Water QualityWater Quality

Water quality problems in Water quality problems in developing countriesdeveloping countries

Evidence from the WHO:Evidence from the WHO: In 2003, an estimated 1.6 million deaths worldwide In 2003, an estimated 1.6 million deaths worldwide

were caused by unsafe drinking water and sanitationwere caused by unsafe drinking water and sanitation 90% of these deaths were among children under age 90% of these deaths were among children under age

fivefive 1.1 billion people don’t have access to improved 1.1 billion people don’t have access to improved

water sourceswater sources 2.4 billion people don’t have access to improved 2.4 billion people don’t have access to improved

sanitationsanitation

Source: www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wsh0404/en/Source: www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wsh0404/en/

Water quality problems in Water quality problems in developing countriesdeveloping countries

Biggest water quality problem in developing Biggest water quality problem in developing countries is the threat of infectious diarrhea countries is the threat of infectious diarrhea caused by water-borne diseases.caused by water-borne diseases.

If there was a 50% reduction in the number of If there was a 50% reduction in the number of people lacking access to in-house piped water people lacking access to in-house piped water and sewer connections with partial treatment of and sewer connections with partial treatment of waste waters, the number of illnesses would be waste waters, the number of illnesses would be reduced by an average of 69% in affected reduced by an average of 69% in affected regions.regions.

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/envsan/lookingback/en/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/envsan/lookingback/en/

Water quality problems in the U.S.Water quality problems in the U.S.

The Cuyahoga River Fire in 1969The Cuyahoga River Fire in 1969

Floating debris and oil caught fire on the surface Floating debris and oil caught fire on the surface of the Cuyahoga River near downtown of the Cuyahoga River near downtown Cleveland in 1969.Cleveland in 1969.

The Cuyahoga River had also ignited a couple of The Cuyahoga River had also ignited a couple of times in earlier years.times in earlier years.

The Cuyahoga River fire brought water-quality The Cuyahoga River fire brought water-quality problems to the attention of the public and problems to the attention of the public and Congress.Congress.

Photos: http://www.cwru.edu/artsci/engl/marling/60s/pages/richoux/Photographs.htmlPhotos: http://www.cwru.edu/artsci/engl/marling/60s/pages/richoux/Photographs.html

Water quality problems in the U.S.Water quality problems in the U.S.

Cryptosporidium contamination in Milwaukee in 1993Cryptosporidium contamination in Milwaukee in 1993

Cryptosporidium is a protozoan parasite that’s usually Cryptosporidium is a protozoan parasite that’s usually present at low levels in water supplies.present at low levels in water supplies.

An outbreak of cryptosporidium contamination in 1993 in An outbreak of cryptosporidium contamination in 1993 in Milwaukee caused diarrhea, fever, and other symptoms Milwaukee caused diarrhea, fever, and other symptoms for over 400,000 residents and killed more than 100.for over 400,000 residents and killed more than 100.

The contamination was traced to a water treatment plant The contamination was traced to a water treatment plant that had inadequately filtered water from Lake Michigan.that had inadequately filtered water from Lake Michigan.

It is believed that the original source of the contamination It is believed that the original source of the contamination was storm runoff from nearby farms.was storm runoff from nearby farms.

Water quality problems in the U.S.Water quality problems in the U.S.Narrowing the focus:Narrowing the focus: Surface water pollutionSurface water pollution Groundwater pollutionGroundwater pollution

Types of surface water pollution:Types of surface water pollution: Pollution from Pollution from point sourcespoint sources Nonpoint-sourceNonpoint-source pollution pollution

Regulation depends on designated uses of surface water:Regulation depends on designated uses of surface water: Drinking water supplyDrinking water supply Recreational uses (such as swimming)Recreational uses (such as swimming) Aquatic life supportAquatic life support Fish consumptionFish consumption etc.etc.

Examples of Water ContaminantsExamples of Water Contaminants

Contaminants affecting human health:Contaminants affecting human health: Organic compounds (such as pesticides and Organic compounds (such as pesticides and

gasoline)gasoline) Heavy metals (such as mercury and lead)Heavy metals (such as mercury and lead) Pathogens (such as cryptosporidium)Pathogens (such as cryptosporidium)

Contaminants affecting aquatic life:Contaminants affecting aquatic life: Plant nutrients, including nitrate and Plant nutrients, including nitrate and

phosphorus compoundsphosphorus compounds Organic wastes, which lead to depletion of Organic wastes, which lead to depletion of

dissolved oxygen in the waterdissolved oxygen in the water

Federal Water Quality LegislationFederal Water Quality Legislation

Federal Water Pollution Control Act of Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 19721972

Clean Water Act of 1977Clean Water Act of 1977 Water Quality Act of 1987Water Quality Act of 1987 ““The Year of Clean Water”: 2002-3The Year of Clean Water”: 2002-3

Water Quality Control: An OverviewWater Quality Control: An Overview Control of point-source pollutionControl of point-source pollution

Federal government sets water-quality Federal government sets water-quality standardsstandards

States create pollution-control programs to States create pollution-control programs to meet the standards meet the standards

Programs usually require polluters to install Programs usually require polluters to install certain pollution-control technologiescertain pollution-control technologies

Subsidies for construction of Publicly Subsidies for construction of Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTWs)Owned Treatment Works (POTWs)

Control of non-point source pollutionControl of non-point source pollution

Water Quality Control: An OverviewWater Quality Control: An Overview

The effect that a particular effluent has on water The effect that a particular effluent has on water quality depends on a number of factors such as:quality depends on a number of factors such as:

biochemical oxygen demand in the effluent biochemical oxygen demand in the effluent time of year and water temperaturetime of year and water temperature location of waste sourceslocation of waste sources turbulence of water flowturbulence of water flow volume of water flowvolume of water flow

A perfect water pollution control policy would A perfect water pollution control policy would have to take all these factors into account. have to take all these factors into account. Since this is impractical, actual policies involve Since this is impractical, actual policies involve compromises.compromises.

The Oxygen Sag CurveThe Oxygen Sag Curve

Water Treatment FacilitiesWater Treatment Facilities Since 1970 the federal government has spent over $60 Since 1970 the federal government has spent over $60

billion to subsidize construction of POTWs, and total billion to subsidize construction of POTWs, and total spending by all levels of government has been over spending by all levels of government has been over $200 billion.$200 billion.

Evidence suggests that federal funding for POTW Evidence suggests that federal funding for POTW construction has largely just replaced local funding – construction has largely just replaced local funding – about 67% of construction would have taken place about 67% of construction would have taken place anyway.anyway.

Federal subsidies provided perverse incentives at first: Federal subsidies provided perverse incentives at first: Municipalities had an incentive to build POTWs that were too Municipalities had an incentive to build POTWs that were too

large.large. Federal funding didn’t help to cover operating expenses and Federal funding didn’t help to cover operating expenses and

maintenance.maintenance. But more responsibility has been shifted to local authorities.But more responsibility has been shifted to local authorities.

Progress has been significant:Progress has been significant: http://www.epa.gov/owm/wquality/http://www.epa.gov/owm/wquality/

Control of Other Point SourcesControl of Other Point Sources

Basic federal program: National Pollutant Basic federal program: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Administered through a system of permits that set Administered through a system of permits that set

effluent limits; but these permits are typically not effluent limits; but these permits are typically not tradable. tradable.

Goal is zero discharge; but limits are usually based Goal is zero discharge; but limits are usually based largely on what level of control is technically feasible.largely on what level of control is technically feasible.

Efficiency? Cost-effectiveness?Efficiency? Cost-effectiveness?

EPA – EnvirofactsEPA – Envirofacts

WDNR - WPDES Permit ProgramWDNR - WPDES Permit Program

Point-Source Control: Other OptionsPoint-Source Control: Other Options

Effluent taxes or fees?Effluent taxes or fees? In theory, this is could be an effective approach.In theory, this is could be an effective approach. Effluent taxes have been used in Europe, but the Effluent taxes have been used in Europe, but the

taxes are usually set too low to provide strong taxes are usually set too low to provide strong incentives to reduce pollution levels.incentives to reduce pollution levels.

Best example: the Netherlands has used effluent fees Best example: the Netherlands has used effluent fees as an effective pollution-control approach.as an effective pollution-control approach.

Why not use effluent taxes?Why not use effluent taxes? Political objectionsPolitical objections Concerns that taxed firms will face a competitive Concerns that taxed firms will face a competitive

disadvantagedisadvantage Effluent taxes require careful monitoring of dischargesEffluent taxes require careful monitoring of discharges

Tradable effluent permitsTradable effluent permits EPA > Watersheds > Trading > Frequently EPA > Watersheds > Trading > Frequently

Asked Questions About Water Quality TradingAsked Questions About Water Quality Trading Advantages of effluent permit tradingAdvantages of effluent permit trading

Cost-effectivenessCost-effectiveness Problems with effluent permit tradingProblems with effluent permit trading

Hot spots?Hot spots?

Point-Source Control: Other OptionsPoint-Source Control: Other Options

Control of Pollution from Non-Point SourcesControl of Pollution from Non-Point Sources

Major remaining water pollution problem, Major remaining water pollution problem, especially in agricultural states like especially in agricultural states like Wisconsin.Wisconsin.

Two important sources:Two important sources: Agricultural runoffAgricultural runoff Storm runoffStorm runoff

Control of agricultural runoff: the DNR Control of agricultural runoff: the DNR provides:provides: Technical assistance to farmersTechnical assistance to farmers Subsidies for improvements to prevent runoffSubsidies for improvements to prevent runoff Performance standardsPerformance standards

Control of storm runoffControl of storm runoff Storm runoff performance standards for Storm runoff performance standards for

industry, municipalities, and construction sitesindustry, municipalities, and construction sites In Eau Claire, new businesses must pay fees In Eau Claire, new businesses must pay fees

based on their likely runoff.based on their likely runoff.

Control of Pollution from Non-Point SourcesControl of Pollution from Non-Point Sources