Myriophyllum spicatum) Diquat 128 - 256

Endothall 256 - 320Triclopyr 90 - 294

Hemp Sesbania 2,4-D 32 - 128(Sesbania exaltata) Aciflurofen 16

Carfentrazone 6.7 - 13.5Dicamba 8 - 24Glyphosate 16 - 32Triclopyr 42 - 192

Herbicide RecommendationsHerbicide recommendations for prob-

lem plants are provided below. If you havequestions regarding plant identification,contact your local resource management

agency or organization (such as, NRCS,MSU Extension, or Ducks Unlimited). Fol-lowing are recommendations to maximizeeffectiveness of common herbicides and re-strictions for their use. For more informa-

tion regarding each herbicide, consult thelabel and/or your Extension agent.Readeach label carefully, and followinstructions explicitly.

COMMON CONVERSION FACTORS FOR CALIBRATION AND HERBICIDE USE

Area Acre to square feet Acre to hectare Hectare to square meter Hectare to acre1 ac = 43,560 ft2 1 ac = 0.405 ha 1 ha = 10,000m2 1 ha = 2.47 ac

Distance Inches to centimeters Meter to feet Meter to inches Miles to feet1 in = 2.54 cm 1m = 3.28 ft 1 m = 39.37 in 1 mi = 5280 ft

Speed MPH to feet/minute1 MPH = 88 ft/min

Volume Gallon to fluid ounce Gallon to pint Gallon to quart Gallon to liter1 gal = 128 fl oz 1 gal = 8 pt 1 gal = 4 qt 1 gal = 3.785 L

Gallon to milliliter Pint to fluid ounce Pint to fluid ounce Fluid ounce to milliliter1 gal = 3785 mL 1 pt = 16 fl oz 1 qt = 32 fl oz 1 fl oz = 29.57 mL

Weight Pounds to grams Pounds to ounce Pounds to kilograms Kilograms to pounds1 lb = 453.6 g 1 lb = 16 oz 1 lb = 0.45 kg 1 kg = 2.2 lbs

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HERBICIDE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COMMON PROBLEMATIC PLANTS INWATERFOWLMANAGEMENT AREAS IN THEMISSISSIPPI ALLUVIAL VALLEY

TroublesomeWeeds Herbicide Rate (fl oz/acre)

Lotus, American Carfentrazone 6.7 - 13.5(Nelumbo lutea) Glyphosate 64

Imazapyr 32 - 48Triclopyr 64 - 256

Morningglories 2,4-D 32 - 128(Ipomoea spp.) Aciflurofen 16

Bromoxynil 16 - 32Carfentrazone 0.33 - 0.67Dicamba 8 - 24Glyphosate 16 - 32Flumetsulam* 0.8 - 1.33Imazapyr 48 - 64Triclopyr 42 - 192

Prickly Sida “Teaweed” Glyphosate 32(Sida spinosa)

Purple Loosestrife 2,4-D 32 - 64(Lythrum salicaria) Glyphosate 64 - 96

Imazapyr 16Triclopyr 192 - 256

Redvine Aciflurofen 8 - 24(Brunnichia ovata) Dicamba 16 - 64

Glyphosate 16 - 48Imazapyr 48 - 64Triclopyr 42 - 192

Sicklepod 2,4-D 64 - 128(Cassia obtusifolius) Dicamba 8 - 24

Glyphosate 16 - 32Flumetsulam* 0.8 - 1.33Triclopyr 42 - 192

Smartweed 2,4-D 32 - 128(Polygonum spp.) Aciflurofen 8 - 24

Bentazon 24 - 32Bromoxynil 16 - 32Carfentrazone 0.5Dicamba 8 - 24Glyphosate 72 - 120Imazapyr 32Triclopyr 42 - 192

Trumpet Creeper Aciflurofen 8 - 24(Campsis radicans) Dicamba 16 - 64

Glyphosate 48 - 68Imazapyr 64 - 96Triclopyr 42 - 192

Waterhyacinth 2,4-D 64 - 128(Eichhornia crassipes) Diquat 64 - 96

Glyphosate 80 - 96Imazapyr 16Triclopyr 64 - 256

Water Pod 2,4-D 32 - 64(Hydrolea quadrivalvis) Glyphosate 72 - 96

Water Primrose 2,4-D 32 - 128(Ludwigia uruguayensis) Carfentrazone 13.5

Glyphosate 72Imazapyr 64 - 96Triclopyr 32 - 256

Willow Dicamba 16 - 64(Salix spp.) Glyphosate 72

Imazapyr 32 - 48Triclopyr 32 - 256

20

* Rate expressed as dry weight (oz/acre) ** Rate expressed as fl oz/acre foot

Recommendations andRestrictions for Com-monly Used HerbicidesinWaterfowl HabitatManagement

2,4-DComplete coverage of foliage is essentialfor maximum effectiveness. Apply whenplants are small and actively growing be-fore the bud and rosette stages and beforeflower stalks appear. Do not spray inwinds higher than 10mph. Do not applyduring a low temperature inversion*, be-cause drift potential is very high. Increasedroplet size in low humidity periods to re-duce the chance of drift. Adding 1 qt ofnonionic surfactant per 100 gallons ofspray solutionmay increase herbicide ef-fectiveness. You can apply in water byspraying on exposed vegetation or subsur-face injections. Carefully read and followaquatic application recommendationsfrom herbicide label. When using in water,do not treat more than one half of the areaat time of application to avoid oxygen de-pletion and fish kill.

AciflurofenThis product is not currently labeled foraquatic use. Do not apply more than atotal of 3 pints per acre per season. Allowat least of 15 days between sequentialtreatments with aciflurofen. Do not usetreated plants for feed or forage. Allow 4hours or more to ensure rain fastness.

BentazonThis product is not currently labeled foraquatic use. Uptake into the plant is pri-marily through the leaves. Thorough cover-age of foliage is important for control.Failure to penetrate crop or weed leafcanopies with the spray will result in in-complete control of small weeds growingunderneath. Cool weather conditions(such as < 50 °F) or drought will delay her-bicidal activity and if prolonged, may re-sult in poor weed control. Apply whenbroadleaf weeds are small and activelygrowing and before the weeds reachmaxi-mum size.

BromoxynilThis product is not currently labeled foraquatic use, so do not apply to vegetationin standing water or if you plan to floodthe sprayed area within onemonth after

product application. Thorough coverageof foliage is essential for best results.Apply when the potential for drift to adja-cent sensitive areas (such as residentialareas, bodies of water, and known habitatsfor threatened or endangered species, non-target crops) is minimal (such as whenwind is blowing away from the sensitiveareas). Use a standard herbicide boomsprayer that provides uniform and accu-rate application. Sprayer should beequipped with screens no finer than #50mesh in the nozzle tips and in-line strain-ers. Select a spray volume and delivery sys-tem that will ensure thorough anduniform spray coverage. For optimumspray distribution and thorough coverage,use flat fan nozzles (maximum tip size

Carefully read andfollow aquatic and

terrestrial applicationrecommendations

from herbicide label.

8008) with a spray pressure of 40 to 60 psi.Other nozzle types and lower spray pressuresthat produce coarse spray droplets may notprovide adequate coverage. In general, aspray volume of 10 to 20 gallons per acre(GPA) is recommended. Applications usingless than 10 gallons per acre may result in re-duced weed control. When weed infestationsare heavy, youmayhave to use morespray volumes andspray pressure.When using inwater, do not applywhen winds aregusty, to minimizeoff-target spraymovement.

CarfentrazoneThorough coverageof foliage is essen-tial for best results.Do not spray inwinds greater than

10mph. Add 2 pints of nonionic surfactantper 100 gallons of spray solution. Makeaquatic applications as subsurface or as asurface application with a suitable weight-ing agent (see label for recommendedweighting agents) to submerse the spray.Total concentration of carfentrazone-ethylmust not exceed 200 ppb in the treatedwater area. Apply in spring or early sum-mer when plants are actively growing.When using in water, do not treat morethan one half the area at one time to avoidoxygen depletion and fish kill.

DicambaThis product is not currently labeled foraquatic use. Apply when air temperaturesare between 50 and 77 °F. Do not applywhen there is a risk of severe drop in tem-peratures. Do not contaminate domesticor irrigation water. Thoroughly clean ap-plication equipment. Do not treat areaswhere movement of the chemical into thesoil or surface washingmay bring dicambainto contact with roots of desirable plants.Treat when wind is less than 9MPH. Donot apply when weather conditions maycause drift from target areas to adjacentsensitive crops. Leave an adequate bufferzone between treatment areas and sensi-tive plants. Use coarse sprays, because theyare less likely to drift than fine sprays. Donot spray when the temperatures arehigher than 86 °F. Avoid spraying in highhumidity or fog.

DiquatApply as a subsurface injection to non-flowing water. Apply evenly over plant-infested area andmay apply directly toemergent or floating leaves. Do not applyin muddy/turbid water. Do not treat more

21

22

than one half the area at one time to avoidoxygen depletion and fish kill.

EndothallSpray or inject liquids under water. Applygranules evenly with cyclone seeder. Applyas soon as possible after weeds begin togrow and water temperature is above 65 °F.When treating in sections, treat on 5- to 7-day interval. Use higher rates (as stated inlabel) when spot treating. Do not treatmore than one half the area at one time toavoid oxygen depletion and fish kill.

FlumetsulamThis product is not currently labeled foraquatic use, so do not apply to vegetationin standing water or if you plan to floodthe sprayed area within three months afterproduct application. May not be mixed orloaded within 50 feet of any wells (includ-ing abandoned wells and drainage wells),sinkholes, perennial or intermittentstreams and rivers, and natural or im-pounded lakes and reservoirs. Do notapply through any type of irrigationsystem.

GlyphosateThorough coverage of foliage is essentialfor best results. Add 1 to 2 qt nonionic sur-factant per 100 gallons of spray solution.Aquatic applications require aquatic-la-beled glyphosate as well as approved non-ionic surfactants.

ImazapyrAdd 1 quart of an aquatic approved non-ionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spraysolution. Well established weed infesta-tions may require greater rates (see prod-uct label for recommendations). Spraywhen wind speeds are between 3 and 10MPH. Higher wind speeds increase chancesfor drift. Do not apply during temperatureinversions (see footnote) because of highrisk for drift. Note: imazapyr is not recom-mended for tankmixing; tankmixingmayreduce efficacy and require higher rates ofimazapyr. Adsorption of imazapyr to soilincreases with decreased pH (less than 6.5)and is influenced by soil moisture. It is im-portant to check the soil pH andmoisturebefore using imazapyr.

TriclopyrComplete coverage of foliage is essentialfor best results. Use higher rates withinthe labeled rate range when plants are ma-ture, when the weedmass is dense, or fordifficult-to-control species. Do not spray inwinds greater than 10mph. Do not applyduring a low temperature inversion*, be-cause drift potential is great. Adjustdroplet size in low humidity periods to re-duce chance of drift. Adding 1 qt nonionicsurfactant per 100 gallons of spray solu-tionmay increase herbicide efficacy on thetarget plant(s).

*In a temperature inversion, the air at thesoil surface is cooler than the air above.The cool air mass stays at the soil surfaceand does not vertically mix with the airabove it. Small spray particles can betrapped within the cool air andmay travelhorizontally at low elevations for severalmiles, contacting off-target plants andcrops.

Selected ReferencesArner, D. H., J. Baker, and D. E. Wesley. 1966. Themanagement of beaver and beaver ponds inthe southeastern United States. Water Re-sources Research Institute, Mississippi StateUniversity. 18 pp.

Arner, D. H., and G. R. Hepp. 1989. Beaver pondwetlands: a southern perspective. Pages 117-128 in L. M. Smith, R. L. Pederson, and R. M.Kaminski, editors. 1989. Habitat manage-ment for migrating and wintering waterfowlin North America. Texas Tech UniversityPress, Lubbock.

Bateman, D., R. M. Kaminski, and P. A. Magee.2005. Wetland invertebrate communitiesandmanagement of hardwood bottomlandsin the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Pages 173-190 in L. H. Fredrickson, S. L. King, and R. M.Kaminski, editors. Ecology andmanagementof bottomland hardwood systems: the stateof our understanding. University of Mis-souri-Columbia. Gaylord Memorial Labora-tory Special Publication No. 10. Puxico,Missouri.

Checkett, J. M., R. D. Drobney, M. J. Petrie, and D.A. Graber. 2002. True metabolizable energyof moist-soil seeds. Wildlife Society Bulletin30:1113-1119.

Cross, D. H. 1988. Waterfowl managementhandbook. U.S. Department of the Interior,Fish andWildlife Service. Fish andWildlifeLeaflet 13. Washington, DC.

Davis, J.B., and R.M. Kaminski. 2002. Wood duckbroods in Dixie: striving to survive early life.Forest andWildlife Research Center, ResearchAdvances 7(2):1-4.

Davis, J.B., R.R. Cox, Jr., R.M. Kaminski, and B.D.Leopold. 2007. Survival of wood duck duck-lings and broods in Mississippi and Alabama.Journal of Wildlife Management 71:507-517.

Fredrickson, L. H., and D. L. Bateman.1992.Greentree reservoir management handbook.University of Missouri, Gaylord MemorialLaboratory, Puxico, Missouri.

Fredrickson, L. H., and T. S. Taylor. 1982. Manage-ment of seasonally flooded impoundmentsfor wildlife. U.S. Fish andWildlife Service Re-source Publication 148.

Fredrickson, L. H., S. L. King, and R. M. Kamin-ski, editors. Ecology andmanagement of bot-tomland hardwood systems: the state of ourunderstanding. University of Missouri-Co-lumbia. Gaylord Memorial Laboratory Spe-cial Publication No. 10. Puxico, Missouri.

Gray, M. J., R. M. Kaminski, G. Weerakkody, B. D.Leopold, and K. C. Jensen. 1999. Aquatic in-vertebrate and plant responses followingme-chanical manipulations of moist-soil habitat.Wildlife Society Bulletin 27:770-779.

Havens, J.H. 2007. Winter abundance of water-fowl, waterbirds, and waste rice in managedArkansas rice fields. Thesis, Mississippi StateUniversity, Mississippi State, Mississippi.

Heitmeyer, M. E., R. J. Cooper, J. G. Dickson, andB. D. Leopold. 2005. Ecological relationshipsof warmblooded vertebrates in bottomlandhardwood ecosystems. Pages 281-306 in L. H.Fredrickson, S. L. King, and R. M. Kaminski,editors. Ecology andmanagement of bottom-land hardwood systems: the state of our un-derstanding. University of Missouri-Columbia. Gaylord Memorial Laboratory Spe-cial Publication No. 10, Puxico, Missouri.

Kaminski, R. M., J. B. Davis, H. W. Essig, P. D. Ger-ard, and K. J. Reinecke. 2003. True metaboliz-able energy for wood ducks from acornscompared to other waterfowl foods. Journalof Wildlife Management 67:542-550.

Kross, J. J., R. M. Kaminski, K. J. Reinecke, and A.T. Pearse. 2008. Conserving waste rice forwintering waterfowl in the Mississippi Allu-vial Valley. Journal of Wildlife Management72:1383-1387.

Kross, J., R. M. Kaminski, K. J. Reinecke, E. J.Penny, and A. T. Pearse. 2008. Moist-soil seedabundance in managed wetlands in the Mis-sissippi Alluvial Valley. Journal of WildlifeManagement 72:983-994.

Manley, S. W., R. M. Kaminski, K. J. Reinecke, andP. D. Gerard. 2004. Waterbird foods in win-ter-managed rice fields in Mississippi. Jour-nal of Wildlife Management 68:74-83.

Manley, S. W., R. M. Kaminski, K. J. Reinecke, andP. D. Gerard. 2005. Agronomic implicationsof waterfowl management in Mississippi ricefields. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33:981-992.

Mitchell, W. H., and C. J. Newling. 1986. Green-tree reservoirs. U.S. Army Corps of EngineersWildlife Resources Management Manual,Technical Report EL-86-9, Section 5.5.3, U.S.Army Corps of EngineersWaterways Experi-ment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Neely, W.W. 1956. How long do duck foods lastunder water? Transactions of the NorthAmericanWildlife Conference 21:191-198.

Nelms, C. O., and D. J. Twedt. 1996. Seed deterio-ration in flooded agriculture fields duringwinter. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24:85-88.

Nelms, K.D., editor and compiler. 2007. Wet-landmanagement for waterfowl handbook.USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Serv-ice, Greenwood, Mississippi.

Pearse, A.T. 2007. Design, evaluation, and appli-cation of an aerial survey to estimate abun-dance of wintering waterfowl. Dissertation,Mississippi State University, MississippiState, Mississippi.

Powers, K. D., R. E. Noble, and R. H. Chabreck.1978. Seed distribution by waterfowl insouthwestern Louisiana. Journal of WildlifeManagement 42:598-605.

Reinecke, K. J., R. M. Kaminski, D. J. Moorhead, J.D. Hodges, and J. R. Nassar. 1989. MississippiAlluvial Valley. Pages 203-243 in L.M. Smith,R.L. Pederson, and R. M. Kaminski, editors.Habitat management for migrating and win-tering waterfowl in North America. TexasTech University Press, Lubbock.

Shearer, L. A., B. J. Jahn, and L. Lenz. 1969. Dete-rioration of duck foods when flooded. Jour-nal of Wildlife Management 33:1012-1015.

Smith, L. M., R. L. Pederson, and R. M. Kaminski,editors. 1989. Habitat management for mi-grating and wintering waterfowl in NorthAmerica. Texas Tech University Press, Lub-bock.

Smith, L. M., D. A. Haukos, and R. M. Prather.2004. Avian response to vegetative patternin playa wetlands during winter. Wildlife So-ciety Bulletin 31:474-480.

Stafford, J. D., R. M. Kaminski, K. J. Reinecke, andS. W. Manley. 2006. Waste rice for waterfowlin the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Journal ofWildlife Management 70:61-69.

23

Beggarticks (Bidens spp.)Enhancement:

Late-season drawdowns.

Broadleaf signalgrass(Urochloa platyphylla)

Enhancement: Shallow diskand late-season drawdown.

Chufa, Yellow nutsedge(Cyperaus esculentus)

Enhancement: Shallow diskandmid-season drawdown.

Crabgrass (Digitaria spp.)Enhancement: Late-season

drawdowns.

Docks (Rumex spp.)Enhancement: Early-season

drawdowns.

Duck potatoes (Sagittaria spp.)Enhancement: Maintain shallow flood

and expose mudflats in Augustthrough September.

Duckweeds (Lemna spp.)No enhancement recommendation.

Flatsedges (Cyperus spp.)Enhancement: Shallow disk andmid- to late-season drawdown.

Foxtails (Setaria spp.)Enhancement: Shallow diskwith slow drawdowns.

24

Appendix

Desirable Plants

Millets, Wild (Echinochloa spp.)Enhancement: Shallow disk

and slow drawdowns.

Panic grasses (Panicum spp.)Enhancement: Shallow disk andmid- to late-season drawdown.

Rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides)Enhancement: Slow

late-season drawdown.

Sedges (Carex spp.)No enhancement recommendation.

Smartweeds, Annual(Polygonum spp.)

Enhancement: Slowearly-season drawdowns.

Spikerushes (Eleocharis spp.)Enhancement: Maintain

shallow flood.

Sprangletops (Leptochloa spp.)Enhancement: Shallow disk andmid- to late-season drawdowns.

Teal Lovegrass(Eragrostis hypnoides)

No enhancement recommendation.

25

Toothcup (Ammania coccinea)Enhancement: Shallow disk and

late-season drawdowns.

Eurasian watermilfoil(Myriophyllum spicatum)Control: See Herbicide Table

on pages 19-20.

Redvine (Brunnichia ovata)Control: Control: See Herbicide Table

on pages 19-20.

Water plantain(Alisma subcordatum)

No enhancement recommendation. Alligatorweed(Alteranthera philoxeroides)Control: See Herbicide Table

on pages 19-20.

Lotus, American(Nelumbo lutea)

Control: See Herbicide Tableon pages 19-20.

Balloon vine(Cardiospermum halicacabum)Control: Late-season disking.

Cattails (Typha spp.)Control: See Herbicide Table

on pages 19-20.

Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium)Control: See Herbicide Table

on pages 19-20.

Coffeeweed (Sesbania spp.)Control: See Herbicide Table

on pages 19-20.

Undesirable Plants

26

Rose mallow (Hibiscus spp.)Control: Late-season disking.

Sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolius)Control: See Herbicide Table

on pages 19-20.

Teaweed (Sida spinosa)Control: Late-season diskingfollowed by slow drawdown.

Trumpet creeper(Campsis radicans)

Control: See Herbicide Tableon pages 19-20.

Waterpod (Hydrolea quadrivalvis)Control: See Herbicide Table

on pages 19-20.

27

Asters (Symphyotrichum spp.)Control: Late-season disking followed

by slow drawdown.

Beakrush, Horned(Rhynchospora corniculata)Control: See Herbicide Table

on pages 19-20.

Broomsedge(Andropogon virginicus)

Control: Late-season diskingfollowed by slow drawdown.

Marginal Value PlantsThese plants provide some waterfowl food and/or cover but may need control depending onmanagement objectives.

Consider control when these plants have 20 percent or greater coverage of impoundment.

Pigweeds (Amaranthus spp.)Control: Late-season diskingfollowed by slow drawdown

Ragweeds (Ambrosia spp.)Control: Late-season diskingfollowed by slow drawdown

Rushes (Juncus spp.)Control: Late-season diskingfollowed by slow drawdown

Burreed (Sparganium spp.)Control: Late-season diskingfollowed by slow drawdown

Buttercups (Ranunculus spp.)Enhancement: early-season

drawdowns

Buttonbush(Cephalanthus occidentalis)Control: See Herbicide Table

on pages 19-20

Goldenrod (Solidago spp.)Control: Late-season diskingfollowed by slow drawdown

Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense)Control: Strip disking todiscourage monoculture

Morning glories (Ipomoea spp.)Control: Late-season diskingfollowed by slow drawdown

28

Marginal Value PlantsThese plants provide some waterfowl food and/or cover but may need control, depending onmanagement objectives.

Consider control when these plants have 20 percent or greater coverage of impoundment.

Smartweeds, Perennial(Polygonum spp.)

Control: See Herbicide Tableon pages 19-20.

Sumpweed (Iva annua)Control: Late-season diskingfollowed by slow drawdown.

Swampmilkweed(Asclepias incarnata)

Control: Late-season diskingfollowed by slow drawdown.

Water primrose (Ludwigia spp.)Control: See Herbicide Table

on pages 19-20.

Willows (Salix spp.)Control: See Herbicide Table

on pages 19-20.

29

Marginal Value PlantsThese plants provide some waterfowl food and/or cover but may need control, depending onmanagement objectives.

Consider control when these plants have 20 percent or greater coverage of impoundment.

Food-producing TreesAcorn/nut-producing Trees – Mast from these trees are used by wood ducks andmallards as rich sources of energy and fatty acids.

Bitter Pecan (Carya lecontei) Cherrybark Oak (Quercus pagoda) Overcup Oak (Quercus lyrata)

Samara-producing TreesSamaras from these trees are a highly digestible source of carbohydrates in spring for wood ducks.

30

Pin/Nuttall Oak(Quercus palustris/nuttallii)

Shumard Oak (Quercus shumardii) Water Oak (Quercus nigra)

Willow Oak (Quercus phellos)

RedMaple (Acer rubra) Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica)

Food-producing TreesAcorn/nut-producing Trees – Mast from these trees is a rich source of energy and fatty acids for wood ducks andmallards.

31

American Beech (Fagus grandifolia) American Elm (Ulmus americana) Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum)

BlackWillow (Salix nigra) RedMaple (Acer rubra) Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum)

Natural Cavity-producing Trees

Sugarberry (Celtis laevigata) Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) Tupelogum (Nyssa aquatica)

Contributors

Compiled and edited byDr. BronsonK. Strickland, Assistant Extension Professor, Department ofWildlife & Fisheries; Dr. RichardM. Kaminski, Professor, DepartmentofWildlife & Fisheries; Kevin Nelms, Wildlife Biologist, USDANatural Resources Conservation Service; andAdamTullos, Extension Associate II, Department ofWildlife& Fisheries from an earlier version by by James R. Nassar, Will E. Cohen, Curtis R. Hopkins, Harvey Huffstatler, and Dean Stewart.

Discrimination based upon race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, disability, or veteran’s status is a violation of federal and state law andMSU policy andwill not betolerated. Discrimination based upon sexual orientation or group affiliation is a violation of MSU policy and will not be tolerated.

Publication 1864Extension Service of Mississippi State University, cooperating with U.S. Department of Agriculture. Published in furtherance of Acts of Congress, May 8 and June 30, 1914.MELISSA J. MIXON, Interim Director (8300-05-09)

Photo Credits:Alison Fox, University of Florida, Bugwood.org

Charles T. Bryson, USDA AgriculturalResearch Service, Bugwood.org

Dave Menke, DeSoto National Wildlife Refuge

Ducks Unlimited

Joshua D. Stafford, Illinois Natural History Survey,University of Illinois

Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org

Mississippi Trees by Hodges, J.D., et al 2008,Mississippi Forestry Commission

Troy Evans, Eastern Kentucky University, Bugwood.org

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service

USDA NRCS PLANTS database

We thank the following for funding support:

Dr. AndrewW. EzellDepartment of Forestry

Mississippi State University

Kris Casscles GodwinState Director – Mississippi

USDA APHISWildlife Services

Billy HillEngineer

Ducks Unlimited

Joshua C. Chesier and Dr. John D. MadsenGeoresources Institute

Mississippi State University