Using academic vocabulary IV : evaluative language &

reviewing the literatureWeek 5Feb. 16

Reviewing the Literature

Academic Vocabulary IV◦ Evaluative Language

Agenda

Where in your writing do you cite sources?◦ Introduction? Methods? Results? Discussion?◦ All are possible, but it depends on the field and

type of writing What are the purposes of citing? (besides

plagiarism!)◦ Acknowledge intellectual property rights◦ Show respect for previous scholars◦ Give your own arguments greater authority◦ Help friends and colleagues (increases the “

impact factor” of journals)

Reviewing the literature

(Swales & Feak, 2012, p 340)

Tense choice implications are subtle◦ Can indicate who is the agent or not◦ Can make no reference to agency

◦ Can indicate the distance of the researcher to our own opinion or research

◦ Can indicate if the finding should be taken in the context of the single study or as a larger generalization.

Look at a journal you brought and find examples of this. Now look at your own.

Reviewing the literature

P344-345 HO

Huang (2007) investigated the causes of airport delays.◦ Action (Huang does something)◦ Developed◦ Modeled◦ Conducted◦ studied

In Huang’s (2007) investigations, he concludes that…..◦ Saying/thinking (Huang says/thinks something)◦ Believes◦ Assumes◦ Posits◦ Argues◦ Opines◦ Views◦ Points◦ Provides…

Past is often used to indicate a contrast of past belief to current:◦ Huang (2007) concluded that…, but more recent investigations reveal…

Common uses of past/present

Integrated citations versus parenthetical citations:◦ According to Suarez et al. (2010), the causes of business

failure are closely related to the ratio of working capital, retained earnings, and sales.

◦ Fang’s research shows that reduced working capital and retained earnings are interrelated (Fang, 2007).

Why was the first integrated, and the second not? What are other ways of giving credit? Under what circumstances are one or the other

preferred?

Reviewing the literature

Why vary citation patterns?

Give it a try◦ The Origins of the First Scientific Articles

Reviewing the literature

Options for establishing a niche:◦ A: Counter-claiming (something is wrong)◦ B: Indicating a gap (something is missing)◦ C: Raising a question or making an inference

(something is unclear)◦ D: Continuing a tradition (adding something)

Look at a journal you brought and find an how the author(s) established their niche.

Now look at your own. Was it the niche you intended?

Reviewing the literature

Stronger

Weaker

(Swales & Feak, 2012, p 348)P348-349 HO

How to focus/synthesize/organize the previous finding? (pdf, p27-34 for example)◦ By possible relationships between the chosen constructs

(e.g., a correlation between communication and satisfaction and job satisfaction)

◦ By possible mediating (intervening) and/or moderating variables that influence the relationships between chosen constructs

◦ By possible differences between groups in chosen constructs ◦ By possible gaps, inconsistencies, controversies and/or

unanswered questions which form the basis for a new study◦ By possible untested hypotheses or propositions in the

chosen constructs

Reviewing the literature

(Kotze, 2007, p 26)

Practical principles that can accomplish good organization (pdf, p34-40 for examples):◦ Use a “funnel approach” by starting with the

broader context and then focus in on the specific topic and issue

◦ Carefully plan headings and subheadings that can ensure a logical flow of information (mind-maps can help in planning)

◦ Headings should be descriptive and informative (more than one word)

◦ Make sure that information under heading is in fact well related

Reviewing the literature

(Kotze, 2007, p 26)

Practical principles that can accomplish clear style (pdf, p42-43 for examples):◦ Write to the level of an intelligent layperson (i.e.,

non-academic, no expertise in the discipline of the field), such as a 100 level class in your field.

◦ Always define unfamiliar constructs or technical terms when they are introduced the first time.

◦ Write as though your reader is skeptical about what you write, and you need to argue your case with clear evidence and reasons for your choices.

Reviewing the literature

(Kotze, 2007, p 41)

Evaluative Language, when we return

Break time!

Negative openings for indicating a gap:◦ “little” + noun

However, little information… Little attention… Little work…

◦ “few” + noun However, few studies… Few investigations… Few attempts…

◦ No/none No studies/data/calculations to date have… None of these studies/findings/calculations have…

Evaluative language

P350-51 HO (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 350)

Contrastive statement openings for indicating a gap:◦ Research has tended to focus on …, rather than

on…◦ These studies have emphasized …, as opposed

to…◦ Although considerable research has been devoted

to…, rather less attention has been paid to…

Evaluative language

(Swales & Feak, 2012, p 352)

Consider the first two paragraphs of an article from the Journal of Materials Chemistry (PDF)◦ How many critique/evaluative expressions can

you find? (write the expressions on your own paper)

◦ Are they strongly negative or slightly negative?◦ Can you find the language that signaled Move 1

(Establish a Research Territory)?◦ Can you find the language that signaled Move 2

(Establish a niche)?

Evaluative language

(Swales & Feak, 2012, p 354)

Consider the introduction in a journal you brought:◦ How many critique/evaluative expressions can you find?

(write the expressions on your own paper)

◦ Are they strongly negative or slightly negative?◦ Can you find the language that signaled Move 1

(Establish a Research Territory)?◦ Can you find the language that signaled Move 2

(Establish a niche)?

Now consider these same questions for your own introduction.

Evaluative language

(Swales & Feak, 2012, p 354)

…remains elusive despite… There are however very few analyses…. Yet, the literature has little empirical

evidence… …is far from sufficient… Very little research has been done to

answer the crucial question… Has not been fully answered….

Class examples of evaluative expression

Evaluative language can be used in claims about your own writing and about others’ writing.◦ Phrases can weaken and strengthen◦ Distance can weaken and strengthen◦ Verbs can weaken and strengthen (appear, seem, tend)

Do you prefer to look at models (journals you brought) or your own writing?◦ Look for this language in the intro (establishing a niche),

in data commentary (remarking about your data), discussion (making final claims)

Evaluative language

P160-161 HO

(Swales & Feak, 2012, p 160)

…can be reasonably confident… …may be… …it would be useful to confirm… It is some concern that…

Class examples of strengthening & weakening

Grammar & wording Literature review

◦ Goes too quickly to the study issue without situating it in the related research

◦ Insufficient review of the literature, causing the reviewer to note oversights & misunderstandings

◦ Personal definitions rather than giving attribution Analysis & design

◦ Claims about results were problematic for the research design

◦ Sample size too small for the complexity and claims◦ Causes and effects in the design not well addressed

Applied Linguistics Reviewer (PDF)

Continue to apply what you’ve learned in your editing.

Consider staying on contact with your peer from class or connect with someone else, both for encouragement and support.

Feel free to see the powerpoints from this workshop at http://www.u.arizona.edu/~karaj/gpsc.html

Homework