60°

USING GIS TO HELP UNDERSTAND POVERTY/VULNERABILITY IN AFRICA

David HealyStone Environmental Inc.

ABSTRACT

This paper describes the experiences of developing a poverty information system in Niger and Mali.These two projects are in support of the debt forgiveness program of the World Bank. The descriptionwill detail the efforts required in collecting and integrating information, developing collaborativeinstitutional mechanisms, the educational and training requirements, and the dissemination and use ofthe system.

BACKGROUND

The World Bank has recently embarked on a program of forgiving the large burdensome debts of manyvery poor countries. As a condition ofthis debt forgiveness program, thegovernments have to agree to reducepoverty by 15% by the year 2015 andinvest the amounts originally for debtinterest payment into health care andeducation. In efforts to accomplish thisgoal, both the Governments of Niger(GON) and Mali (GOM) have recentlycompleted a Poverty ReductionStrategy (PRS) documents. Thesedocuments lay out the foundation forGovernment activities and strategies toreduce poverty at all levels. The PRScontain an articulation of targets towardwhich progress (particularly withrespect to social infrastructure) must bemet in the coming years. To judgewhether targets have been reached andprogress has been made, the strategyalso attempts to systematically estimatethe costs of achieving these targets. A secondary issue concerns the preparation of the CommunityAction Plan (CAP), which is seen as anational and long-term program tosupport decentralization and promotemulti-sector and community-based micro-investments and, as such, represents one of the instruments tobe used to carry out the recommendations of the PRS.

One element of these efforts has been the development of baseline information on poverty andvulnerability at the village level. The World Bank in Niger and USAID/European Union/UNDP in Malihave assisted this effort through a number of several projects. In Niger this included the development ofa preliminary Atlas of Poverty /Vulnerability and two reports assessing the availability of data to assistin developing a baseline level of knowledge and assessment of institutional capability andrecommendations on establishing a National Information System. In Mali, this effort has not proceededquite as far, but the initial needs assessment and structure has been formulated.

Figure 1: Location of Mali and Niger

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Red Sea

Gulf of Guinea

Indian Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

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Mediterranean Sea

Equator

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Sudan

Algeria

Libya

Mali

Chad

Niger

Congo, DRC

Egypt

Angola

EthiopiaNigeria

South Africa

Namibia

Tanzania

Mauritania

Zambia

Kenya

Somalia

Mozambique

Botswana

Morocco

Madagascar

Congo

Cameroon

Zimbabwe

Gabon

Ghana

Guinea

Uganda

Central African RepublicCote d'Ivoire

Senegal

Tunisia

Burkina Faso

Benin

Western Sahara

Eritrea

Malawi

Liberia

TogoSierra Leone

Lesotho

BurundiRwanda

DjiboutiGuinea-Bissau

Swaziland

Equatorial Guinea

Reunion

Comoros

Mayotte

Sao Tome and Principe

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St. Helena

Glorioso Islands

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HISTORY OF POVERTY MAPPING (from the February 2003 Mali report)

The collection of poverty data and its cartographic expression and use to identify the poorest populationsis equivalent to the creation and application of the map Dr. John Snow made of the Broad Street Pumpcholera epidemic in 1854. Dr. Snow mapped all the cases of cholera during the epidemic and found thatover 97% of the cases were located near the local public pump that he found not only to have beenshared by all of the deceased and but also to have been infected with cholera.

Dr. Snow’s observations and deductions provided him with the solution to the problem: removing thehandle to the pump. As a result no more cases occurred in this part of London. The deductive reasoningfollowed by Dr. Snow, in this first and most famous epidemiological study provided him with aprescriptive solution to the problem and a means to arrest the progress of an epidemic which had theproblem gone unresolved, might well have caused many more deaths.

This is the first documented case of socio-economic data being merged cartographically with resourceinformation. The map derived from this work defined the critical indicators and clearly providedevidence of the utility of spatial data analysis for problem solving. It should also be noted that Dr. Snowused a participatory process in that the families, friends and acquaintances of the deceased wereinterviewed to define the indicators and the limits of the study.

Another important early study directly related to the work done by Stone in Niger and in Mali was thework of Charles Booth who in 1889 mapped Poverty in London England by using social conditions asindicators and mapping for every individual by street and tenement. True-to-scale maps showing theindividual buildings on the streets of our cities are a fairly recent innovation, and thematic mapsdisplaying selected characteristics of city life are relatively rare. Considering this, the colored mapscreated by Charles Booth to depict the social condition of every London Street in 1889 were a startlinginnovation. Those maps, like the innovative village multi-indicator Atlas approach clearly show theadvantage that such an Atlas would have over other “poverty mapping” efforts. This point has beendemonstrated by Stone’s work in Niger and Mali in 2001-2003.

Most discussion to date has defined poverty mapping in western terms and using western symbols forpoverty. The poverty maps created to the present also typically present data and information aggregatedto the political units that paint too broad a brush and miss the differences made obvious by CharlesBooth in his study of London. Geographical mapping on the basis of the criteria and variables used inNiger or proposed for the Atlas’ of Poverty/Vulnerability will provide a view of the country that permitsone to understand why one village is very poor while the village next to it is inexplicably well off. Thisapproach also and more importantly allows one to question and so seek the answers to why suchdifferences exist.

Sonia Rocha (1998) of IPEA, Brazil supports such contentions. She implies that most poverty mappingefforts are contextually not relevant. She defines poverty on the basis of needs and not technologicalchange? What are the main features of this “condition de vie” approach? The outstanding features are –“under-nutrition, low schooling, and lack of access to public services or unemployment andmarginality.” She adds that: “This overall information on the poverty syndrome is the key element forconceiving a framework in which poverty analysis and anti-poverty policies are to evolve. Specifically itmeans adopting concepts and measurement instruments (indicators) that seem the most appropriate to aspecific context in terms of social reality and data gathering capabilities.”

We believe that an additional and equally important set of factors should be included in the “conditionde vie” or living condition analysis. These factors relate to the environmental status of populations.

Environmental factors or indicators affecting poverty in Mali and Niger include: annual rainfall,availability of land, soil quality, the number of stakeholders using the land and the degradation processesand trends affecting a particular area, town or village. Poverty has a dynamic profile, a profile that mustbe redrawn periodically and whose lines must be reassessed with the impact of events that bring onsocial, economic and environmental change such as that affecting the West African region due to recentevents in Cotês d’Ivoire.

Mapping the elements of poverty and food security can provide Malian and Nigerian decision makerswith a completely new view of the problem they are trying to solve. Providing a geospatial dimension topoverty helps to find solutions to problems that seem to defy solutions. Dr. John Snow resolved a verycomplex, if localized, medical problem by using this technique. Charles Booth spatialized poverty inLondon and influenced the understanding of 19th Century London and defined the process for attackingpoverty through the spatial dimension.

Present methods for poverty or deprivation mapping used in the West are not contextual with Mali’s orNiger’s problems. For example the State of Illinois maps list among other factors, recreational andcrime statistics. In the State of Guanajuato, Mexico, the mapping of poverty considered, among otherissues, marginalization, income and the quality of the dwellings. The latter is very important in Mexicobut much less so in rural Mali or Niger. In Dorset, England, < www.dorset-cc.gov.uk > housing,disability and employment are important factors used as indicators. It is interesting to note that in thecase of the Dorset study poverty is measured using an index of deprivation with six indicators that areweighed based on an established calculation.

Poverty mapping and the capacity to understand the geography of poverty will provide both Malians andNigerians with new information and therefore, a new outlook on the origins and causes of the problem.Once the origins and cause are better known, ideas and innovative approaches derived from thisknowledge will become more common. During the mapping process it will be necessary to improve theassessment of poverty. This may be done by adding or deleting indicators based on developing thesewith the rural poor. It may also be necessary to define indicators of poverty/vulnerability/deprivation/food security by establishing a weighted system that more correctly reflects thelevel of poverty of the individuals and villages concerned. The development of tools to increase andcommunicate our knowledge with respect to poverty is the only way to find solutions to deprivation andpoverty in Mali and Niger.

PROJECT OBJECTIVES

In the Niger, The World Bank funded a three-phase project included a comprehensive assessment ofneed, data collection, indicator development, atlas development, institutional analysis, evaluation ofcapability, and data use for investment. For Mali, US AID Mali funded an initial assessment of need forpoverty/mapping vulnerability was conducted and identification of resources for implementing a system.

PROCESS

Information is an essential ingredient for of sustainable development throughout the world. Whether it isinvestment in poverty reduction, sustainable agriculture or forestry, education or health care there isneed for useable information systems that can integrate data from multiple sources. Accessible highquality can allow for an informed basis for planning, making decisions and the monitoring andevaluation of progress to program objectives. Assembling this system involves compiling the availabledatabases at all levels from diverse sources and building local capacity for its sustainability.

Listed below are four aspects of information management essential to sustainable development:1. Assessment of the available information, its source, history and validity.2. Collection, organization, assimilation and synthesis of the available information. This is the

baseline for future analyses.3. Validation of our knowledge base and is provided through an organized monitoring and

evaluation process and a distributive process involving multiple shareholders in an interoperableframework.

4. Assurance that local experts are receiving training that will insure the continuation of thesystem.

Assessment of available information allows decision makers to evaluate the needs of a country or regionwith respect to developmental, social and environmental parameters. This step is often referred to as aneeds analysis study. During this step the team visited as many data and information repositories inMali (20) and Niger (25) as possible, evaluated the data, review the sources and assessed the data gapswithin the context of each country’s needs. The data reviewed and assessed included but is not limitedto: census, socio-economic, health, agricultural as well as climate, environmental and other naturalresources. This was also the initial opportunity to enlist these data gatherers as stakeholders in a futureintegrated information system.

The creation of a good information baseline is imperative as the foundation for a sustainable approach toeconomic development. To make rational decisions and to plot progress and growth or change of anykind it is vital to have a clear understanding of the basic elements that make up a country’s human andenvironmental resource base.

The third aspect of information management in support of sustainable development includes theestablishment of a post-baseline monitoring and evaluation system.

The fourth area is in local capacity. Training is specifically tailored to meet the local capacity andprograms in need.

These four information management processes form the basis for a credible institutional framework insupport of sustainable development. Healthy, long term development cannot be achieved withoutinformation on the society in question and the social, economic and environmental building blocks thatunderpin sustainability. Stone has conducted a number of needs assessments to evaluate the potential ofa country or area in order to create national, regional or local information systems. Stone has alsoassessed the institutional, human, and technological requirements of such systems and proposes thepractical long-term solutions for the creation of sustainable systems. Stone and its African associateshave made it the rule to assess local capacity and then focus on its use and development. Thedevelopment of local capacity extends to the support of communities and the use of indigenousexpertise. Finally Stone has developed the tools, has the expertise and the venues to permit and supportinformation system interoperability. Such an approach allows for the integration and sharing ofinformation and data inter- and intra-nationally and is a sine qua non of sustainable development.

PROCESS INTERVIEW/LEARNING THE LANDSCAPE

A key aspect of both projects involved interviewing key players and stakeholders in the povertyreduction efforts and the data store keepers. This effort involved setting up interviews and mobilizing toreach offices that were sometimes not

DATA GATHERING

Our data gathering technique involved first conducting ministry or organization interviews to help withthe needs assessment part of the project. This included questions on the availability of data and whetherthey would be willing to share it with us. In most cases this was not a problem and a second meeting wasset up. A second meeting was arranged to collect the data. This was easier said than done. In some casesthe only source of data was what was contained on the hard drive of 8086 computers with only onefloppy disk that did not have “PKZip” software installed. The tools of our work included having copiesof PKZip, a portable CDR writer, a memory stick reader (requiring windows 98 or newer versions of theoperating system). All these techniques turned out to be relatively effective.

DATA QUALITY

In most cases the data retrieved did not contain any documentation as to its origin or quality. Attemptswere made to document what was found. A database of databases was completed in Niger using MSAccess. In the case of the Niger’s Preliminary Census, we discovered by mapping the latitude andlongitudes that 1000 villages were located outside the country. During examination, about 600 of thevillage coordinates were transposed. The remaining errors were unknown. On investigating the cause ofthe transposition, it turned out the coordinates were manually entered onto the census form from a GPSunit and the enumerator did not know the latitude from the longitude.

Boundary differences are fairly common. The need for harmonization is real. Based on our work webelieve that such efforts will not be too burdensome, but without a standards authority and coordinatingbody, it might be a futile effort. In Mali, they have recently adopted new/revamped boundaries forcommunes as part of their decentralization of government efforts. These 696 entities do not haveaccurate demarcated boundaries, yet they are the new focus of all investment and democratizationefforts.

IDENTIFYING REPRESENTATIVE INDICATORS BASED ON AVAILABLE DATA

The current poverty reduction operational framework in both countries initially lacked an effective toolfor identifying, measuring and monitoring poverty at the village level. Such a tool is needed to prepare abaseline for all the other related work including: monitoring and evaluation of poverty through time aswell as for measuring the impact of government and partnership programs and investments andmonitoring and evaluating the performance of poverty reduction efforts and policies.

After reviewing a number of local poverty reduction reports on available information on povertyindicators, the consultant team developed a partial schematic of indicators. These indicators wereconsidered as being critical to the development of a poverty assessment. These have been further definedas indicators within a hierarchical structure in two broad categories: social indicators of poverty andenvironmental/resource indicators of poverty.

It is clear that both countries require a poverty assessment methodology based on the creation of a multi-indicator baseline, but also requires long-term monitoring of poverty by village and commune as well aseffective impact and performance monitoring and evaluation tools. The most effective way of providingfor this multiple objective is the creation of a national information system (Système Nationald’Information du Mali, SNIM). This system would support not only the objectives described above butalso provide the means for assessment of the food security situation, monitor disaster assistancerequirements and provides the basis for conflict prediction andenvironmental/degradation/desertification monitoring.

The following tables were developed as part of the Mali project work (February 2003) and provide theinitial outlines for two important support systems for poverty reduction and the creation of a national

information system. Table 1 provides a clarifying perspective on the three levels of indicatordevelopment and reporting required for effective poverty reduction. This table was developed to providea guideline for effective M&E. This table was also created because of the confusion evident at the two-day workshop.

Because our initial focus was on creating a poverty baseline we developed Table 2: Baseline andMonitoring Framework for Poverty Assessment. This table provides an illustration of the frameworkhierarchy of the proposed indicators required to systematically evaluation poverty and prepares anational poverty/vulnerability information system.

Table 3: Example Framework Matrix for Creating First Order Indicators offers an initial method todescribe the technical method by example for characterizing village level in condition of poverty. Thiswas developed to assist in Phase II work in Mali that the CSLP and the ministries involved would usetheir hand at sculpting the final approach to creating the Baseline of Poverty/Vulnerability and creationof the Atlas.

TABLE 1: 3 LEVELS OF MONITORING & EVALUATION

Performance:Indicators

Government Policies

Governance/Elections

Development of local governing structures

Increased development and use of a justice system

Investments & Budgeting Procedures, etc.

Impact: Indicators

Income/Consumption

Unemployment

Taxes collected

New Infrastructure, etc.

Poverty: Indicators (see Table 2)

By Village

By Communes

By Urban Areas

By Area (Aires de Sante)

TABLE 2: BASELINE AND MONITORING FRAMEWORK FOR VILLAGE/URBAN POVERTY ASSESSMENTIllustrative Schematic

INDICATORS

SECTOR 1st Order 2nd Order 3rd Order

SOCIALEducation Access to Schools: Government,

Community, & MadersasEnrollments Matriculation

Health Access to Health/Medicine Number/type of Practitioners Cases of Primary DiseasesLife ExpectancyBirth RateInfant Mortality

Economics Access to Transport Roads Paved, Laterite & PathsRailroadsAirWater

Means of Transport Means – Private Cars, Bicycles, Donkey, etc.Means – Public Buses, Trains

Access to Communications TelephoneRadioInternet

Access to Markets Local, National, International Cattle, Agricultural, ConsumerAccess to Tools Urban Service Tools

Rural Farm Tools

Access to Jobs Business FormationAccess to GoodsAccess to Credit/Investment

Institutions CentralRegionalCommunalNGOsPrivateDonor

ENVIRONMENTAL/ RESOURCESResource Access to Water Fluvial

PrecipitationGroundwater

Access to FoodAccess to Arable Land Capacity- rain /soil

Capability - to produceAmount of Land

Access to Energy Wood/CharcoalBottled Gas

Environment ParksBiodiversityCarbon Sequestration

First Order Database Field Item TechniqueAccess to Schools Decentralization-Village Total Primary Schools 1. Select all villages with schools

2. Buffer selected schools with selecteddistance, e.g., 5 km.3. Reverse the selection and code as nothaving access to school

Access to Irrigation Hydrology-IGM Location of Rivers and streams.Topography.Soil types

1. Buffer all hydrography by appropriatedistances, e.g. .5, .75, 1 km.2. Select all villages in buffered area3. Reverse selection & code as nothaving access to water with differentvalue based on distance.

Access to Drinking Water Decentralization-Village Total Drinking Fountains andWells

1.Select all villages with drinkingwater/wells2. Buffer selected villages by selecteddistance, e.g., 5 km.3. Reverse the selection and code as nothaving access to drinking water.

TRANSFORMING DATA INTO INDICATORS

Once the indicator schema was developed, how the data that is available would fit the indicators. InNiger we were fortunate to have census data of recent vintage that had many of the factors of interest sothat worked out nicely.

Figure 2: Level of Vulnerability by Village and Cantons

CREATING THE PRELIMINARY ATLAS OF POVERTY/VULNERABILITY

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Bilma

ZR Arlit

ZR N'Guigmi

ZR Tchirozer ine

ZR Goure

ZR Tchin- Tabaraden

Kourfeye

ZR Tanou t

Illela

Dosso

Tondikiwindi

Torodi

Tanout

Kawar

Goure

Kouto us

Boune

Keita

Maine Soroa

Kornaka

Bambeye

Say

Dogon doutchi

Gorouol

Dargo l

Tera

Tarka

N'Guigmi

Bouza

Gangara

ZR Dako ro

Ouallam

Goud oumaria

Madaoua

Ayorou

Mayahi

Diffa

Simiri

Alakoss

Tamou

Bosso

Kokoro

Parc W

Aguie

Tirmini

Kantche

Falwel

Kalfou

Birni Ngaoure

Birni N'Konn i

Koure

Ollelawa

Ourafane

Tahoua

Mo a

Birni N'Lalle

Tchibiri

Tondikandia

Kanembakache

Gaya

TessaouaKarma

Yelou

Doungass

Komadou gou

Dogo

Tagazar

Magaria

Tibiri

Safo

Anzourou

Gouch i

Ouame

Goub ey

Gabi

HamdallayeDiagorou

Kourtey

Tillab eri

Bader Goula

Bande

Kirt achi

Doguerawa

Namaro

Tagris Soli

DroumFakara

Chadakori

Takassaba

Ouacha

Mallaoua

Dakoussa

Korghom

Guidimo uni

Madarounfa

Sokorbe

Tamaske

Bana

DamagaramTakaya

Guela

dio

DessaGarhanga

Dioundo u

Goun a

Karakara

Gafati

Iman an

Guidan Sori

Kiota

Guidan Roumdji

Sae Saboua

Sinder Gamou

Djiratawa

Garag oumsa

Dantchiao

Deoul

KoygoloLamorde

BabanTapki

Zermou

Zabori

N'Dounga

Mirria

Kissambana

Alberkaram

Libore Sarkin Yamma

Agadez

Diffa

Zinder

Tahoua

TillaberiMaradi

Dosso

Pourcentage Population Vulnérable Par Canton0 - 2550-7550 - 7575 - 100Données non disponibles

Villages > 500 Population# 0 - 2 indicateurs de pauvreté/ vulnérabilité# 3 - 4 indicateurs de pauvreté/ vulnérabilité# 5 - 6 indicateurs de pauvreté/ vulnérabilité

Villages < 500 Population# 0 - 2 indicateurs de pauvreté/ vulnérabilité# 3 - 4 indicateurs de pauvreté/ vulnérabilité# 5 - 6 indicateurs de pauvreté/ vulnérabilité

The construction of the Niger Atlas required the compilation and preparation of ten databases selectedfrom the many collected. This task was straight forward following agreement on indicators. Theresolution of the data makes a large difference on its utility. The Atlas was produced in English and inFrench. The primary goal of the consultant’s mission was to create a Preliminary Atlas of Poverty andVulnerability of Niger in support of the GON and the World Bank supported CAP and PRSP programs.The ultimate goal was to create a map of Niger that identifies villages suffering from the effects ofpoverty. The objective was to create a series of visual representation in the form of an Atlas that portrayhuman deprivation in the socioeconomic and natural resources or environmental context. Once theindividual maps were prepared to show the various parameters of poverty, another map was preparedcombining or superimposing these indices. This map constitutes a summary of poverty or a multipledeprivation index map. (MDI)

The Atlas was created at a national scale because of the availability of national level data sets. Howeverall the data sets can be disaggregated to the Arrondissement or Canton level if more detail is needed.Furthermore the data can be analyzed spatially in terms of the number of villages per unit area or interms of population by village or population per unit area or by political or administrative entity. It isalso important to note that the summarized statistics for each map are only for villages for which apreliminary census was taken. The Atlas and the four related reports from these projects are available byon the web. Figure 3 provides a view of how the use of this kind of representation can assist in improvedinvestment decisions.

Figure 3: Spatial Integration of Project Investment Data with Village/ Canton Poverty/Vulnerability Data

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Kornaka

Dakoro

Mayahi

Aguie

Ourafane

Birni N'Lalle

Kanembakache

Tibiri

Tessaoua

Gangara

Gabi

Safo

Bader Goula

Tagris Soli

Chadakori

Korghom

Madarounfa

Guidan Sori

Guidan Roumdji

Djiratawa

Sae Saboua

SarkinYamma

Tahoua

Zinder

Tahoua

Zinder

Region de Maradi

Villages et Cantons avec Niveau de Vulnérabilté

Pourcentage de population (>=3 indicateurs de vulnérabilité)0 - 2550-7550 - 7575 - 100

PAC-Site Pilote

FEM -Sites

PADL -Sites

PDLTZ -Sites

PGRN -SitesCanton Boundary

Villages < 500$ 0 - 2 indicateurs de pauvreté/ vulnérabilité$ 3 - 4 indicateurs de pauvreté/ vulnérabilité$ 5 - 6 indicateurs de pauvreté/ vulnérabilité

Villages > 500#S 0 - 2 indicateurs de pauvreté/ vulnérabilité#S 3 - 4 indicateurs de pauvreté/ vulnérabilité#S 5 - 6 indicateurs de pauvreté/ vulnérabilité

LÉGENDE

Cette Carte Indique les Cinq Critères Employer pourIdentifié les Sites Proposes pour les Activites PAC

LESSONS

• There is a large quantity of lot of local data available to develop village level poverty/vulnerabilityassessments. Finding, collating, assessing it is a large but doable task.

• There is need for education in the value and purpose of separating baseline from ongoing datacollection. There is confusion over what is being measured for what purpose.

• One should never underestimate the value of demonstrating the power of maps. It is not a wellestablished medium for a message in these countries. The power of the story portrayed in a map isawesome.

• Sharing of data between local organizations is a very valuable. Many organizations are enoughseparated from each that they do not have an opportunity to exchange. Facilitating a collaborativemodel of GIS will go a long way toward empowering local talent.

• Using “living condition” type indicators is a far more realistic approach to understandingpoverty/vulnerability. Standard economic methods for characterizations are woefully inadequate tounderstand sub national poverty. Multilevel indicators provide a much improved tool for targetinginvestments.

• There are many talented and skilled local resources.• These efforts will not be successful without the creation/sanctioning of formal

coordinating/integrating body.• Adopting data standards, particularly coding schemes, is a critical upfront requirement.• There needs to be established a formal data repository/clearinghouse for a multilevel information

system to work.• There is a high need for a high speed network to be established between the primary users.• Our efforts have pointed out the need for considerable more coordination between donors. This can

take the form of monthly meetings among the interested donor and national organizations.• Clearly there is not enough special purpose poverty mapping dollars available to build the national

information infrastructure. The integration and development of the national informationinfrastructure should include investment from sectoral investments from health care, education,infrastructure and democracy building investments.

• There is a large need for setting up a long term training program. Ideally this should be situated atthe university. Exchange programs for local technicians and faculty with donor countries would alsoexpand technical and analytical capability.

• Long investments in the university laboratories would further advance the development of thenational information infrastructure.

• A collaborative effort is needed in building “Poverty/Vulnerably Reduction Data Model.”

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Andrew Stancioff, my project team member and co-author of the multiple project reports.

In addition the other people who have helped in supporting these projects and/or in forming some of theideas contained in these reports and paper:Daniel Sellen and Jeff Bergen, The World BankDennis Bilodeau and Pamela White, US AID MaliIssa Garba & Ari Arimi, our colleagues in NigerMoise Ballo, Ph.D., our associate in MaliAnd all the wonderful people interviewed and assisted us in the Republics of Mali and Niger

REFERENCES

Healy, D.J., and Stancioff, A., Stone Environmental Inc., March 2001, Phase I: Preliminary Atlas ofPoverty /Vulnerability of Niger, Project Report, The World Bank #7113660, Montpelier, VT USA

Healy, D.J., and Stancioff, A., Stone Environmental Inc., July 2001, Phase II: Identification of anInstitutional Framework For a Data And Information Support System For Poverty Reduction In Niger,The World Bank #7113660, Montpelier, VT USA

Healy, D.J., and Stancioff, A., Stone Environmental Inc., July 2002, Phase III: Development of aGeographic Information System in Support of Poverty Reduction, The World Bank #7113660,Montpelier, VT USA

Healy, D.J., and Stancioff, A., Stone Environmental Inc., February 2003, Phase I: Needs Assessment:Creation of a Preliminary Atlas of Poverty/ Vulnerability & Assistance in Building an InformationSystem for Mali, US AID Mali # 688-G-00-02-00069-00, Montpelier, VT USA

These reports can be found at: http://www.stone-env.com/services/aim-projects.html

AUTHOR INFORMATION

David J. Healy, Vice PresidentStone Evironmental, Inc.535 Stone Cutters WayMontpelier, VT05602 USAPhone / 802. 229.4541Fax / 802. 229.5417Email / dhealy@stone-env.comWeb Site / www.stone-env.com