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Waste management concepts[edit] 

Diagram of the waste hierarchy.

There are a number of  concepts about waste management which vary in their usage between countries

or regions. Some of the most general, widely used concepts include:

  Waste hierarchy - The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" reduce, reuse and recycle, which classify

waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimization. The waste

hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste

hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum

amount of waste see: resource recovery. 

  Polluter pays principle - the Polluter Pays Principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the

impact caused to the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the

requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable material

s.p Stock exchange

introduction

A stock market or equity market is a public entity (a loose network of economic transactions,not a physical facility or discrete entity) for the trading of company stock  (shares) andderivatives at an agreed price; these are securities listed on a stock exchange as well as thoseonly traded privately.

The size of the world stock market was estimated at about $36.6 trillion at the beginning of 

October 2008.[1] The total world derivatives market has been estimated at about $791 trillionface or nominal value,[2] 11 times the size of the entire world economy.[3] The value of thederivatives market, because it is stated in terms of  notional values, cannot be directly comparedto a stock or a fixed income security, which traditionally refers to an actual value. Moreover, thevast majority of derivatives 'cancel' each other out (i.e., a derivative 'bet' on an event occurring isoffset by a comparable derivative 'bet' on the event not occurring). Many such relatively illiquidsecurities are valued as marked to model, rather than an actual market price.

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History

Among many other things, the Code of Hammurabi recorded interest-bearing loans.

Securities markets took centuries to develop.[1] The idea of debt dates back to the ancient world, as evidenced for example by ancient Mesopotamian clay tablets recording interest-bearing loans.There is little consensus among scholars as to when corporate stock  was first traded. Some seethe key event as the Dutch East India Company's founding in 1602, while others point to earlier developments. Economist Ulrike Malmendier of the University of California at Berkeley arguesthat a share market existed as far back as ancient Rome. 

In the Roman Republic, which existed for centuries before the Empire was founded, there were societates publicanorum, organizations of contractors or leaseholders who performed temple- building and other services for the government. One such service was the feeding of geese on theCapitoline Hill as a reward to the birds after their honking warned of a Gallic invasion in 390B.C. Participants in such organizations had partes or shares, a concept mentioned various times by the statesman and orator  Cicero. In one speech, Cicero mentions "shares that had a very high price at the time." Such evidence, in Malmendier's view, suggests the instruments were tradable,with fluctuating values based on an organization's success. The societas declined into obscurityin the time of the emperors, as most of their services were taken over by direct agents of thestate.

Tradable  bonds as a commonly used type of security were a more recent innovation, spearheaded by the Italian city-states of the late medieval and early Renaissance 

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Role of stock exchanges

The New York Stock Exchange on Wall Street in New York City, the world's largest stock exchange per

total market capitalization of its listed companies.[3]

 

Tokyo Stock Exchange, Tokyo

Hong Kong Stock Exchange, Hong Kong

Shanghai Stock Exchange, Shanghai

Toronto Stock Exchange, Toronto

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Mexican Stock Exchange, Mexico City

Stock exchanges have multiple roles in the economy. This may include the

following:

[4]

 

Raising capital for businesses

The Stock Exchange provide companies with the facility to raise capital for expansion throughselling shares to the investing public.[5] 

Common forms of capital raising

Besides the borrowing capacity provided to an individual or firm by the  banking system, in theform of  credit or a loan, there are four common forms of capital raising used by companies and

entrepreneurs. Most of these available options, might be achieved, directly or indirectly,involving a stock exchange.

Going public

Capital intensive companies, particularly high tech companies, always need to raise highvolumes of capital in their early stages. For this reason, the public market provided by the stock exchanges has been one of the most important funding sources for many capital intensivestartups. After the 1990s and early-2000s hi-tech listed companies' boom and bust in the world'smajor stock exchanges, it has been much more demanding for the high-tech entrepreneur to takehis/her company public, unless either the company already has products in the market and is

generating sales and earnings, or the company has completed advanced promising clinical trials,earned potentially profitable patents or conducted market research which demonstrated very positive outcomes. This is quite different from the situation of the 1990s to early-2000s period,when a number of companies (particularly Internet boom and biotechnology companies) went public in the most prominent stock exchanges around the world, in the total absence of sales,earnings and any well-documented promising outcome. Anyway, every year a number of companies, including unknown highly speculative and financially unpredictable hi-tech startups,are listed for the first time in all the major stock exchanges – there are even specialized entry

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markets for this kind of companies or  stock indexes tracking their performance (examplesinclude the Alternext, CAC Small, SDAX, TecDAX, or most of the third market companies).