Uses of Radioactive Uses of Radioactive materials in Industrymaterials in Industry

Gamma RadiographyGamma Radiography

X-ray filmGamma Source

Gamma radiographyGamma radiography

► Gamma vs X-rayGamma vs X-ray► Smaller instrumentSmaller instrument► Don’t need Don’t need

electricity, so good electricity, so good for remote areasfor remote areas

► Discrete energiesDiscrete energies► Higher energiesHigher energies

Gamma radiographyGamma radiography

Checking for cracks in an aircraft engine

A gamma radiograph of pipe…looking for faults

Using a pipe crawler to test welds in the field

Gamma RadiographyGamma Radiography

► Common IsotopesCommon Isotopes Iridium-192Iridium-192 Co-60Co-60

► Source shielding Source shielding from 50 to 500 from 50 to 500 pounds of DU.pounds of DU.

► Safety IssuesSafety Issues License requirementLicense requirement

► TrainingTraining ClassClass 2 month on the job2 month on the job Refresher every 12 Refresher every 12

monthsmonths► MonitoringMonitoring► Leak testsLeak tests► Security of deviceSecurity of device

Neutron MethodsNeutron Methods

► Takes advantage of Takes advantage of neutrons interacting neutrons interacting with substances and with substances and causing them to causing them to emit gamma rays emit gamma rays which are analyzed.which are analyzed. Thermal Neutron Thermal Neutron

CaptureCapture Neutron inelastic Neutron inelastic

scattering.scattering.

Neutron Source

NaIDector

Gammas

Neutrons

Soil Density GaugeSoil Density Gauge

Uses an Am241/Be9 source to generate neutrons and a Bismuth/germanium solid state detector

Neutron RadiographyNeutron RadiographyOne of the biggest uses is monitoring conveyers in coal and concrete industry.

Neutron Radiography SafetyNeutron Radiography Safety

► UseUse Training Training Monitoring (neutron)Monitoring (neutron) Most are self shieldingMost are self shielding Leak testingLeak testing Security is a big issueSecurity is a big issue

► Lost gaugesLost gauges► Gauges run over by Gauges run over by

equipment.equipment.

► TransportationTransportation Lots of these are used at Lots of these are used at

remote sites.remote sites. DOT regs. These are DOT regs. These are

usually yellow II, and usually yellow II, and have to be labeled.have to be labeled.

Have to be blocked and Have to be blocked and braced, not in passenger braced, not in passenger compartmentcompartment

Have to have shipping Have to have shipping papers, even if papers, even if transported in a company transported in a company trucktruck

Radiation and hazmat Radiation and hazmat training required to carry.training required to carry.

Fixed Fixed gaugesgauges

► Level, flow, and Level, flow, and thickness gaugesthickness gauges Gamma, usuallyGamma, usually

► Detect level of Detect level of material in a hoppermaterial in a hopper

► Detect presence and Detect presence and flow of material in flow of material in pipspips

BetaBeta► Determine thickness Determine thickness

of plastic sheets.of plastic sheets.

Gamma irradiatorsGamma irradiators

Typically these have Co60 or Cs137…Up to 5 million Curies

EnergyEnergy

•Moderator is often water. Slows down the neutrons without absorbing them. Others include carbon as graphite.

•Control rods limit the fission reaction by absorbing neutrons. Cd and B are the most common.

Have to assemble a critical mass of fissionable material.

For U235 without a moderator takes 50Kg=17 cm sphere.

No moderator, lots of fast neutrons -get a bomb.

Nuclear Power Nuclear Power plantsplants

Reactor fuel rods

Potential Potential CatastrophCatastroph

ic ic ProblemsProblems

► Reactor core Reactor core meltdownmeltdown ChernobylChernobyl

► Large leak of Large leak of radioactive radioactive material to material to environmentenvironment

Reactor DateImmediate

DeathsEnvironmental

effect Follow-up action

NRX, Canada (experimental, 40 MWt) 1952 Nil Nil

Repaired (new core) closed 1992

Windscale-1, UK (military plutonium-producing pile) 1957 Nil

Widespread contamination.

Farms affected (c 1.5 x 1015 Bq

released)Entombed (filled with

concrete) Being demolished.

SL-1, USA (experimental, military, 3 MWt) 1961

Three operators

Very minor radioactive

release Decommissioned

Fermi-1 USA (experimental breeder, 66 MWe) 1966 Nil Nil

Repaired and restarted, then closed in 1972

Lucens, Switzerland (experimental, 7.5 MWe) 1969 Nil

Very minor radioactive

release Decommissioned

Browns Ferry, USA (commercial, 2 x 1080 MWe) 1975 Nil Nil Repaired

Three-Mile Island-2, USA (commercial, 880 MWe) 1979 Nil

Minor short-term radiation dose (within ICRP

limits) to public, delayed release of 2 x 1014 Bq of Kr-

85

Clean-up program complete, in monitored storage stage of

decommissioning

Saint Laurent-A2, France (commercial, 450 MWe) 1980 Nil

Minor radiation release (8 x 1010

Bq) Repaired, (Decomm. 1992)

Chernobyl-4, Ukraine (commercial, 950 MWe) 1986

47 staff and firefighters (32

immediate)

Major radiation release across E.

Europe and Scandinavia (11 x

1018 Bq) Entombed

Vandellos-1, Spain (commercial, 480 MWe) 1989 Nil Nil Decommissioned

Real-World day to day problemsReal-World day to day problemsPower Reactor Event Number: 43736

Facility: PALO VERDERegion: 4 State: AZUnit: [1] [ ] [ ]RX Type: [1] CE,[2] CE,[3] CENRC Notified By: RAY BUZARDHQ OPS Officer: PETE SNYDER

Notification Date: 10/22/2007Notification Time: 09:27 [ET]Event Date: 10/22/2007Event Time: 03:11 [MST]Last Update Date: 10/22/2007

Emergency Class: NON EMERGENCY10 CFR Section: 50.72(b)(2)(i) - PLANT S/D REQD BY TS

Person (Organization): CHUCK CAIN (R4)

Event Text SHUTDOWN DUE TO INOPERABLE STEAM DRIVEN AUXILIARY FEEDWATER PUMP

"The following report is based on information currently available. If through subsequent reviews of this event, additional information is identified that is pertinent to this event or alters the information being provided at this time, a follow-up notification will be made via the ENS or under the reporting requirements of 10 CFR 50.73.

"On Monday October 22, 2007, at 0311 Mountain Standard Time (MST) Palo Verde Nuclear Station Unit 1 initiated a normal reactor shutdown to comply with condition C of Technical Specifications (TS) Limiting Condition for Operation (LCO) 3.7.5. At 0504 MST Mode 3 was entered.

"LCO 3.7.5 requires that three auxiliary feedwater (AF) pumps be operable in Modes 1, 2, and 3. The shutdown was necessary due to an inoperable steam supply for the essential steam driven AF pump turbine. The steam supply had been declared inoperable on October 15, 2007, at 0904 MST and will not be restored to operable status within the TS required 7 day completion time. Efforts are in progress to correct the condition.

"The event did not result in the release of radioactivity to the environment and did not adversely affect the safe operation of the plant or health and safety of the public."

The licensee notified the NRC Resident Inspector.

Nuclear fuel preparation – why Nuclear fuel preparation – why there are environmental there are environmental

remediation jobs.remediation jobs.

The nuclear fuel cycle.The nuclear fuel cycle.