using qualitative coding to make sense of text: … · basic terminology – codes and coding a...

Using Qualitative Coding to Make Sense of Text: What Did Participants Tell Me?

Educational Scholarship Program (ESP) Seminar April 20, 2016

Dr. Linda S. Behar-Horenstein Distinguished Teaching Scholar & Professor

Colleges of Education, Dentistry, & Veterinary Medicine

Director, CTSI Educational Development & Evaluation

[email protected] 352 682-0768

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Objectives By the end of this session you should be able to: 1.  Visualize the first and second cycle

coding methods prior to practicing coding.

2.  Code small amounts of data. 3.  Code data using first cycle methods. 4.  Use selected second cycle frameworks

to move data into categories.

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TAXONOMY OF ORCHESTRAL

WORKS

How to Visualize the Coding Process

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Chamber

Quintet Quartet Trio Duet

Ensemble

Instruments

Solo

Percussion Woodwind Brass

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500 orchestral works

Solo

Instrumentation

Piano String Brass Woodwind

Epoch

Baroque Romantic Contemporary

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500 orchestral works

Solo

Instrument Historical Epoch

Ensemble

Quintet Quartet Trio Duet

Historical Epoch Instrument

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Why using coding?

Coding - A process of aggregating text or visual data into categories of information, and later themes, that results in representing the common findings in the data. Coding can be presented as text, tabular, or figure form. Identifying the correspondence or patterns between categories assists in developing themes.

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Properties of Codes, Categories, & Themes

� Codes, Categories and

Themes must be defined by

what text is included and

excluded, hence “properties”

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Basic terminology – Codes and Coding

A code in qualitative inquiry is a word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data. � Coding is not a precise science; it’s

primarily an interpretive act and is just one way of analyzing qualitative data, not the way.

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An Analogy

� Quantitative measures are numeric symbolic representations of data. Jane scored 87% better than her classmates on the licensure exam, qualitative codes are language-based, symbolic summaries of textual or visual data.

� Codes uses words and phrases to summarize and symbolize the data’s meanings as interpreted by the analyst.

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Stages of coding

� First cycle – Open Coding. Read text, identify segments of text that are most salient.

� Second cycle –Categorizing. Codes are used to build categories.

� Third cycle – Identifying Themes. Categories are subsumed into themes.

� This presentation focuses solely on first and second cycle coding.

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Categories and Categorizing � Categories are composed of codes that

“look alike” and “feel alike” (Lincoln & Guba).

� Categories embody and label the patterns you’ve found and constructed from QDA.

� A category label, like a code, is a word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, attribute of the data.

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Example of coding (Process codes)

Text excerpt

1He cares about me. He has never told me but he does.2 He’s always been there for me, even when my parents were not. He’s one of the few things that I hold as a constant in my life. So, it’s nice. 3I really feel comfortable around him.

Example codes �  1. FEELING CARED

FOR �  2. BEING “THERE

FOR ME” �  3 FEELING “COMFORTABLE”

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What do you code? Questions to ask yourself

What are people doing:? Trying to accomplish?

What did I learn from these notes?

Exactly how do they do this? What specific means or strategies do they use?

Why did I include them?

How do participants talk about, characterize, and understand what is going on?

What surprised me? (to track your assumptions)

What assumptions are they making?

What intrigued me (to track your positionality)

What do I see going on here?

What disturbed me? (to track the tensions within your value, attitude and belief system)

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FIRST CYCLE CODING METHODS

AND PRACTICE CODING

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Coding techniques and Method 1.

� Johnny Saldana (reference is provided in this slide set) describes about 32 methods for first cycle coding.

� The first phase of coding is often referred to as “open coding.”

� We will now practice using open coding line 9 to middle of line 16.

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Share the codes that you provided next to each line.

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OPEN CODES

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TEXT, Lines 9-16 My Open Codes

9. The BANDER program was such an amazing1 1. AMAZING PROGRAM

10. experience. It allowed me to get excellent clinical2

2. ALLOWED CLINICAL EXPERIENCE

11. exposure not only in denCstry but in all aspects of3

3. ALL ASPECTS

12. healthcare. This allowed me to experience a more

13. comprehensive representaCon of the enCre healthcare4

4. HAD COMPREHENSIVE EXPERIENCE

14. system. I was able to see paCents in mulCple locaCons as

5. “PATIENTS IN MULTIPLE LOCATATIONS”

15. they went through the healthcare system and ulCmately6

6. PATIENTS TRAVELLED THROUGH SYSTEM

16. were referred for dental care. For example, I worked7

7. REFERRED FOR DENTAL CARE

Next, we will re-code the same data using the

process coding method.

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Method 2. Process coding

� Uses gerunds (“-ing” words) exclusively to connote observable and conceptual action in the data. Processes also imply actions intertwined with the dynamics of time, such as things that emerge, change, occur in particular sequences, or become strategically implemented.

Examples: WASTING OUR TIME; STICKING BY FRIENDS.

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PROCESS CODES

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TEXT, Lines 9-16 My PROCESS CODES 9. The BANDER program was such an amazing 10. experience. It allowed me to get excellent clinical1

1. ALLOWING EXPERIENCE

11. exposure not only in dentistry but in all aspects of2

2. GETTING CLINICAL EXPOSURE

12. healthcare. This allowed me to experience a more

13. comprehensive representation of the entire healthcare3

3. EXPERIENCING “COMPREHENSIVE REPRESENTATION”

14. system. I was able to see patients in multiple locations as4

4. SEEING PATIENTS

15. they went through the healthcare system and ultimately5

5. WORKING MULTIPLE LOCATIONS

16. were referred for dental care. For example, I worked

Method 3. Provisional coding/Codebook

Beginning with notions of the categories you think you will see in the data (these are provided on the next slide) and code relevant text, if any.

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Method 3. Provisional coding/Codebook

Codebook terms and definitions HOMELESSNESS (Ho): Properties include clinic patients without home. ACCESS TO DENTAL CARE (ADC): Properties include patients who do not have a dental home. CLINIC SERVICES (CS): Properties include the types of medical or dental care that patients came to the clinic seeking. MEDICAL ILLNESS (MI): Properties include physician conditions that were patients received treatment for during their clinical appointment

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PROVISIONAL CODES

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TEXT, Lines 9-16 My PROVISIONAL CODES

9. The BANDER program was such an amazing 10. experience. It allowed me to get excellent clinical 11. exposure not only in dentistry but in all aspects of 12. healthcare. This allowed me to experience a more

13. comprehensive representation of the entire healthcare 14. system. I was able to see patients in multiple locations as 15. they went through the healthcare system and ultimately 16. were referred for dental care. For example, I worked1

1. ADC

Method 4. Hypothesis Coding �  Refers to change in participant

understanding of patients unlike themselves. Write RIGHT, SAME, MORE or NR Next to relevant text.

�  RIGHT = understanding of patients unlike yourself increased

�  SAME = understanding of patients unlike yourself did not change

� MORE = More experiences with patients unlike yourself is needed

� NR = no responses to the query

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MY CODES

�  See attached Excel Spreadsheet.

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Method 5. Holistic coding - Lumper

� Refers to coding by paragraphs

� Write one open code for lines 9-22

� Write one open code for lines 23-42

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MY CODES

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TEXT LOCATION

MY CODES

Lines 9-22

Seeing comprehensive healthcare

Lines 23-42

Interprofessional teamwork

Method 6. In Vivo coding

� Use salient written text as the code and code text verbatim.

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Share the codes that you provided next to each line from lines 9-16.

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INVIVO CODES

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TEXT, Lines 9-16 My INVIVO CODES

9. The BANDER program was such an amazing 10. experience.1 It allowed me to get excellent clinical

1. “AMAZING EXPERIENCE”

11. exposure not only in dentistry but in all aspects of 12. healthcare. This allowed me to experience2 a more

2. “ALLOWED ME TO EXPERIENCE”

13. comprehensive representation of the entire healthcare

14. system. I was able to see patients in multiple locations3 as

3. “SEE PATIENTS IN MULTIPLE LOCATIONS”

15. they went through the healthcare system and ultimately 16. were referred for dental care. For example, I worked

Method 7. Evaluation coding

• Consider the program components.

• Describe each component in one to two words in the left-hand column.

•  In the right-hand column, describe the nature/characteristic of that program in one to two words.

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MY CODES Program components My codes

PROGRAM AMAZING

CLINICAL EXPOSURE EXCELLENT

PATIENTS SEE

DENTAL TREATMENT FULL PROCESS

UNDERSERVED COMMUNITY

BETTER UNDERSTANDING

PATIENT NEEDS SAW RANGE

HEALTHCARE WORKERS HAD INTERACTIONS

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Personal Attributes Necessary for Coding

1.  Need to be organized

2.  Must exercise perseverance

3.  Capable of dealing with ambiguity

4.  Exercise flexibility

5. Need to be creative 6. Be rigorously ethical/honest; not ignore or delete problematic passages of data 7. Need an extensive vocabulary; use unabridged dictionary and thesaurus

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RECAPPING WHAT WAS

LEARNED ABOUT 1ST CYCLE CODING

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Recoding and Re-categorizing •  Rarely does anyone get coding right the first

time. •  As you code and recode codes and

categories become more refined, conceptual, and abstract.

�  Some of your first cycle codes may be subsumed by other codes, relabeled, or dropped.

�  QDA is akin to interior design. You try it, step back, move a few things, step back again, and try a serious reorganization”.

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Method: A Discussion of Coding

� Method refers to organizing capacity for insight; not a cookbook approach.

� Coding schemes are customized for each research project.

� Yet data, researcher and individual creativity are unique attributes.

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SECOND CYCLE CODING :

THE ACT OF LOOKING FOR

PATTERNS

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Second Cycle Coding Methods

� There are 6 methods of second cycle coding, however this presentation will only cover one type – PATTERN CODING.

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1. CATEGORIES OR THEMES

2. CAUSES/EXPLANATIONS

3. RELATIONSHIPS AMONG

PEOPLE

4. THEORETICAL CONSTRUCT

Types of patterns

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Categories or themes

� RULES: You cannot resist treatment that is highly discounted and then go out and buy expensive sneakers.

� TRAJECTORIES: the metaphor of career. Students enrolled in this internship to explore alternatives to lucrative practices in populated dental practice areas.

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Causes/explanations � DYSFUNCTIONAL DIRECTION:

Faculty perceptions of and interactions with ineffective leadership influences workplace morale and effectiveness.

� BEST PRACTICES: Projects developed by best practitioners’ tested recipes for success.

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Relationships among people � LEADERS’ NETWORK: Unofficial

collective of individuals who are seen as key leaders in this arena.

� NEW GUARD: Younger faculty who have an aggressive yet socially conscious belief system.

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Theoretical construct � BARGAINING: Covertly negotiating

feelings about patient choice of actions, while internally feeling conflicted about their attitudes towards oral health choices.

� SURVIVAL: Patients going through each day with minimal resources.

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First cycle coding Second cycle – Pa3erns

Evaluation categories/codes

PROGRAM: AMAZING

CLINICAL EXPOSURE: EXCELLENT

PATIENTS: SEE

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Try it out. Look for patterns

My linkage of first (Evaluation codes) and second cycle (Pattern) codes First cycle coding

Second cycle – Pa3erns

Evaluation categories/codes PROGRAM: AMAZING

Causes/explana+ons: BEST PRACTICES

CLINICAL EXPOSURE: EXCELLENT

Causes/explana+ons: BEST PRACTICES

PATIENTS: SEE Categories or themes: RULES 51

Try it out. Look for patterns

First cycle coding Second cycle – Pa3erns


DENTAL TREATMENT: FULL PROCESS UNDERSERVED COMMUNITY: BETTER UNDERSTANDING

PATIENT NEEDS: SAW RANGE

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My linkage of first (Evaluation codes) and second cycle (Pattern) codes First cycle coding Second cycle – Pa3erns


DENTAL TREATMENT: FULL PROCESS

Categories or themes: TRAJECTORIES

UNDERSERVED COMMUNITY: BETTER UNDERSTANDING

Theore+cal construct: BARGAINING

PATIENT NEEDS: SAW RANGE

Categories or themes: RULES

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EXAMPLES OF QUALITATIVE

FINDINGS; DIFFERENT REPRESENTATION

MODES

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Themes Frequency Sources

New Knowledge 80 (35.5%) 12

Planned Change 45 (20.0%) 12

Awareness 35 (15.6%) 9

Changes Made 27 (12.0%) 5

Current Practice 26 (11.6%) 9

Challenges to Learning 12 (5.3%) 8

Table 3. Themes by frequency (n=225) by sources (# of participants)

Codebook for analyzing data

Theme Definition

Awareness of learners

Emergent knowledge of students as learners and how instructional practices influence the quality of learning and outcomes

Changes made Modifications that occurred in instructional practices as a result of the course

Critical thinking Ways in which faculty members promote and assess students’ ability to critically think

External challenges Difficulties faculty members face during instruction and/or assessment

Planned instructional changes

Steps or plans with the intention to improve teaching

Teaching efficacy Faculty perceptions of their relative strengths and abilities to teach

Teaching goals Ways in which faculty members will generally enhance teaching to improve student learning

Self-doubt Faculty perceptions of their weaknesses or perceptions that they cannot teach in ways they want

Causes of Compassion

Fatigue

Communication in the Shelter

Setting Responses to

Compassion Fatigue

Job

Personal

Needs

Coping

Feelings and

Emotions

Com-munity

Awareness

Triggers Contra-dictions

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References

� Miles MB, Huberman M, Saldana J. Qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook. 3rd edition. 2014. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. �  Saldana. J. The Coding Manual, 2nd edition. 2013. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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QUESTIONS?

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Using Qualitative Coding to Make Sense of Text: What Did Participants Tell Me?

Educational Scholarship Program (ESP) Seminar

April 20, 2016

Dr. Linda S. Behar-Horenstein Distinguished Teaching Scholar & Professor

Colleges of Education, Dentistry, & Veterinary Medicine

Director, CTSI Educational Development & Evaluation

[email protected] 352 682-0768

60

using qualitative coding to make sense of text: … · basic terminology – codes and coding a...

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