U.S. History PacketTABLE OF CONTENTS

Unit 1: Colonization through American Revolution 2Unit 2: New Nation 19

U.S. Constitution 38Unit 3: Westward Expansion and Sectionalism 42Unit 4: Civil War 58Unit 5: Reconstruction 69Unit 6: Turn of the Century 75Unit 7: Imperialism and WWI 92Unit 8: The Twenties and the Thirties 104Unit 9: World War II 121Unit 10: 1950s and 1960s Cold War 132Unit 11: 1950s and 1960s Domestic Society 148Unit 12: Civil Rights Movement 153Unit 13: Contemporary U.S. History 163

Appendix Declaration of Independence 176Constitution of the United States 179Amendments to the Constitution 193

Maps 209

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Unit 1: Colonization through American Revolution

Tested Information:I. Colonization

A. Religious Freedom: Tolerance vs. Persecution1. New England: Puritans- John Winthrop, Mayflower Compact2. Pennsylvania: Quakers- William Penn3. Maryland: Catholics (Maryland Act of Toleration)4. Rhode Island: Roger Williams, religious freedom, separation of church and state

B. Economic Opportunity1. Jamestown

a. First successful colony in the New Worldb. looking for gold but planted tobacco instead

2. Determined by the geography of each region (colonial characteristics):a. New England: fishing, shipping, and trade due to rocky terrain and harsh

climateb. Middle Colonies: large farms that grow crops like wheat and corn due to

fertile soil and more moderate climatec. Southern colonies: plantation system that relies on slavery to grow crops

like rice, cotton and indigo due to more tropical climated. Mercantilism- see vocabulary for definitione. Competition between England, France and Spain to add new territory in order to

make their country more powerfulC. Political Developments

1. Virginia House of Burgesses (1619)- first elected legislature of the colonies2. Mayflower Compact (1620)- colonists agree to follow the rules of the colony and

established the rule of law3. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639)- first written constitution of the colonies

and incorporates the idea of the consent of the governed

II. Growing Tensions with BritainA. British attempts to tax and regulate colonial trade as a result of the French and

Indian War1. Mercantilism: economic policy used by Britain to regulate industry and trade

in the American colonies2. Proclamation of 1763- closed the region west of the Appalachian Mountains to

colonists 3. Stamp Act: tax on paper products and “taxation without representation”4. Boston Tea Party: Leads to the closing of the ports (Intolerable Acts)

B. Colonists’ reaction to British policy ideas leading to the Declaration of Independence1. French and Indian War: ends salutary neglect2. Declaratory Act: Power of British Parliament to have complete control over the

Colonies3. Boston Massacre: Clash between colonists and British soldiers4. First Continental Congress: Colonists expressed grievances to King George III5. Second Continental Congress: Organized the colonial army and wrote the

Declaration of Independence

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6. Common Sense: Called for an end to British rule

C. Declaration of Independence: expressed the reasons for independence1. Inalienable rights/natural rights2. List of grievances3. Consent of the Governed

III. American RevolutionA. Britain

1. Strengthsa. Strong, well-trained army and navyb. Well financed militaryc. Allies- Indians

2. Weaknessesa. distance from battlefront (ocean away)b. unfamiliar territoryc. weak military leaders

B. American Colonies1. Strengths

a. familiar home groundb. experienced officers from colonial wars (French and Indian War)c. inspiring cause- independence

2. Weaknessesa. shortage of food, soldiers’ pay, and ammunitionb. no central government to direct wartime effortsc. soldiers and militia untrained and undisciplined

C. Important Battles1. Lexington and Concord2. Battle of Bunker Hill3. Battle of Saratoga

a. turning point in the warb. France, Spain, and Holland declare war on Britain

4. Battle of Yorktowna. final major battle of the American Revolution

D. The Treaty of Paris of 1783a. recognizes independence of the United Statesb. sets boundaries of the United States

People Ben Franklin - Colonial inventor, printer, writer, statesman; contributed to the

Declaration of Independence and Constitution. General Charles Cornwallis- commanding general of the British army George Washington - Commander in Chief of the American Army. King George III - King of England Puritans - broke from the Anglican church and hoped to build a religious utopian

society in the New World Quakers - member of a Protestant group that emphasizes equality and pacifism Thomas Jefferson - Author of the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Paine - Author of political pamphlets during the 1770’s and 1780’s; wrote

Common Sense in 1776.

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Vocabulary Inalienable rights - Natural rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness Maryland Act of Toleration -1639 law that allowed all Christians the right to belong

to the church of their choice; foundation of American belief in freedom of religion Mayflower Compact (1620)- agreement in which settlers of Plymouth colony agreed to

follow their government’s law. Mercantilism - economic theory that a country acquire and keep as much gold and

silver as possible by having colonies where they could harvest raw materials and sell finished products

Persecution - to oppress someone because of his/her beliefs. Tolerance- to accept someone regardless of his/her beliefs Salutary neglect – English policy of relaxing the enforcement of regulations over

the colonies that led to the development of American political and economic freedom

State Standards covered in Unit 1I.A. and B.1. Colonization- Religious Freedom and Economic OpportunityConcept: Exploration and ColonizationPerformance Objective: Describe the reasons for colonization of AmericaState Standard Code: US 3-2

I.B.2. Colonization- Colonial CharacteristicsConcept: Exploration and ColonizationPerformance Objective: Compare the characteristics of the New England, Middle and Southern

ColoniesState Standard Code: US 3-3

I.A. Colonization- Key FiguresConcept: Exploration and ColonizationPerformance Objective: Describe the impact of key colonial figuresState Standard Code: US 3-4

II.A. and B. Growing Tensions with BritainConcept: Revolution and New NationPerformance Objective: Assess the economic, political, and social reasons for the American

RevolutionState Standard Code: US 4-1

III.C.3. American Revolution- European InvolvementConcept: Revolution and New NationPerformance Objective: Analyze the effects of European involvement in the American Revolution

on the outcome of the warState Standard Code: US 4-2

III.C. American Revolution- Important BattlesConcept: Revolution and New NationPerformance Objective: Describe the significance of major events in the Revolutionary War State Standard Code: US 4-3

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Unit 1 Reading

Colonial America

Between 1607 and 1732 the English established thirteen colonies along the eastern coast of North America. English law and customs strongly influenced life in these new colonies. But as time passed, the experience of living in a new world caused colonists to alter some of their English traditions. By the mid-1700s, life in the colonies was no longer purely English. A different lifestyle had emerged. Increasingly, people called this new way of life "American."

When the English first immigrated to America, they brought with them certain English political traditions and ideas. Among these were the Magna Carta (1215) based beliefs that the accused have a right to a trial by jury and that taxpayers have the right to give their consent to tax increases (taxation with representation). Englishmen also carried to the colonies the English tradition of representative (parliamentarian) government. In 1619, Virginians established the New World's first elected legislature, the House of Burgesses. Later other colonies established locally elected legislatures. In 1620, after landing in Plymouth, Massachusetts, the Pilgrims agreed to the Mayflower Compact which established the idea of the rule of law meaning that all people living in the colony agreed to follow the rules created by the majority. In addition, three towns in Connecticut wrote the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. This document is the first written constitution of the colonies and included the idea that the people give the government to right to make laws that the people agree to follow (consent of the governed).

Life in the New World led colonists to make their political institutions more democratic. Though men in the colonies were required to own land to be eligible to vote (as were men in England), it was relatively easy to meet property qualifications for voting in the colonies. By the mid-1750s a greater percentage of men in the colonies could vote than could those in England. Another step toward democratic government took place in New England where eligible citizens were given the right to vote in town meetings. Meanwhile, for reasons of both moral conviction and practical necessity, most colonies became more tolerant toward different religious groups. There was far more religious freedom in the colonies than in England.

The geographic conditions in America also produced new economic patterns in the colonies. Originally, Englishmen hoped to find gold in America, as had the Spanish. But gold was not to be found in the English colonies. The absence of this and other precious metals probably benefited the colonies in the long run. Colonists were forced to find or develop other sources of wealth or means of livelihood. In southern and middle colonies people discovered that the geography of the region was well suited for farming. Soon cash-crops of rice, tobacco, and wheat were produced and traded with England. New England's forests and nearby ocean waters provided the basis for profitable ship-building and fishing industries. Meanwhile, the scarcity of labor encouraged two other institutions--indentured servitude and slavery.

The American experience also caused changes in social customs. A class system similar to that in Europe was present when the colonies were first founded. But the abundance of economic opportunity in America made it possible for many people to improve their social

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standing. Some agreed to becoming indentured servants for seven years, in exchange for passage to America as well as food and shelter while a servant. These immigrants could, through hard work, achieve success and the respect of others. In fact, individuals were often valued more for their work ethic and economic success than for their "blood line." This attitude led to a weakening of the class system.

And so, by the mid-1700s, the American experience had strengthened democratic institutions, fostered religious tolerance, encouraged economic initiative, and promoted greater social equality (at least among whites). In short, the experience was changing English colonists into something new. They were becoming Americans. Growing Conflict with Britain

It was probably inevitable that once Britain's colonial "children" matured, they would seek independence from their mother country. After all, the colonists and the British had conflicting interests in America. Most colonists came to America in search of greater personal freedom and opportunity. But Britain saw America as something to be exploited and controlled. So while the colonists wanted to be free from controls, Britain intended to do just the opposite.

During the first hundred years of colonial development in America, England's domestic problems and foreign wars diverted its attention from colonial affairs. But following Britain's defeat of her arch-rival, France, in 1763, Britain decided to begin stricter management of her colonies. Britain decided to enforce its mercantile policy by cracking down on colonists who had been illegally trading with countries other than Britain. Britain also decided to establish control over lands west of the Appalachians which the French had surrendered to Britain following the French and Indian War (1754-1763). To accomplish this, Britain declared the Proclamation of 1763 which closed lands west of the Appalachians to colonial settlement. Finally, and more fatefully, Britain decided to tax the colonists in order to pay part of the expenses of protecting the colonies from Indians or other potential enemies.

The colonies deeply resented Britain's new controls. They complained that mercantile laws hurt their businesses. Colonists wanted to be able to trade as freely as any businessman in Britain. Colonists also complained that the Proclamation of 1763 violated their colonial charters which promised western lands to them. But it was Britain's taxation of the colonists that produced the loudest outcry. Parliament's taxes, the colonists claimed, were illegal because they were levied without the consent of the colonists or their representatives (taxation without representation). This "taxation without representation," they claimed was a violation of their rights as Englishmen.

Many colonists began to protest against the new British policies. Led by people such as Samuel Adams of Boston, many colonists harassed tax collectors and boycotted British goods. Although this political action caused Parliament to repeal most of its taxes, it maintained a small tax on tea with the Tea Act which was passed in 1773. Small tax or not, the tea tax was still taxation without representation since the colonists did not have the opportunity to vote for or against the tax in Parliament. Angry colonist, now called Patriots, staged new protests. One of these was the Boston Tea Party.

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The Boston Tea Party marked a turning point in British-colonial relations. Angry about the destruction of tea and other property, Parliament decided to abandon conciliation and take disciplinary action with the passage of the Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts). The British closed Boston harbor and limited the power of the Massachusetts assembly. Anxious to assist the Bostonians, Patriot organizations in twelve of the colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress. The Congress asked colonists to send aid to Boston and join in a massive boycott of British goods. It also urged Patriots to pressure other colonists into supporting the boycott.

In Massachusetts, Patriot organizations began to organize and train volunteer soldiers called minutemen. Determined to crush this military buildup in Massachusetts, the British decided to march on Concord and seize Patriot munitions there. While on their way to Concord, the British met a band of minutemen at Lexington. Shots rang out. The Revolutionary War had begun and the colonists called the Second Continental Congress to determine their next move.

When the Second Continental Congress met a month later, it decided that the colonists should continue to use military means to force a repeal of unjust British laws but did not yet want independence from Britain. The Congress also chose George Washington to lead the Continental Army. At the same time, the Congress sent the Olive Branch Petition to King George III promising loyalty once the colonists’ rights as Englishmen had been restored.

However, the king responded to Congress's request by sending more troops to America. The desire for reconciliation began to fade. By the early months of 1776, more and more colonists began to think the previously unthinkable--independence!

American Revolution

When the Second Continental Congress met in May of 1775, its goal was to pressure Parliament into halting its illegal taxation and other violations of the colonists’ rights as Englishmen. Until that change occurred, Congress vowed to lead the colonists in their effort to stop further abuse of their rights. Despite bloody battles between the Americans and British during the closing months of 1775, Congress had no intention of declaring independence from Britain. It was merely fighting to force a change in Parliament's colonial policy.

But as the fighting continued into 1776, it seemed clear that Parliament would not change its ways. Colonists increasingly became convinced that America had to separate itself from British rule. Encouraged on by pro-independence arguments, such as that in Thomas Paine's "Common Sense," the Second Continental Congress signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. In the opinion of the Congress, the colonies were now independent states. In the opinion of Britain, however, the colonies were still colonies which had to be forced into submission.

After July 4, 1776, the Continental Army was no longer fighting for colonists rights--it was fighting for American independence. But the war for independence at first went poorly for the American forces. The Patriots could not hold major cities such as New York and Philadelphia. General Washington's army barely survived these early defeats and the cold winter months at

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places like Valley Forge. To make matters worse, Loyalists (colonists who supported Britain) and Iroquois Indians joined the British forces.

But a change in fortune came in 1778 when a British force was defeated at Saratoga in New York by General Gates and his army of Patriots. News of this victory helped persuade France, Spain, and Holland to declare war on Britain and to become America's allies. Finally in 1781, with French help, General Washington forced the surrender of a large British army under the command of General Cornwallis at Yorktown in Virginia.

Britain's defeat at Yorktown, as well as pressing military problems in Europe, made Britain eager to end the war. In the Treaty of Paris (1783), Great Britain finally recognized the independence of the United States. In the treaty Britain also ceded to the U.S. territory westward to the Mississippi.

Colonial America Vocabulary

Cash Crop: a crop that is produced for sale rather than for consumption by the farmer and his or her family.

Indentured Servant: individual working for another who is under a contract for a specific period of time (usually seven years) in exchange for transportation, food, and shelter.

Jamestown (1607): first successful permanent English settlement in North America

John Winthrop: Puritan governor who believed Puritans were the chosen people and that the Puritans could create a “city upon a hill” or a perfect society.

Maryland Act of Toleration (1639): law that allowed all Christians the right to belong to the church of their choice

Mercantilism: an economic and political policy in which the government regulates the industries, trade, and commerce with the national aim of obtaining a favorable balance of trade

Middle Colonies: characterized by large farms that grew crops like wheat and corn due to fertile soil and moderate climate

Naval stores: naval supplies such as tar, pitch, and turpentine which are needed for building and maintaining wooden ships.

Navigation Acts: Laws passed by Parliament between 1651 and 1673 which required that certain colonial products could only be sold to England and that colonists were required to buy manufactured goods only from England

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New England Colonies: characterized by fishing, shipping, and trade due to rocky terrain and harsh climate

Puritans: settled in New England, had a strong work ethic, and were intolerant to other religions within their communities

Quakers: settled in Pennsylvania, believed that people could have a direct relation with God, rather than one mediated by a minister

Roger Williams: founder of the colony of Providence, Rhode Island and a strong believer of the separation of church and state

Salutary Neglect: English policy of relaxing the enforcement of regulations over the colonies that led to the development of American political and economic freedom

Southern Colonies: characterized by the plantation system and slavery in order to grow crops like rice, tobacco, and indigo due to more tropical climate

Triangular trade: a common trading pattern during the colonial period in which merchants traded colonial rum for slaves in Africa, then traded these slaves for molasses in the West Indies, and then traded the molasses for more rum in the colonies.

William Penn: founded the colony of Pennsylvania and created a government dedicated to religious freedom, to equality and peace.

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Growing Tensions with Britain and American Revolution Vocabulary

Battle of Saratoga: turning point in the American Revolution. Afterwards France, Spain, and Holland declare war on Britain.

Battle of Yorktown: final major battle of the American Revolution

Benjamin Franklin: colonial inventor, printer, writer, statesman, and contributed to the Declaration of Independence

Boston Massacre (1770): the killing of five Bostonians by British soldiers who claimed they were protecting themselves from a hostile mob.

Boston Tea Party (1773): colonists protested the Tea Act by throwing crates of tea in to the harbor

Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts) (1774): a series of laws designed to punish Boston and discourage rebelliousness elsewhere by (1) closing Boston harbor (2) weakening the power of the elected legislature of Massachusetts, and (3) restricted town meetings.

"Common Sense" (1776): pamphlet which argued that the colonists should separate themselves from Great Britain.

Consent of the governed: a condition in which the authority of a government should depend upon the consent of the people, as expressed by votes in elections.

Declaration of Independence (1776): a document signed by members of the Second Continental Congress which declared that the thirteen British colonies were no longer colonies but rather thirteen sovereign and independent states.

First Continental Congress (1774): a meeting of delegates (excluding Georgia) which decided to oppose the Coercive Acts by mounting a colony-wide boycott of British goods.

French and Indian War (1754-1763): started due to British and French conflicting interests in North America

George Washington: Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army

Grievance: compliant against something thought to be wrong.

Inalienable Rights: natural rights that cannot be taken away by the government; life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness

King George III: King of England during the end of the French and Indian War and the American Revolution

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Mercenary: a soldier who is hired to serve in a foreign army

No Taxation without Representation: colonial reaction to Parliament’s changes in mercantile policies following the French and Indian War.

Proclamation of 1763: a British law prohibiting colonial settlement of lands west of the Appalachian Mountains.

Quartering Acts (1774): laws which required colonists to provide housing for British troops.

Second Continental Congress (1775-1781): a second meeting of the Continental Congress whose members signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776 and served as the U.S. national government from 1776 to 1781 when it was replaced by the Congress of the Articles of Confederation.

Stamp Act (1765): enacted to raise money in order to pay off British debt from war

Thomas Jefferson: author of the Declaration of Independence

Thomas Paine: author of the pamphlet “Common Sense”

Treaty of Paris (1783): officially ended the American Revolution and recognized the independence of the United States

Writ of Assistance: a general search warrant that allowed an official to search any building or ship at any time.

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Before and After the French and Indian War

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The Bloody Massacre by Paul Revere(The Boston Massacre)

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Unit 2: New Nation

Tested Information:I. Critical Period and Constitution

A. Albany Plan of Union1. influenced by Iroquois Confederation

B. Articles of Confederation- America’s first national constitution which established a weak national government, but it was replaced by the U.S. Constitution1. States rights- states have more power than federal government2. weak central government (problems with the Articles)3. Shays Rebellion- Massachusetts farmers rebelled over tax, government

under Articles could not raise army, rebellion went on, showed fatal flaw in Articles and Federal Government

C. Constitutional Convention1. Problems with the Articles- no power to tax, unanimous vote, no executive

branch, no national army, no judicial, and no enforcement of laws2. Great Compromise- Resolved dispute over representation in the legislative

branch, created House of Representatives based on population (large states), and Senate, based on equal representation (small states).

3. Separation of Powers- (see terms) D. Struggles over Ratification

1. federalists / anti-federalistsE. Bill of Rights

1. 1st amendment (speech, religion, press, assembly, petition)2. 4th amendment (search & seizure)3. 5th & 6th amendment trial rights (right not to self-incriminate, due process,

double jeopardy, and right to an attorney)4. 10th amendment (powers not specifically given to the national government

belong to the States and the people)

II. Washington and the FederalistsA. Presidency of George Washington

1. establishment of precedence of the presidency (2 terms, 1st cabinet)2. farewell address- stay away from foreign alliances

B. Economic Policies of Alexander Hamilton1. His policy for a National Bank and a Protective Tariff (favoring wealthy

merchants)C. Creation of Political Parties

1. creation of Jeffersonian Republicans- split from the federalists over Hamilton’s economic plan (favored agricultural interests)

2. first peaceful transition of political power through the election 1800D. Establishment of the federal system through the Marshall Court

1. Marbury v. Madison (see terms)2. judicial review (see terms)3. McColluch v. Maryland- Fight over 1st national bank

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III. Jefferson PresidencyA. Louisiana Purchase (1803)- area of land purchased in 1803 by President Jefferson

from France. It nearly doubled the size of the United States.B. Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804- 1806)- expedition across the Louisiana territory in

search of a water route to the Pacific Ocean.

People: Alexander Hamilton - First Secretary of the Treasury, Federalist. Ben Franklin – served as a mediator of disputes that arose between different

delegates at the Constitutional Convention George Washington - President of the Constitutional Convention, first President of the

United States of America James Madison - “Father” of the U.S. Constitution, Federalist John Marshall - Second Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and strengthen the

Constitution. Thomas Jefferson- First Secretary of State and the third President.

Vocabulary: Anti-federalists - people who supported states rights by trying to limit the power of the

national government; against ratification of the Constitution, and proposed the Bill of Rights

Checks and Balances - system in which each of the branches of the federal government can check the actions of the other branches

Confederation - loose organization of sovereign states Constitution – 1787 U.S. major document, creating a federal system, and defines the

responsibilities and limits of the federal government Constitutional Convention - convention that met in 1787 to draft the Constitution of the

United States Federalist Papers - written in New York between 1787 and 1788 to persuade delegates

to ratify the new Constitution. Primary authors were Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison

Federalists - supporters of the Constitution Inalienable rights - rights that cannot be taken away (Also known as natural rights life,

liberty, pursuit of happiness) Judicial review – power of the federal court to determine constitutionality of a law Marbury v Madison - first case of judicial review Protective Tariff - a tax on imports Ratification - approval of the Constitution Representative Government: a system of government whose lead of state is not a

monarch and the people elect representatives to act as their agents in making and enforcing laws

Separation of Powers - a system dividing power between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches (based on the Enlightenment)

Whiskey Rebellion – Over an excise tax to raise money for the government, farmers rebelled, President Washington put down rebellion, proving strength of new federal government under the Constitution

State Standards covered in Unit 2

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I. Critical Period and ConstitutionConcept: Revolution and New NationPerformance Objective: Analyze how the new national government was created.State Standard Code: US 4-4

II. Washington and the FederalistsConcept: Revolution and New NationPerformance Objective: Examine the significance of the following in the formation of a new nationState Standard Code: US 4-5

Unit 2 Reading

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The Critical Period

On July 4, 1776 the 13 colonies proclaimed themselves to be free and independent states. Soon after this declaration states began to write state constitutions for representative-style governments. Americans also began working on a federal constitution and government which would replace the Second Continental Congress. America's effort to create a republican form of government at the state and federal levels seemed to many to be a radical if not risky task. Most governments of the 18th century were monarchies. Most members of the ruling classes in Europe believed that republican government was not possible. They believed that common citizens were unable of electing qualified leaders. Even some Americans shared this concern. But despite thoughts of failure, Americans began their experiment with a republican government.

The first constitutions were written at the state level. There, constitution-writers improved upon colonial political traditions. Typically, the new state constitutions called for governments of three branches which were, in some ways similar to colonial governments. Many states continued to have bicameral (two-house) legislatures but unlike colonial tradition, the upper house as well as the lower house was elected by citizens. Each state constitution also called for an executive or governor. Unlike the colonial governor of royal colonies, who had been appointed by the British king, governors of each state were elected. Each state constitution also called for the creation of a state court system.

At the federal level, the newly independent United States aimed to create a government that did not simply replace one oppressive government (the British) with another. Yet, most distrusted the idea of a direct democratic government and favored a republic (a government in which the people elected representatives). Therefore, the new nation decided to create a confederation, or loose alliance of states as their new government. To that end, even before the end of the Revolution delegates from the 13 colonies began work on the Articles of Confederation. Although written in 1777 argument over ownership of land west of the Appalachians postponed ratification of the Articles. Finally, after all states agreed to give their western lands to the federal government, the land dispute was solved, and the Articles of Confederation were ratified in 1781. While the Articles provided the new nation with the limited government it desired, it did not provide for a federal executive, or a federal court system. Congress depended on the states to enforce its laws and give it financial support--something the states rarely did. Even worse, it became obvious that the new government could not effectively tax U.S. citizens nor could it enforce its own laws. However, the weakness of Congress guaranteed that it could never threaten the rights of individuals and their states as Parliament had once done.

Despite the fact that people in the states shared some traditions and views about government, there were also some deep differences. States argued with each other over conflicting land claims. Disputes over ownership of land west of the Appalachians were especially heated. Differing attitudes about slavery in northern and southern states were also beginning to divide Americans. And, although each state created a republican form of government, there was disagreement over which citizens should be allowed to vote. Some state constitutions called for

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male suffrage while others restricted voting rights to white men who owned a certain amount of property. Each state also adopted a different money system.

But the weakness of the Articles of Confederation led to other problems. Since Congress, had few powers, many treated it with disrespect. States generally ignored Congress's appeals for money. Foreign governments treated the United States with disrespect. British troops refused to leave posts in the northwest corner of the U.S. and pirates attacked American ships in the Mediterranean. Meanwhile individual states began economic warfare with one another by erecting tariff walls. To make matters worse, the wide variety of state currencies made trade between states and with foreign nations even more difficult. Matters came to a head in 1786 when a Massachusetts farmer, Daniel Shays, rebelled against the government. Shay’s Rebellion failed, but it showed the serious problems that faced the government and plagued the Articles of Confederation. The problems of the country became so large during the years of the Articles of Confederation (1781- 1789) that people call this time the Critical Period.

After Shay’s Rebellion, it became clear to many that the Articles of Confederation did not grant the federal government enough power to govern the country. Many believed that the Articles of Confederation needed drastic revision.

Twelve states sent delegates to the Philadelphia convention. Many of the delegates were wealthy planters, merchants, and lawyers. The list of 55 delegates included George Washington (who would unanimously be elected president of the convention), Alexander Hamilton, and Benjamin Franklin. Other delegates who would become famous included James Madison (who would be called the “Father of the Constitution” and who would later write the Bill of Rights) and Roger Sherman, who’s “Great Compromise” would settle the concerns of large and small states regarding legislative representation.

Although originally asked to revise the Articles of Confederation, the Convention decided that it was necessary to frame an entirely new and much stronger constitution. Delegates worked for weeks hammering out compromises and debating issues regarding the new constitution. When big states and small states clashed over representation in the federal legislature, a compromise was worked out which gave large states more representation in the House of Representatives, but kept the number of delegates each state was entitled to have in the Senate at two. In order to ensure that voters would not make a poor choice for the new executive leader, the Electoral College was created to be a safeguard and to actually elect the president. Regarding the issue of slavery, delegates decided not to interfere with the slave trade for 20 years, and also decided to only count three-fifths of “other persons” (slaves) when determining population for representation and taxation.

Two main features of the delegates’ work included the ideas of federalism and separation of powers. The concept of federalism allowed the states to maintain some sovereignty, or independence, by giving them power to control certain areas such as commerce within that state, education, and other rules as well. Separation of powers created three individual branches of government: the legislative branch would make the law, the executive branch would carry out the law and the judicial branch would interpret the law. In order to ensure that no branch would, become too powerful, a system of checks and balances was also included. For example, the

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executive branch could veto, or forbid, acts passed by the legislative branch. The judicial branch could declare an act of Congress unconstitutional through the power of judicial review. The legislative branch could impeach a president it considered guilty of treason, or “high crimes and misdemeanors.” In order to make sure it was a “living document,” the framers also allowed for a procedure to amend, or change, the Constitution. Amending the Constitution is a difficult process, requiring “extraordinary” majorities on both the federal and state level to make changes. In the more than two centuries since the Constitution was written, only 27 amendments have been approved.

Finally, their work completed, the delegates submitted the Constitution to the states for ratification or approval. Immediately, those in favor of the Constitution, who called themselves Federalists, began to lobby for the document, while those who were opposed, or Anti-federalists, lobbied against it because they feared a strong federal government would violate their rights. Leading Federalists included Hamilton, Madison, Washington, and John Jay, while leading Anti-federalists included Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee. In order to gain support for their positions, both sides wrote extensive essays that appeared in various newspapers. Madison, Hamilton, and Jay wrote a series of 85 essays that became known as the Federalist Papers. Richard Henry Lee promoted the Anti-federalist view in a series of essays titled Letters from the Federal Farmer. One of the main arguments of the Anti-federalists was that the finished Constitution did not include a bill of rights which specifically stated the rights guaranteed to people in the United States. Eventually, the Federalists gave into the demands of the Anti-federalists and agreed to add a Bill of Rights if the states ratified the Constitution.

One by one, the states voted on the question to ratify. Nine states were necessary to ratify the Constitution. Eleven of the thirteen voted to approve the Constitution on the first vote. At first, North Carolina and Rhode Island voted against the Constitution, but eventually approved the Constitution after further debate. The Constitution was finally ratified in 1788.

The Bill of Rights promised by the Federalists became the responsibility of James Madison. He selected some of the amendments suggested by state ratification conventions, and created a list for Congress to consider. Congress eventually submitted 12 amendments to the states for ratification, and by December 1791, three-fourths of the states had ratified ten of the Amendments. However, over the next two hundred years it would take seventeen other amendments and Supreme Court decisions to guarantee political and social equality to many groups, including African Americans, women, and Native Americans.

Washington and the Federalists

The United States Constitution was ratified in 1788, but that only marked the beginning of the many decisions the new nation would have to make. America began the process of choosing government officials. Members of the House of Representatives were directly elected by citizens in each state. Each state legislature picked two people to serve in the Senate. Electors of the Electoral College were also selected, and they in turn elected George Washington as President. One of Congress's first acts was to pass the Judiciary Act of 1789 which set the size of the Supreme Court at six justices and created a system of lower federal courts. Washington then

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named judges to fill these posts. The President then appointed people to head executive departments; Thomas Jefferson was named Secretary of State, and Alexander Hamilton was appointed Secretary of the Treasury. The new government was now in place and ready to begin solving America's difficult problems. However, ever since 1787, the country has discussed, debated, and disagreed how the Constitution should be interpreted and how strong the federal government should be. These discussions were particularly important in the first few decades after the ratification of the Constitution.

Led by Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton, the federal government began correcting the monetary and financial mess left over from the Revolution and Confederation. After heated debate, Congress approved Hamilton's plan for the federal government to pay all U.S. and state loans remaining from the Revolution. Also passed were revenue-raising tariffs as well as excise taxes on products like whiskey. Finally, Congress enacted Hamilton's controversial plan for a U.S. Bank.

Another task of the new government was to end the fear of anarchy which had persisted since Shays' Rebellion (1786). An opportunity to demonstrate "law and order" came in 1794 when western Pennsylvania distillers refused to pay the excise tax on whiskey. Determined to crush this Shays-like threat to authority, Washington sent a large army into Pennsylvania and the so-called Whiskey Rebellion was quickly put down. Washington's actions made it clear to all that, unlike government under the Articles of Confederation, government under the U.S. Constitution would enforce the law.

Meanwhile Washington sought to avoid clashes with foreign countries which might lead the young U.S. into a war it might lose. Toward this end, Washington issued the Proclamation of Neutrality (1793). This declared that the U.S. would not take sides in the war which was raging between Great Britain and the newly proclaimed Republic of France.

While many Americans praised Washington and Hamilton for their strong leadership, not all Americans were happy with their policies. Many opposed the tariffs and, as you have read, the excise tax on whiskey. Some wanted the U.S. to support France in its war with Britain--after all France had become a republic and had once helped America win its independence. To add to the controversy, people like Thomas Jefferson argued against Congress's creation of a U.S. Bank. He claimed that Congress had dangerously exceeded its powers because Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution had not specifically authorized Congress to create a bank. But Hamilton argued that since the Constitution specifically authorized Congress to coin money and regulate its value, the Constitution by "implication" also authorized Congress to create a bank. Jefferson protested against this use of "implied powers" and the "elastic clause" claiming it would lead to overly strong and abusive government. To Jefferson's great disappointment, Washington sided with Hamilton.

The nation became split over the issue of the U.S. Bank and other policies of the government. Led by Jefferson, those who opposed Hamilton's financial plan created the Democratic-Republican Party. Former Anti-Federalists, who had always feared federal government's power might threaten states' rights, joined the Democratic-Republicans. Meanwhile supporters of Hamilton's ideas formed the Federalist Party.

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The election of 1796 was the first major show-down between the two parties. With the support of Washington, who was retiring after two terms in office, the Federalists defeated the Democratic-Republicans. John Adams, a Federalist and Vice-President under Washington, was elected President defeating the Democratic-Republican candidate Thomas Jefferson. The Federalists also won control of Congress.

President Adams faced difficulties during his term in office. Many Americans, especially Democratic-Republicans severely criticized Adams for his domestic and foreign policies. In 1798 the Federalist-controlled Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts. These laws placed severe restrictions on the freedoms of foreigners in the United States and on the ability of Americans to express views in opposition to the government. By the time elections were held in 1800, many Americans had turned away from the Federalists. In that year, the Democratic-Republicans and their presidential candidate, Thomas Jefferson, were elected to power. The Presidential Election of 1800 marked the first peaceful transition of political power.

When Jefferson became president, Spain controlled the territory to the west of the Mississippi River (known as the Louisiana Territory). In 1800, Spain ceded the territory to France in a secret treaty. Jefferson was very concerned about this territory because he thought it was essential for the United States to have access to the Port of New Orleans at the mouth of the Mississippi River. He also worried that the French wanted to build an empire in North America. In 1802, the Spanish governor, taking orders from the French, denied the United States access to this port. Fortunately for the United States, in 1803 French Emperor Napoleon I decided to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States for $15 million. Napoleon needed the money to fight another war with Britain. The Louisiana territory was a “steal” for the United States, and Jefferson was pleased with the purchase. He’d already planned an exploratory expedition into the western part of the continent which became known as the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Jefferson hoped this expedition would find an overland trade route to the Pacific Ocean.

As the country expanded and time passed, tensions with Britain mounted. The British navy controlled the seas and therefore held great power over shipping between North America and Europe. Many American sailors were former members of the British navy. When the British began to stop ships and force these sailors back into the British navy. In response, the United States passed the Embargo Act, which prohibited American ships from sailing into foreign ports. Overseas trade came to a standstill and badly hurt the American economy. The embargo was repealed, but tensions became so bad that the United States ended up at war with Britain, the War of 1812.

The War of 1812 was favored by Congressional “War Hawks,” who were primarily from western and southern states. Most people from New England were opposed to the war, arguing that its impact on the northeastern economy would be devastating.

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Critical Period and the Constitution Vocabulary

Anti-Federalists: people who opposed ratification of the U.S. Constitution.

Articles of Confederation: America's first national constitution which established a weak national government, ratified in 1781 but replaced after the states ratified the U.S. Constitution in 1788.

Benjamin Franklin: served as a mediator of disputes that arose between different delegates at the Constitutional Convention

Bicameral legislature: a legislature of two houses or chambers (e.g., The U.S. Congress is made up of two houses--the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives.).

Bill of Rights: the first 10 Amendments to the Constitution which guarantee certain liberties such as freedom of speech and religion.

Checks and Balances: a system established by the U.S. Constitution which gives each branch of the national government some power to oversee the powers of the other two branches.

Confederation: a loose organization of sovereign states where the states have the majority of the power while the federal government remains weak.

Constitution (1787): created a federal system and defines the responsibilities and limitations of the federal government

Constitutional Convention (1787): a group of delegates from various states which met in Philadelphia to write a new national constitution.

Critical Period (1781-1789): a time when weak national leadership under the Articles of Confederation could not solve problems which threatened the future of the newly formed United States.

Federalists: people who favored ratification of the new U.S. Constitution.

"Federalist Papers": articles written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison which explained the newly drafted Constitution and urged people to support its ratification.

Fifth and Sixth Amendments: right to due process and an attorney, protection from self-incrimination and double jeopardy

First Amendment: right to freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly, and petition

Fourth Amendment: protection against unreasonable search and seizure

George Washington: President of the Constitutional Convention

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Great Compromise: a compromise at the Constitutional Convention which resolved the argument between large and small states by calling for a two-house Congress.

Inalienable Rights: natural rights that cannot be taken away by the government; life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness

James Madison: “Father” of the U.S. Constitution and a member of the Federalist Party

New Jersey Plan: a plan for a new constitution presented by William Paterson of New Jersey which, among other things, proposed a national Congress in which all states would be equally represented.

Ratification: approval of the Constitution

Representative Government: a system of government whose lead of state is not a monarch and the people elect representatives to act as their agents in making and enforcing laws.

Separation of powers: a system which places legislative, executive, and judicial powers in the hands of different groups of people.

Shays' Rebellion (1786): an attempt by Massachusetts farmers, led by Daniel Shays, to force the state government to inflate the money supply and stop the courts from seizing farmers' lands for non-payment of debts.

Tenth Amendment: states that the powers not specifically given to the federal government belong to the states and the people.

Virginia Plan: a plan for a new constitution presented by Edmund Randolph of Virginia which, among other things, proposed a Congress wherein each state would be represented according to the size of the state's population.

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Washington and the Federalists Vocabulary

Alexander Hamilton: first Secretary of the Treasury and a member of the Federalist Party

Alien and Sedition Acts (1798): laws that authorized the President to deport foreigners he believed were dangerous to the country as well as forbad criticism of the president and congress.

Democratic-Republican Party: a party founded by Jefferson which consisted mainly of common people and which opposed Hamilton's financial program as well as his support of a loose interpretation of the Constitution.

Federalist Party: a political party founded by Alexander Hamilton and others who supported strong national economic policies, favored a loose interpretation of the Constitution, and feared "too much democracy" in the hands of the "undereducated common man."George Washington: first President of the United States

Internal improvements: proposal by Alexander Hamilton to create a system of roads, canals, and bridges in early America.

John Adams: second President of the United States and a member of the Federalist Party

John Marshall: second Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court and strengthened the Constitution through judicial review

Judicial Review: the power of the Supreme Court to review laws and determine if they are constitutional.

Judiciary Act of 1789: created a system of lower courts and set the number of Supreme Court Justices to six.

Loose interpretation: an interpretation of the Constitution that accepts broad, flexible, implied meanings to rules set down in the Constitution

Marbury v. Madison: first case of judicial review judicial review- testing whether a law follows the Constitution

McColluch v. Maryland: a case of judicial review- affirming the superiority of the federal government, over the states, in the Constitution.

"Midnight Judges": judges who were appointed to federal judgeships late in the evening of President Adams' last day in office.

National Bank: bank proposed by Alexander Hamilton and was established by Congress

Partisan politics: political actions aimed at helping one's political party and hurting the opposing party.

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Protective Tariff: high tax on imported goods designed to encourage people to buy cheaper domestic goods.

Strict interpretation: an interpretation of the Constitution that accepts only a literal meaning to rules set down in the Constitution

Thomas Jefferson: first Secretary of State, a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, and the third President of the United States

Whiskey Rebellion: the refusal by farmer-distillers of western Pennsylvania to pay the excise tax on whiskey.

Whiskey Tax: an excise tax to raise money for the government

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The Constitution

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Preamble (Introduction)We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice,

insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this

Constitution for the United States of America.

First ArticleProvides for a bicameral Congress and defines its power to make laws

Second ArticleProvides for the election of the President and Vice President with defined powers, and for the

appointment of other officials

Third ArticleSets up a Supreme Court, authorizes the Congress to set up other courts, and defines their powers

Fourth ArticleDefines the relationship between the Federal Government and the States, and between the States

themselves

Fifth ArticleTells how the Constitution may be amended

Sixth ArticleAccepts the responsibility for all debts that the Nation owed before the adoption of the

Constitution; declared that the Constitution, constitutional laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land; and provides that all public officers must take an oath to support the Constitution

Seventh ArticleDeclares that ratification by nine States will put the Constitution into effect

Bill of Rights

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First AmendmentForbids the Congress to interfere with religion, free speech, a free press, or with the right to

peacefully assemble, or to petition the Government

Second AmendmentGuarantees the right of people to have weapons

Third AmendmentPrevents the government from forcing people living in the United States to provide private

housing for soldiers

Fourth AmendmentProvides that there shall be no search or seizure or persons, houses, goods, or papers, without a

search warrant

Fifth AmendmentDeclares that there shall be no trial for serious offenses without a grand jury indictment, no repeat trials for the same offense (double jeopardy), no self-incrimination (testify against

yourself), no repeal of rights without trial, and no property taken for public use except at fair price

Sixth AmendmentRequires speedy and public trial for criminal offenses in the district where the crime is

committed, a fair jury, a plain statement of charges against the accused, gives the accused the right to be represented by a lawyer and to call witnesses for the defense, and requires all

witnesses to testify in the presence of the accused

Seventh AmendmentProvides that lawsuits over $20 have the option of trial by jury

Eighth AmendmentProhibits too large bail or fines, and cruel and unusual punishments

Ninth AmendmentDeclares that rights not specifically stated in the Constitution cannot be taken away from the

people

Tenth AmendmentStates that the powers not given to the Federal Government or prohibited by the Constitution are

given to the States or to the people

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Hamilton and Jefferson

In the early years of the new republic, there was a strong fear over tyranny- whether a strong national government or of the people themselves. At the Constitutional Convention, popular sovereignty was an overriding and often divisive issue. Two of the most influential officials in President Washington’s administration- Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson- held contrasting views on popular sovereignty.

As you read, think of why these men held such differing views on human nature.

Alexander HamiltonAll the communities divide themselves into the few

and the many. The first are the rich and well born;

the other, the mass of the people. The voice of the

people has been said to be the voice of God; how-

ever generally this maxim has been quoted and

believed, it is not true in fact. The people are

turbulent and changing; they seldom judge or

determine right. Give therefore to the first class a

district, permanent share of the government. They

will check the unsteadiness of the second; and as

they cannot receive any advantage by a change,

they there-fore will ever maintain good

government. (1787).

Take mankind in general, they are vicious- their

passions may be operated upon…Take mankind as

they are, and what are they governed by? Their

passions. There may be in every government a few

choice spirits, who many act from more worthy

motives. One great error is that we suppose man-

kind more honest than they are. Our prevailing

passions are ambition and interest; and it will be

duty of a wise government to avail itself of those

passions, in order to make them subservient to the

public good. (1787)

Thomas JeffersonMen…are naturally divided into two parties. Those

who fear and distrust the people…Those who

identify themselves with the people, have

confidence in them, cherish and consider them as

the most honest and safe…depository of the public

interest. (1824)

Every government degenerates when trusted to the

rules…alone. The people themselves are its only

safe depositories. (1787)

I have such reliance on the good sense of the body

of the people and the honesty of their leaders that I

am not afraid of their letting things go wrong to any

length in any cause. (1788)

Whenever the people are well-informed, they can e

trusted with their own government; whenever

things get so far wrong as to attract their notice,

they may be relied on to set the to rights. (1789)

I have great confidence in the common sense of

mankind in general. (1800)

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Formation of Political Parties Mini DBQ

Question: Compare Alexander Hamilton’s views on the role of citizens and democracy with those of Thomas Jefferson.

Step 1: What prior knowledge do you have? LOOK AT YOUR NOTES!

Hamilton believes this Jefferson believed this

Step 2: Look over the two documents. Find quotes that match your prior knowledge.

Step 3: Write a paragraph

Begin with a THESIS STATEMENT: include the following phrases- Hamilton, Jefferson, different views, citizens and democracy

You must use TWO quotes from Hamilton and TWO quotes from Jefferson

Follow this outline for the structure of your paragraph

I. Thesis Statement

A. Topic Sentence…Alexander Hamilton believed…

1. Fact 1 (Quote)2. Elaborate and Explain Fact 13. Fact 2 (Quote)4. Elaborate and Explain Fact 2

B. Transition to Jefferson (can be part of Jefferson’s topic sentence)

C. Topic Sentence…Thomas Jefferson believed…

1. Fact 3 (Quote)2. Elaborate and Explain Fact 33. Fact 4 (Quote)4. Elaborate and Explain Fact 4

II. Conclusion Sentence- Restate thesis statement

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U.S. Constitution

The Founding Fathers built the United States Constitution upon certain principles. The Constitutional Convention’s (Philadelphia Convention) dedication to these principles created a democratic form of government. This Constitution and its principles have stood the test of time and have been the model for republican governments throughout the world. These principles deserve special attention.

GOVERNMENT BY THE CONSENT OF THE GOVERNED

Delegates to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 believed that government receives its authority from the consent of the governed. The American Revolution was, to a great extent, caused by Britain's violation of this principle--Parliament taxed the colonists without their consent. The Declaration of Independence was built upon the principle that governments derive "their just powers from the consent of the governed."

The Founding Fathers made government by consent a central feature of the Constitution. The Constitution gave voting citizens the power to directly elect their representatives in the House of Representatives. It also called for indirect election of senators and the President. The Constitution also guarantees each state a republican (representative) form of government. Finally the Framers gave to the people the power to accept or reject the Constitution--only with the people's consent would the new Constitution be ratified.

FEDERALISM

In order to create a strong national government and yet grant states control over their internal affairs, the Framers developed the principle of federalism. According to this ingenious idea, the power to govern would be shared between the national government and the state governments. The national government would be given power to govern those matters that affected more than one state. Since trade between states and foreign nations affected more than one state, power to regulate this kind of trade would be granted to the national government. Since a single, national money system was needed for proper interstate and foreign trade, the power to coin and print money was also given to the national government. Since future battles with foreign countries were a concern of all Americans, the Constitution gave Congress the power to raise and maintain an army and navy. Finally, since the national government needed money to carry out its duties, the Constitution gave Congress the power to tax the people.

Under federalism, states retained many powers. The Constitution protected states' rights to govern their internal affairs. They retained the right to regulate intrastate (within the state) commerce as well as to determine qualifications for voters. States retained the power to establish and administer public schools as well as to make rules about marriage and divorce. States also retained the power to license businesses.

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LIMITATION ON GOVERNMENTAL POWERS

The Founding Fathers also believed that the power of government should be limited. Fearing that the Congress might abuse its power, as Parliament had once done, the Convention granted Congress a limited number of powers (see Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution). In Article 1, section 9 of the Constitution denied specific powers to the national government. In Article 1, Section 10, the Framers placed a few limits on state governments. States could not, for example, enter into alliances with foreign nations, print money, enact tariffs, or pass bills of attainder. After the Constitution was ratified, the Bill of Rights (the first 10 Amendments) was added to the Constitution further to limit the power of government.

SEPARATION OF POWERS AND CHECKS AND BALANCES

In their determination to keep individuals in the national government from misusing their power, the Founding Fathers developed a system of separation of powers. According to this system, the legislative (law-making), executive (law-enforcing) and judicial (law-interpreting) powers of government were given to different groups of government officials. Law-making powers were given to the legislative branch, a Congress of two houses--the House of Representatives and the Senate. Law-enforcing powers were given to the executive branch headed by the President. Law-interpreting powers were given to the judicial branch headed by the Supreme Court.

To prevent any one branch from abusing its power, the Framers also created a system of checks and balances. According to this system, each branch of government could check or place some controls on the other. The President, for example, has the power to veto bills of Congress. Congress has the power to remove the President from office.

NEED FOR FLEXIBILITY AND CHANGE

The Founding Fathers understood that the national government and the Constitution had to be flexible. They included in Article 1, Section 8 the "elastic clause" which gave Congress flexibility in carrying out its listed powers. The Framers also enabled the people to alter their Constitution to meet the needs of a changing nation. Article 5 of the Constitution says that the Constitution may be amended with the approval of three-fourths of the states or by convention. With this flexibility and capacity for change, America's Constitution is just as effective today as it was 200 years ago. For this reason it is called the "living Constitution."

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Constitution Vocabulary

Bill of Attainder: a law that pronounces a person guilty without a trial.

Checks and Balances: a system established by the U.S. Constitution which gives each branch of the national government some power to check (control) the other two branches.

Chief Justice: a Justice of the Supreme Court who serves as its administrative leader.

Delegated powers: powers specifically granted the national government by the Constitution, especially those powers granted to Congress in Article 1, Section 8.

Elastic clause: a clause in the Constitution (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 18), which allows Congress to enact laws which are implied (but not directly stated) in the Constitution.

Electoral College: a group of people chosen by each state who are authorized to elect the President and Vice-President. Originally state governments chose the electors but nowadays citizens of each state choose their state's presidential electors.

Ex post facto law: a law that would punish a person for an act even though that act was not illegal when it was done. The Constitution prohibits Congress and the states from making ex post facto laws.

Executive: a person who enforces or carries out laws.

Habeas corpus: the right of an arrested person to go before a judge to find out what crimes he or she has been charged with.

Impeach: to bring charges of illegal conduct against an official such as the President.

Implied powers: powers which are "suggested" by the Constitution but not directly stated.

Ratify: to approve.

Reserved powers: those powers which are not granted the national government but are instead reserved to the states.

Veto: the refusal of the President or the governor of a state to approve a bill.

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Unit 3: Westward Expansion and Sectionalism

Tested Information:I. Westward Expansion

A. Louisiana Territory1. Thomas Jefferson-expanded Executive Power by purchasing the Louisiana

Territory2. Lewis and Clark3. Increased U.S. involvement in foreign affairs by negotiating with France4. Doubled the size of America

B. Texas1. United States annexed Texas (formerly part of Mexico) in 1845. Texas becomes a

slave state. Texas contributed to sectional conflict in the United States in the 1850s

2. A border dispute in Texas led to the Mexican-American WarC. Gold Rush

1. In 1849, gold is discovered in California. The discovery of gold led to an increase in population on the West Coast which eventually led to sectional conflict in the United States in the 1850s

D. Mexican-American War & Mexican Cession1. Training ground for Civil War generals2. Treaty of Guadalupe- Hidalgo ends the war

a. Mexico lost 1/3 of its territoryb. U.S. pays Mexico $15 million dollars for the southern and western part of the

United States which included what is now California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and Utah

E. Gadsden Purchase1. To complete the southern route of the transcontinental railroad, the United States

purchased the land south of the Gila River creating the current border between Arizona and Mexico

II. SectionalismA. Economic and social differences of the North, South, and West.

1. Plantation system in South: a. impact of the cotton gin b. Southern class system based on land ownership

2. Manufacturing in North: a. impact of mass production b. creating wealth c. opportunities to rise in society

3. Immigrant labor in North vs. slave labor in South4. Western territories: slave or free?

B. Balance of power in the Senate.1. Missouri Compromise2. Compromise of 1850/Fugitive Slave Act

C. Extension of slavery in the territories.1. Missouri Compromise- Maine was admitted as a free state and Missouri as a

slave state, thus preserving the sectional balance in the Senate. The rest of the Louisiana Territory was split into two sections, slave and free, the line was set at 36, 30, everything above the line would be free and below slave.

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2. Compromise of 1850- Compromise that hoped would settle all questions and controversy between the free and slave states growing out of slavery. It included:a. California admitted as a free stateb. Stricter fugitive slave lawc. No slave trade in Washington D.C.d. Territories of New Mexico and Utah would decide on the slavery issue

through Popular Sovereignty. e. Texas-New Mexico boundary dispute resolved: Texas paid $10 million by

federal government. 3. Kansas-Nebraska Act- Law that established the territories of Kansas and

Nebraska and gave their residents the right to decide on slavery in their territory based on Popular Sovereignty.

4. Bleeding Kansas- name applied to the Kansas Territory in the years before the Civil War, when the territory was a battleground between proslavery and antislavery forces.

5. Dred Scott Decision- Supreme Court ruled that African Americans were not and could never be citizens, Scott had no claim to freedom because he had lived as a slave in Missouri, and the Court ruled that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional.

D. Role of Abolitionists:1. Agents of political and social change2. Many involved in other reform work like women’s suffrage

E. Debate over popular sovereignty/states rights:1. Missouri Compromise, 18202. Nullification Crisis, 18323. Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 18584. Debate over states rights vs. federalism

F. Presidential election of 1860:1. Threat of southern secession if Lincoln is elected2. Southern states secede starting in the winter of 1860

G. Creation of Republican Party

People Abraham Lincoln - Republican who ran for the Senate seat from Illinois in 1858

taking the position that slavery should not be extended into the western territories Dred Scott - slave who sued for his freedom because his master had taken him

into non-slave territories and still held him as a slave Frederick Douglass - self-educated slave who escaped and became a leading

spokesman for the abolitionist movement, publisher of the The North Star Harriet Beecher Stowe - author of Uncle Tom’s Cabin Harriet Tubman - runaway slave and conductor on the Underground Railroad James Gadsden - negotiated the last purchase of the continental United states James K. Polk - President during the Mexican-American War John Brown - made the abolition of slavery a personal crusade; murdered slavery

supporters in Kansas and led the raid at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia; executed John C. Fremont - surveyor/explorer of the West known as the “Pathfinder” and later the

first presidential nominee for the Republican Party Lewis and Clark - explorers who explored the Louisiana Purchase

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Stephan Douglas - Democrat who ran for the Senate seat from Illinois in 1858 taking the position that popular sovereignty should determine whether slavery would extend into the western territories

William Lloyd Garrison - abolitionist who led the American Anti-Slavery Society and editor of The Liberator

Vocabulary Abolitionists – those who wanted to abolish or end slavery Expansion - spreading into a connecting area Manifest Destiny - Belief it was the God given right of Americans to expand

westward to the Pacific Ocean Popular sovereignty - the policy of allowing people in a territory to decide whether

or not they will allow slavery there Push-Pull theory - events and conditions that either force (push) people to move

elsewhere or strongly attract (pull) them to do so Secession - formal withdrawal of a state from the Union Sectionalism - the placing of the interests of one’s own region ahead of the

interests of the nation as a whole Underground Railroad- a vast network of people who helped fugitive slaves

escape to the North and to Canada. It was not run by any single organization or person, but rather, it consisted of many individuals. It effectively moved hundreds of slaves northward each year -- according to one estimate, the South lost 100,000 slaves between 1810 and 1850.

State Standards covered in Unit 3I. Westward ExpansionConcept: Westward ExpansionPerformance Objective: Trace the growth of the American nation during the period of western

expansionState Standard Code: US 5-1

II. SectionalismConcept: Civil WarPerformance Objective: Explain the economic, social, and political causes of the Civil WarState Standard Code: US 6-1

Unit 3 Reading

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The America of 1800 was predominantly agricultural. Although some people lived in small cities along the eastern seaboard, the great majority of Americans lived on farms. But by 1850, this life was being changed by America's entry into the Industrial Revolution. This great period of change was a time when new power-driven machines changed the way products were made. As the Industrial Revolution proceeded, fewer products were handmade at home and more were machine made in factories.

The American Northeast was the first section of the country to use the technology of the Industrial Revolution. Huge textile mills with water-powered spinning and weaving machines were built along New England's swift flowing streams. The demand for mill workers caused many rural Americans to leave the farms and move to factory towns. The demand for labor also caused increased immigration. The need for access to raw materials and markets led to improvements in transportation. Canals were dug and steam-powered ships and railroads were built. This economic expansion led to the rapid growth of cities, especially those in the Northeast.

Economic activity also bustled in the West. As the U.S. acquired western lands, trappers, miners, and farmers moved into these regions. Meanwhile the old South remained mainly agricultural. Inventions such as the cotton gin and cloth-making machines increased the demand for southern cotton.

The early to mid-1800s was also a time of reform. A stronger sense of the dignity and equality of people led to democratic reforms such as the elimination of property qualifications for voting. This period was also a time of reform in education as well as in the treatment of prisoners and the mentally ill. Women began their effort to gain political equality. Abolitionists started a determined effort to abolish slavery in America. Their effort became one of the causes of the Civil War (1861-1865).

The 1840s were years of territorial growth. During this decade America realized its Manifest Destiny by expanding to the Pacific Ocean. But the addition of new lands reopened the question of whether slavery would extend into these territories. Controversy over slavery intensified during the 1850s and finally led to the Civil War.

Territorial expansion of the 1840s began when the U.S. finally accepted the Republic of Texas's request for statehood. Texas, which had been a province of Mexico, won its war of independence in 1836. Texas then asked to be admitted to the U.S. as a state. Northerners, however, were opposed to the admission of Texas because it sought admission as a slave state. Over the next nine years Congress repeatedly denied Texas's request for statehood. Finally in 1845, after Texas hinted that it might join in an alliance with Britain, Congress voted to admit Texas to the Union.

After annexing Texas, the U.S. found itself in a dispute with Mexico on the location of the Texas-Mexican border. The argument led to the Mexican War (1846-1848). As a result of the war, the U.S. acquired a huge area of land called the Mexican Cession for $15 million. This

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territory included what is now California, Nevada, Utah, and large portions of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.

Meanwhile, American settlers had been pouring into the Oregon Country which had been jointly owned by the U.S. and Britain since 1818. By the mid-1840s Americans were insisting that the U.S. should claim exclusive ownership of Oregon even if it meant war with Britain. But when the Mexican War started, the U.S. decided that another Anglo-American war was out of the question. In 1846 the U.S. and Britain decided to divide the Oregon Country along the 49th parallel. The British portion was renamed British Columbia and the American portion became what are now the states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho.

While expansion to the Pacific was a source of national pride, it also intensified the debate over slavery in the new lands. At first the compromise seemed to settle the problem--the Compromise of 1850 divided the western territories into free and slave sections. But this solution was short lived. In its Dred Scott decision (1857), the Supreme Court declared that Congress had violated the Constitution when it banned slavery in U.S. territories. In other words, the Court ruled that slave-owners could take their slaves into any U.S. territory.

Northerners were outraged by the Dred Scott decision. They reasoned that if slaves could be taken into territories, those territories would later join the U.S. as slave states. That would weaken the North's position in Congress. Abolitionists were also furious that slavery would be spreading. The Underground Railroad intensified its efforts to help slaves escape. The abolitionist leader John Brown resorted to violence in "Bleeding Kansas" and the raid on Harpers Ferry. Meanwhile Northerners created a new political party, the Republican Party, whose main goal was to prevent slavery from spreading into the western territories.

The actions of the Northerners, especially the radicalism of John Brown, convinced Southerners that the North was "fanatically" opposed to the South and its way of life. The election of 1860 was, for many Southerners, the last straw. The Republican candidate, Abraham Lincoln, was elected President. Although Lincoln was willing to tolerate slavery in states where it already existed, he was opposed to its continued spread into the territories. Many Southerners saw Lincoln as their enemy. Led by South Carolina, the southern states began to secede from the Union.

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Westward Expansion Vocabulary

Gadsden Purchase (1853): a section of land (now the southern part of Arizona and New Mexico) which was purchased from Mexico for $10 million in order to provide level land on which a transcontinental railroad route easily could be built.

Gold Rush: discovery of gold led many to move to California in hopes of striking it rich and created tension between the United States and Mexico since California was part of Mexico.

James K. Polk: President during the Mexican- American War

Lewis and Clark: explorers who explored the Louisiana Purchase

Louisiana Purchase: area of land purchased in 1803 from France. It nearly doubled the size of the United States.

Manifest Destiny: a belief held by many during the 1840s that it was the God given right of Americans to expand westward to the Pacific Ocean.

Mexican Cession (1848): land bought from Mexico which included areas now known as the states of California, Nevada, Utah, and most of Arizona and New Mexico.

Push- Pull Theory: events and conditions that either force people to move elsewhere or strongly attract them to do so

Texas Annexation: agreement that made the Republic of Texas a state within the United States.

Thomas Jefferson: expanded the executive power of the President by purchasing the Louisiana Territory

Treaty of Guadalupe- Hidalgo: ended the Mexican- American War and gave the United States the Mexican Cession for $15 million.

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Sectionalism Vocabulary

Abolitionist: a person who wanted to outlaw slavery.

Abraham Lincoln: Republican who ran for the Senate seat from Illinois in 1858 taking the position that slavery should not be extended into the western territories

Bleeding Kansas: a term used to describe the fighting in 1856 between pro- and anti-slavery groups in Kansas each of which wanted to win popular-sovereignty elections in that territory.

Compromise of 1850: a series of laws that granted California statehood as a free state, provided popular sovereignty for the territories of New Mexico and Utah, banned the sale of slaves in the District of Columbia, and enacted a strict fugitive slave law.

Cotton gin: a device which separates cotton seeds from cotton fibers.

Dred Scott: slave who sued for his freedom because his master had taken him into non-slave territories and still held him as a slave

Dred Scott decision (1857): a Supreme Court decision, written by Chief Justice Taney which declared that Congress could not ban slavery in U.S. territories and that the Missouri Compromise was, therefore, unconstitutional.

Election of 1860: result caused the Southern states to begin seceding from the Union

Frederick Douglass: self-educated slave who escaped and became a leading spokesman for the abolitionist movement, publisher of the North Star

Free Soil Party: a political party which opposed the extension of slavery

Fugitive Slave Act (1850): one of the parts of the Compromise of 1850 which imposed fines or prison terms on those found guilty of helping slaves escape.

Harriet Beecher Stowe: author of the book Uncle Tom’s Cabin

Harriet Tubman: runaway slave and conductor on the Underground Railroad.

John Brown: made the abolition of slavery a personal crusade; murdered slavery supporters in Kansas and led the raid at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia; executed

Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854): a law which reorganized much of the old Louisiana Purchase by creating the Kansas and Nebraska Territories and allowing residents of those territories to decide through popular sovereignty whether the land would be open to slavery.

Lincoln- Douglas Debates (1858): series of discussions during the Illinois Senatorial race of 1858 which focused on the issue of slavery in the United States and its territories.

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Missouri Compromise (1820): a law which admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state (thus maintaining the even balance between slave and free states) and which prohibited slavery in parts of the Louisiana Purchase north of 36 degrees, 30 minutes latitude.

Nullification Crisis: occurred when South Carolina refused to enforce a federal tariff law passed by the U.S. Congress and threatened to secede from the Union of the law was enforced.

Popular Sovereignty: the policy of allowing people in a territory to decide whether or not they would allow slavery there.

Radical: a person favoring extreme change and willing to use strong, even illegal, methods to bring about that change.

Republican Party: a political party formed in 1854, whose major goal was to block the extension of slavery into the territories.

Secession: formal withdrawal of a state from the Union

Sectionalism: placing the interests of one’s own region ahead of the interests of the nation as a whole.

Stephan Douglas: Democrat who ran for the Senate seat from Illinois in 1858 taking the position that popular sovereignty should determine whether slavery would extend into the western territories

Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852): a book depicting the harsh treatment of slaves in the South.

Underground Railroad: a vast network of people who helped slaves escape to the North and to Canada.

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OVERVIEW: THE ENSLAVEMENT OF AFRICANS IN THE NEW WORLD

“This is a world of compensations; and he who would be no slave, must consent to have no slave. Those

who deny freedom to others, deserve it not for themselves; and, under a just God, can not long retain it.”

-President Abraham Lincoln in an April 6, 1859 letter to Henry Pierce

The enslavement of Africans in the United States began with the colonization of the

Americas by Europeans. Between 1520 and 1860, approximately 12 million men, women, and

children were uprooted from Africa and put on European vessels for a life of slavery in the New

World.1 The “triangular trade” was established during the colonial era in the United States.

Captured Africans were brought to Virginia, Maryland, and many other southern colonies to help

produce tobacco and sugar (much of which was processed into rum) in the colonial era, then later

(around the turn of the 19th century) to pick cotton; the products of slave labor were sold to

European countries; and the money these sales brought in was used to acquire more slaves—

hence a “triangle of trade” arose between Africa, the Americas, and Europe.

In the United States, the rise of cotton plantations, tobacco plantations, and sugar

plantations fueled a need for free and/or cheap labor. Initially, indentured servants arrived to

work the plantations. But indentured servants were only temporary employees who retained

certain rights and could earn wages. Plantation owners tried to force Native Americans to work

the fields, but they proved difficult to capture and easily escaped into surrounding areas with

which they were very familiar. Africans, on the other hand, did not know the land and proved to

be much easier to keep on the plantations. Most slaves were captured in central Africa and

brought to the Ivory Coast in coffles (fastened into groups by chains). Usually a third died along

the journey to the coast, and the trek became known as “the trail of bones.” They were then

separated from members of their own tribe and put in makeshift cages. Captured Africans often

could not speak the language(s) of their fellow captives and communication between prisoners

was difficult. The Africans were then “spoon packed” aboard vessels, with anywhere from 300 to

500 captives on a single ship. They then proceeded to endure a three-month journey with

minimal food, sunlight, exercise, and other basic amenities. Many became sick, and quite a few

1 http://ngilegacy.com/holocaust.htm

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died en route to the Americas. The stench from the filth, disease, and dead bodies on slave ships

was so strong that people in the Americas often smelled the ships before they could see them.

Upon arrival, Africans were sold to plantation owners as slaves. Plantation life meant

working from daylight to dark, living in overcrowded cabins, having no control over your daily

activities, punishments at the whims of overseers, separation from family members, lynching,

rapes, and other cruelties. Though some Americans had opposed slavery from its inception (most

notably the Quakers in Pennsylvania), in the 1830s a determined and coordinated movement

arose for abolishing slavery. The movement encompassed both whites (such as William Lloyd

Garrison. editor of the antislavery newspaper The Liberator) and blacks (including former slaves

such as Frederick Douglass, and free blacks as well). Their efforts contributed to a highly

charged political arena, with debates over sectionalism and slavery eventually threatening the

Union.

As debates between abolitionists and pro-slavery advocates heated the national scene,

some slaves began to escape to the North through what became known as the “Underground

Railroad.” Started in the early 19th century by Quakers in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, the

Railroad consisted of a network of paths and individuals aiding runaway slaves. Harriet Tubman,

a former slave herself, was one of the Railroad’s most notable “conductors,” returning

continually to the South to aid other runaway slaves. While some slaves ran to find freedom,

others stayed and rebelled. Slave rebellions in the South were the exception rather than the rule,

but they had widespread repercussions. In 1831, the largest uprising occurred when a slave

named Nat Turner successfully led around 70 or 80 slaves in a rebellion against plantation

owners in Virginia.

A multitude of literature, drawings, photographs, narratives, poems, songs, speeches,

debates, maps, and other historical documents on slavery exists. Historians, educators, and

students face the challenge of sifting through multiple viewpoints in order to understand how

slavery developed, why it split the nation, and how its painful and enduring legacy shapes

America even to the present day. The following lessons offer a glimpse into the crucial and

tumultuous time period when slavery flourished in the United States.

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Unit 4: Civil War

Tested Information:I. Civil War

A. Southern states secede starting in the fall of 1860B. Advantages/disadvantages of Union and Confederacy:

1. Union-more men, more money, more materials; lack of military leadership2. Confederacy-leadership, defensive war, morale, less technology

C. Fall of Fort Sumter: official start of war D. First Battle of Bull Run/Manassas: both sides learn this wouldn’t be a 90 day warE. Turning points

1. Antietam: Union victory leads to the Emancipation Proclamation; ends possibility of European involvement

2. Gettysburg: Union victory stops Confederate move north; Lincoln’s delivers the Gettysburg Address to help unify the North

3. Vicksburg: Union victory gives Union control of Mississippi RiverF. Military and Civilian leaders (see people)G. Effects of the Emancipation Proclamation: Lincoln’s plan freed the slaves in the

rebellious south but not the Border states; creation of the 54th Massachusetts Regiment

H. Surrender at Appomattox CourthouseI. Results of the War:

1. Power of the national government strengthened2. Destruction of the South3. End of slavery

People Abraham Lincoln: president of the Union who’s goal at the start of the war was

to keep the Union together, not necessarily to end slavery Jefferson Davis: president of the Confederate States of America Robert E. Lee: commander of the Confederate Army Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson: Confederate general who turned back the Union

army at the first Battle of Bull Run/Manassas Ulysses S. Grant: winning commander of the Union army William Sherman: led the Atlanta campaign to destroy Confederate resources

and demoralize the people of the South

Vocabulary 54th Massachusetts Regiment - African American regiment that fought in the

battle of Fort Wagner. Remembered in the Movie “Glory.” Border States - slave holding states who remained in the Union during the Civil

War Confederate States of America - southern states during the Civil War Copperheads - Northern Democrat who favored making peace with the Confederacy Emancipation - freeing of slaves Siege - the action of an armed force that surrounds a fortified place and isolates it

while continuing to attack Secession - formal withdrawal of a state from the Union Union - northern states during the Civil War

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State Standards covered in Unit 4I. Civil WarConcept: Civil War and ReconstructionPerformance Objective: Analyze aspects of the Civil War: changes in technology, importance of

resources, turning points, military and civilian leaders, effect of the Emancipation Proclamation, and effect on the civilian populations

State Standard Code: US 6-2

Unit 4 Reading

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That we here highly resolve that these honored dead shall not have died in vain..,

that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government

of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”

---Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address

The national experience during the seventy years following ratification of the Constitution in 1788 had not convinced all Americans to support strong national power and goals. As early as 1798, Thomas Jefferson wrote the Kentucky Resolution which argued that the Union and the Constitution was a compact of states and that states, therefore, had the right to declare laws of Congress unconstitutional. This idea was repeated again by John C. Calhoun in 1828 when he claimed that a state, as a member of a compact of states, could declare laws of Congress null and void. Calhoun also believed that a state could terminate membership in its compact with other states and secede from the Union. During the next 30 years some Southerners continued the talk of secession as a last resort. This became a reality when, in late 1860, southern states began seceding from the Union.

Southern secession was sparked by the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860. Southerners strongly objected to Lincoln because he and fellow members of the Republican Party were adamantly opposed to the extension of slavery into the territories. With Republicans in power, the Southerners reasoned, southern interests would be ignored, and southern power in government would weaken. Rather than face such a fate, southern states, led by South Carolina in December of 1860, began seceding from the Union. Within two months the seceding states formed their own national government--the Confederate States of America.

Lincoln did not view southern secession as legal. When Southerners demanded that the U.S. remove its soldiers from Fort Sumter, South Carolina, Lincoln refused. In April 1861, sectional conflict between the North and South exploded into Civil War when Confederate troops fired on Union-held Fort Sumter outside Charleston, South Carolina. While there were no casualties at Fort Sumter, the war that followed became the bloodiest in U.S. history. Over 600,000 Americans from the Union and Confederacy died, and nearly 500,000 were wounded.

After the fall of Fort Sumter to the Confederacy, President Abraham Lincoln called for volunteers to quell the rebellion. Hundreds of thousands took up arms. Southerners, wanting to preserve their way of life, did the same. The war divided not only the nation, but divided families as well. Lincoln’s brother-in-law died fighting for the Confederacy, while Confederate General Robert E. Lee’s nephew fought for the Union Navy. Several counties in the Western part of Virginia were anti-slavery; during the war, they seceded from Virginia and were admitted into the Union in 1863 as the state of West Virginia. In addition, several “Border States” remained loyal to the Union, even though many of their residents were slaveholders.

Both the Union and Confederacy developed military strategies to subdue their foe. The Union’s strategy was dubbed the “Anaconda Plan” because it was designed to strangle the Confederacy similar to how the anaconda snake suffocates its victims in its coils. The Union would blockade Southern ports, split the Confederacy in two along the Mississippi River, and

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seize the Confederate capital at Richmond, Virginia. The Confederate strategy was mostly defensive, although Confederate leaders, including President Jefferson Davis, encouraged their generals to attack or invade the North if the opportunity arose.

While the North had the larger share of industrial, economic, and political resources, the South could rely on their economic resource of “King Cotton,” as well as an abundance of great military leaders, including Robert E. Lee. Although often criticized, Abraham Lincoln proved to be a superior leader to Jefferson Davis, who found himself often unable to carry out policies needed to support the Confederate war effort.

Early in the war, Confederate victories were numerous. The opening battle of the war at Bull Run creek (near Manassas, Virginia) was won through the inspirational leadership of General Thomas J. Jackson, who earned the nickname “Stonewall.” In an effort to stem the tide of Southern victories, President Lincoln appointed a series of generals to command the Union army, including General George McClellan. However, McClellan proved to be overcautious and unable to successfully capitalize on the Union’s superior numbers and greater supplies to defeat the Confederates. However, Lincoln finally found a general who would take the battle to the Confederacy: General Ulysses S. Grant, who had become known as a tough, brave, and decisive commander in battles such as Shiloh and Vicksburg.

At Antietam (near Sharpsburg, Maryland) Lee’s forces were defeated in the bloodiest one-day battle in American History. More than 26,000 died in the failed attempt by the South to invade the North. While the battle was not settled decisively in favor of the Union, it gave Lincoln enough of a victory so that he could issue the Emancipation Proclamation from a perceived position of strength; and thus prevent the measure from being seen as an act of desperation. Lincoln had known from the outset of the war that if he made ending slavery one of the Union’s main goals, he might lose crucial support from the Border States. The Proclamation was therefore portrayed as simply a war measure designed to unify the North and undermine the South. By signing the Proclamation, Lincoln announced his plan to free slaves, but only in “territories in rebellion,” meaning that only slaves in the Confederacy, and not ones in Border States, were free. In addition, this proclamation ended the possibility of European involvement in the war on the side of the Confederacy since most Europeans did not support the institution of slavery.

Later in 1863, the North and the South fought a historic battle at Gettysburg, in south central Pennsylvania. Names such as “Cemetery Ridge,” “Little Round lop,” “Devil’s Den,” and “Pickett’s Charge” became known to millions as the two armies fought in what many view as the decisive battle of the war. When the Confederates retreated, over 40,000 were dead, and the South had suffered a defeat from which it would not recover. During the same few days in July 1863, Union troops captured Vicksburg and gained control of the Mississippi River. A few months after the battle, Lincoln was invited to add “a few appropriate remarks” at a ceremony dedicating the Gettysburg battlefield as a national cemetery. In the words of historian Garry Wills, Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address “remade America.”

After Gettysburg, the war turned into one of attrition, with the North wearing down the Confederacy. Grant lost nearly double the men Lee did during the Virginia Wilderness

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campaign, but unlike the Union the Confederacy didn’t have reserves to replace those lost troops. General William Tecumseh Sherman marched through Georgia, carving a wide path of destruction, burning Atlanta, and finally reaching the sea at Savannah. This campaign became known as “Sherman’s March to the Sea.” In early 1865, the Union was able to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia.

Finally, in April 1865, Lee surrendered his army to Grant at Appomattox Court House. Terms of the surrender were generous, with Lee’s men being allowed to keep horses, personal possessions, and food, as well as his officers being allowed to keep their sidearm. However, the bloodshed of the Civil War was not yet over. Less than a week after Lee surrendered, John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer, assassinated President Lincoln as he watched a play in Ford’s Theater in Washington D.C. Millions mourned the fallen Lincoln, who was seen as the “Great Emancipator” because of his work in ending slavery. Without the leadership of Lincoln, others would have to guide the nation through Reconstruction.

Civil War Vocabulary

54th Massachusetts: first Northern African- American regiment that fought in the Battle of Fort Wagner

Abraham Lincoln: President of the Union whose goal at the start of the war was to keep the country together not necessarily to end slavery.

Advantages of Confederacy: leadership, defensive war, and morale

Advantages of Union: more men, more money, and more materials

Antietam: Union victory that leads to the Emancipation Proclamation and ends possibility of European involvement

Appomattox Courthouse: place where Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant

Blockade: a barrier (often made up of warships) set up around a nation to prevent it from trading with other nations.

Border States: slave holding states who remained in the Union during the Civil War

Confederate States of America (C.S.A.): a nation formed by the eleven states that seceded from the U.S. in late 1860 and 1861. (The U.S. claimed the secession was illegal, and the U.S., as well as other nations, did not officially recognize the C.S.A.'s right to exist.)

Copperhead: a Northerner who believed that the South had the right to seceded and opposed military methods to force the South's return to the U.S.

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Draft: a law requiring men of a certain age to serve in the armed forces.

Emancipation Proclamation (1863): a declaration by President Lincoln freeing all slaves in the Confederacy.

First Battle of Bull Run: proved to both sides that the Civil War would not be a 90 day war.

Fort Sumter: official start of the Civil War.

Gettysburg: Union victory stops Confederate move North and possible Confederate victory in the Civil War.

Gettysburg Address: speech given by Abraham Lincoln in order to remind Union why they are fighting the war and unify the North

Ironclad: a warship of the Civil War period whose wooden hull or frame was covered with thick plates of iron.

Jefferson Davis: President of the Confederate States of America

Robert E. Lee: commander of the Confederate Army of Virginia

Siege: the surrounding and bombarding of a fortified place by an enemy force with the intent of forcing its surrender.

Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson: Confederate general who turned back the Union Army at the First Battle of Bull Run

Ulysses S. Grant: winning commander of the Union Army

Union: name given to that part of the U.S. which did not secede during the Civil War.

Vicksburg: Union victory gives Union control of the Mississippi River

William Sherman: led the Atlanta campaign to destroy Confederate resources and demoralize the people of the South.

The Emancipation ProclamationJanuary 1, 1863

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A Transcription

By the President of the United States of America:

A Proclamation.

Whereas, on the twenty-second day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a proclamation was issued by the President of the United States, containing, among other things, the following, to wit:

"That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free; and the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom.

"That the Executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof, respectively, shall then be in rebellion against the United States; and the fact that any State, or the people thereof, shall on that day be, in good faith, represented in the Congress of the United States by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have participated, shall, in the absence of strong countervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive evidence that such State, and the people thereof, are not then in rebellion against the United States."

Now, therefore I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Commander-in-Chief, of the Army and Navy of the United States in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and government of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said rebellion, do, on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accordance with my purpose so to do publicly proclaimed for the full period of one hundred days, from the day first above mentioned, order and designate as the States and parts of States wherein the people thereof respectively, are this day in rebellion against the United States, the following, to wit:

Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, (except the Parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James Ascension, Assumption, Terrebonne, Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the City of New Orleans) Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia, (except the forty-eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Ann, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth[)], and which excepted parts, are for the present, left

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precisely as if this proclamation were not issued.

And by virtue of the power, and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States, and parts of States, are, and henceforward shall be free; and that the Executive government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons.

And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self-defence; and I recommend to them that, in all cases when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages.

And I further declare and make known, that such persons of suitable condition, will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service.

And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind, and the gracious favor of Almighty God.

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed.

Done at the City of Washington, this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty three, and of the Independence of the United States of America the eighty-seventh.

By the President: ABRAHAM LINCOLN WILLIAM H. SEWARD, Secretary of State.

Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address

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Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.

Buy, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate- we cannot consecrate- we cannot hallow- this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far have so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us- that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion- that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain- that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom- and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

1. A score is 20 years. How long is “fourscore and seven years”? ________________________

2. The dedication of the cemetery at Gettysburg took place in 1863. What year would it have been “fourscore and seven years ago”?

Use a dictionary to define the following terms.

3. Define conceive.

4. Define consecrate.

5. Define hallow.

6. Why did Lincoln give this speech?

7. Why did Lincoln state that they could not dedicate the cemetery? Who had already done that and how?

8. What tasks does Lincoln say still must be done? (Refer to the last paragraph for your answer)

9. What did Lincoln mean by “government of the people, by the people, and for the people”?

10. Why do you think this speech became one of the most famous in American History?

Diary from Dixie

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Many authors of Civil War novels have drawn their stories and characters from the diaries, letters, and journals left behind by the people who lived through the Civil War. One such diarist was Mary Boykin Chesnut who, as one historian noted, was “at the right time with the right connections.” She was the daughter of a distinguished South Carolinian who had served as governor and in the House of Representatives and the Senate. As the wife of Colonel James Chesnut, brigadier general to Jefferson Davis, she knew most of the political and military leaders on the Confederacy.

As you read the excerpts from Mary Chesnut’s diary, look for her impressions of the war and its impact on the soldiers and the families left behind.

July 14, 1861…Now every day we grow weaker and they grow stronger, so we had better give a telling blow at once. Already we begin to cry out for more ammunition, and already the blockade is beginning to shut it all out… I did not now there was such a “bitter cry” left in me; but I wept my heart away today when my husband went off. Things do look so black…

July 24, 1861…They brought me a Yankee soldier’s portfolio from the battlefield…One might shed a few tears over some of the letters. Women- wives and mothers- are the same everywhere…

July 27, 1861…Here is one or Mr. Chesnut’s anecdotes of the Manassas. He had in his pocket a small paper of morphine. He put it there to alleviate pain…Later in the day he saw a man lying under a tree who begged for water. He wore a Federal Uniform. As Mr. Chesnut carried him the water, he asked where he was from. The man refused to answer. “Poor fellow, you can have no cause to care about all that now. You can’t hurt me and God knows I would not harm you. What else do you want?” “Straighten my legs. They are doubled up under me.” The legs were smashed. Mr. Chesnut gave him some morphine to let him know at least a few moments of peace.

June 9, 1862…When we read of the battle in India, in Italy, in the Crimea, what did we care? It was only an interesting topic, like any other, to look for in the paper. Now, you hear of a battle with a thrill and a shudder. It has come home to us. Half the people that we know in the world are under the enemy’s guns. A telegram comes to you and you leave it on your lap. You are pale with fright. You handle it, or dread to touch it, as you would a rattlesnake, or worse; for a snake could only strike you. How many, many of your friends or loved ones this scrap of paper may tell you have gone to their death. When you meet people, sad and sorrowful is the greeting. They press your hand, and tears stand in their eyes or roll down their cheeks as they happen to have more or less self-control. They have brothers, fathers, or sons as the case may be in the battle; and this thing now seems never to stop… A woman…heard her son was killed, but hard hardly taken in the horror of it when they came to say it was all a mistake. She fell on her knees with a shout of joy. “Praise the Lord, oh my soul!” she cried in her wild delight. The swing back of the pendulum from the scene of weeping and wailing a few moments before was very exciting. In the midst of this hubbub, the hearse drove up with the poor boy in his metallic coffin. Does anybody wonder why so many women die? Grief and constant anxiety kill nearly as many women as men die on the battlefield. [The woman] is at the point of death with brain fever; the sudden change from joy to grief was more than she could bear…

(Richmond, Virginia)

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November 30, 1863Anxiety pervades. Lee is fighting Meade, Bragg falling back before Grant, Longstreet- the soldiers call him Peter the Slow- sitting down before Knoxville.

January 11, 1864General Preston told us of the impression the first dead Confederate soldiers’ faces, grim in death, lying stiff and stark, made upon him in Shiloh: cold, staring open-eyed. They were all hard frozen, these dead bodies… Everybody who comes in brings a little bad news, not so much in itself; but the cumulative effect is depressing indeed.

January 31, 1864Mrs. Davis gave her “Luncheon to Ladies” on Saturday. Many more persons were there than at any of those luncheons which have gone before. We had gumbo, ducks and olives, supreme de volaille, chickens in jelly, oysters, lettuce salad, chocolate cream, jelly cake, claret cup, champagne, etc… Today, for a pair of forlorn shoes, I gave eighty-five dollars…Mr. Pettigrew says: “You take your money to market in the market basket and bring home what you buy in your pocketbook.”

June 2, 1864…I paid today, for two pounds of tea, forty pounds of coffee, and sixty pounds of sugar, $800.

(Lincolnton, North Carolina)February 16, 1865

…So my time had come too. My husband urged me to go home. He said Camden would be safe enough, that they had no spite to that old town as they have to Charleston and Columbia. Molly too. She came in, weeping and wailing, wiping her red-hot face with her cook’s grimy apron. She said I ought to go among our own black people on the plantation. They would take care of me better than anyone else. So I agreed to go…

February 22, 1865Isabella has been reading my diaries. How we laugh at my sage ratiocinations all come to naught, my famous insight into character proved utter folly. The diaries were lying on the hearth ready to be burned, but she told me to hold on, to wait awhile…

February 25, 1865…I sat down and wrote my husband, words so much worse than anything I can put in this book; and as I wrote I was blinded by tears of rage. Indeed I nearly wept myself away. In vain. Years, death, depopulation, bondage, fears; these have all been borne…

(Camden, South Carolina)May 16, 1865

We are scattered, stunned, the remnant of heart left alive in us filled with brotherly hate. We sit and wait until the drunken tailor who rules the United States issues a proclamation and defines our anomalous position…

June 4, 1865President Davis is in a dungeon, and in chains. Men watch him day and night…Our turn next, maybe. Not among the Negroes does fear dwell now, nor uncertainty nor anxiety. It dwells here, haunting us, tracking us, running like an accursed discord through all the music tones of our existence.

Unit 5: Reconstruction

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Tested Information:I. Reconstruction

A. Various plans for Reconstruction of the South1. Lincoln’s 10% Plan- Confederate states would be allowed to join the union as

soon as 10% of the population swore allegiance to the union2. Andrew Johnson’s plan for Reconstruction- very lenient, favorable to the

Southa. Original promise to follow Lincoln’s plan, but end up more conciliatory

toward Southern states and ignores the freed men3. Military Reconstruction Act- Reconstruction Act of 1867, put the South under

military rule, required states to allow all male voters, including African Americans, required southern states to guarantee equal rights to all citizens, and required the states to ratify the 14th Amendment

B. Lincoln’s Assassination- assassinated by John Wilkes Booth at Ford’s TheatreC. Johnson’s Impeachment- first president to be impeached, one vote short of

convictionD. Congressional Radical Republicans

1. Wanted to punish the South2. 13th Amendment- outlawed slavery in the U.S.3. 14th Amendment- all citizens have rights4. 15th Amendment- no citizen can be denied the right to vote based on race,

color, or servitudeE. Election of 1876

1. Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction- Democrats would give the presidency to Rutherford B. Hayes ( R) and in return federal troops would be removed from the South, ended Reconstruction

F. Jim Crow Laws1. Voting Restrictions- Various methods of keeping African Americans from

voting, including:a. Poll Tax- a special fee that must be paid before a person can voteb. Grandfather Clause- Could only vote if your Grandfather had voted in a

previous electionc. Literacy Tests- a test administered before voting that required them to read

a portion of the U.S. Constitution2. Segregation- separation of races in society3. Lynching- (see terms)4. De facto segregation- (see terms)5. De Jure segregation- (see terms)

G. Ku Klux Klan (KKK)- a white southern organization aimed at keeping traditional southern society alive through lynching, intimidation, and violence.

H. Counter Actions1. Enforcement Act of 1870- Protected the voting rights of African Americans and

gave the federal government power to enforce the 15th Amendment

People Abraham Lincoln- 16th President whose death gave rise to the power of the

Radical Republicans John Wilkes Booth- Assassinated President Lincoln Andrew Johnson- 17th President who was impeached by the Radical Republicans

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Thaddeus Stephens- leader of the Radical Republicans Rutherford B Hayes- his election led to the end of reconstruction in the South Samuel Tilden- won the popular vote, but lost the election of 1878

Vocabulary Carpetbaggers – negative nickname for a northern Republican who moved to

the South after the Civil War to invest in the Scalawags – negative nickname for a white Southern Republican who sided

with Northern interest Freedmen’s Bureau - organization that helped newly freed slaves Black Codes - laws that restricted freedmen’s rights Sharecropping-a system of farming in a which a farmer works a portion of a

plantation owner’s land and receives a share of the crop at harvest time as payment

Impeachment of Andrew Johnson - Radical Republicans accused Andrew Johnson of violating the Tenure of Office Act

Tenure of Office Act - passed after Lincoln’s assassination that required Andrew Johnson to seek approval from the Senate before removing a member of his Cabinet

Segregation- forced separation often times by race De facto segregation - segregation caused by social conditions such as poverty De Jure Segregation - segregation created by law Lynch-murder of a person by a mob

State Standards covered in Unit 5I. ReconstructionConcept: Civil War and ReconstructionPerformance Objective: Analyze immediate and long term effects of Reconstruction and post

Civil War AmericaState Standard Code: US 6-3

Unit 5 Reading

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After the South's defeat in the Civil War, the rebellious states were rejoined to the Union. This process, which lasted from 1865 to 1877, was called Reconstruction.

Despite a lack of specific constitutional guidelines dealing with secession or readmission of rebellious states, President Lincoln claimed that it was the Chief Executive's responsibility to reconstruct the Union. Lincoln, therefore, created his own plan for Reconstruction. His plan did not call for strict punishment of southern states partly because, in his view, these states had never really left the Union. In Lincoln's opinion, only a few individual leaders of the South, not the states themselves or average Southerners, deserved punishment. Lincoln's plan held that each southern state could establish a legal government once 10% of its voters swore allegiance to the U.S. Lincoln’s plan became known as the Ten Percent Plan.

After Lincoln's assassination, his Vice President, Andrew Johnson succeeded to the presidency. Johnson tried to continue Lincoln's so-called 10% plan for Reconstruction. But a strong block of Congressmen called Radical Republicans claimed that the 10% plan was too lenient. They also complained that southern states were enacting laws called Black Codes which deprived blacks of their rights. Claiming that it was Congress's responsibility, not the President's, to reconstruct the South, Radical Republicans passed their own reconstruction program. In 1866 Congress proposed the 14th Amendment which made blacks citizens and prohibited states from depriving them of their rights. Congress also passed the Reconstruction Act of 1867 which dissolved most southern state governments and established military rule over the South. The law also blocked southern states from rejoining the union until southern voters (both whites and blacks) adopted new state constitutions which guaranteed rights for blacks. President Johnson vetoed most of Congress's programs. Although Congress passed its laws over Johnson's veto, it failed in its effort to remove Johnson from office by impeachment.

Most southern whites, especially those who had supported secession, were angry over the harshness of Reconstruction. But southern governments, under the new leadership of carpetbaggers, scalawags, and freed blacks began to comply with Congress's wishes. Reconstruction laws brought about a change in state governments--for the first time blacks were able to elect their fellow blacks to public office. With the help of the Freedmen's Bureau, much was done to help southern blacks. But there was also some corruption. Carpetbaggers and scalawags often sought state office for their own benefit rather than for the benefit of the state. To make matters worse, racist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan began to terrorize blacks.

But the renewed suffering of blacks in the South did not stir the North's conscience as pre-war slavery had done. America seemed to have turned its attention to a new adventure--industrialization. With this mindset, the U.S. became less interested in the problems of America's blacks.

During Reconstruction, Southerners began resent Northern occupation. The Election of 1876 offered them the opportunity to rid themselves of their Northern oppressors. The results of the election left no clear winner to the Presidency. Therefore, the U.S. House of Representatives would decide the next President. The Southern Democrats agreed to elect the Republican candidate, Rutherford B. Hayes, if the Radical Republicans agreed to withdrawal all Union

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military personnel, thus ending Reconstruction in the south. This agreement became known as the Compromise of 1877.

Reconstruction Vocabulary

Abraham Lincoln: President whose death gave rise to the Radical Republicans

Andrew Johnson: first President to be impeached by Congress (Radical Republicans)

Black Codes: laws which southern state legislatures passed immediately after the Civil War which deprived blacks of rights such as the right to vote and own a gun.

Carpetbaggers: name for Northerners who went to the South after the Civil War to participate in reconstruction governments and other post-war developments.

Compromise of 1877: agreement that ended Reconstruction in the South

Enforcement Act of 1870: protected the voting rights of African- Americans and gave the federal government the power to enforce amendments.

Fifteenth Amendment (1870): a constitutional amendment which prohibited federal or state governments from denying citizens the right to vote on account of race, color, or condition of previous servitude.

Fourteenth Amendment (1868): a constitutional amendment which granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and forbad states from denying citizens of equal protection of the laws and due process of law.

Freedmen's Bureau: government organization which helped freed slaves after the Civil War.

Impeach: to accuse a President or other high government official of crimes which, if found guilty, would lead to his or her removal from office.

Jim Crow laws: laws passed by southern state governments which segregated blacks from whites in schools, parks, and other public places.

John Wilkes Booth: assassinated Abraham Lincoln

Lynch: murder of a person by a mob

Ku Klux Klan: a secret organization formed in the South after the Civil War which terrorized blacks in order to keep them from voting or otherwise exercising their right to equality.

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Radical Republicans: a group of politicians during the Reconstruction era that believe in punishing the South for seceding from the Union. They also believed that freed slaves should have political and social equality with all other citizens.

Reconstruction (1865-1877): the process of reorganizing and reforming southern state governments after the Civil War and then rejoining them to the Union.

Reconstruction Act of 1867: a law which established military rule in the defeated South and required southern states to grant full rights to blacks before they would be fully readmitted to the Union.

Scalawag: a white Southerner who supported Radical reconstruction of the South and joined with blacks and carpetbaggers in reconstruction governments.

Segregation: forced separation often times by race

Sharecropper: a farmer who works a farm owned by someone else. The owner provides the land, seed, and tools in exchange the farmer shares part of the crops and goods produced on the farm.

Suffrage: the right or privilege to vote

Tenure of Office Act (1867): a law which forbad the President from firing officials who had originally been confirmed by the Senate unless the Senate first consented to the dismissal.

Ten percent plan: President Lincoln's plan of allowing Southerners to reestablish state governments as soon as 10 percent of the voters took an oath of allegiance to the U.S.

Tenant farmer: one who farms land owned by another and pays rent in exchange for living and farming the land.

Thirteenth Amendment (1865): outlawed slavery in the United States

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1868 Impeachment was a Chaotic Affair

Arizona Republic 12/13/98By Lance GayWASHINGTON- There was no counterpart to Kenneth Starr in 1868, but there was Dr. Cornelius Rea, a minister who swore he knew from just reading the newspaper that President Andrew Johnson was “more or less drunk” when he read George Washington’s birthday speech that year. Rea’s testimony before a House committee drawing up articles to impeach Johnson is just a hint of the fracas that erupted in Congress a century ago. Radical Republicans waited just three days after Johnson dismissed Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton before rushing through a resolution during an unusual Saturday session to impeach Johnson by a vote of 107-39. Paul Bergeron, a University of Tennessee history professor who is compiling Johnson’s papers, said it was only later that the Republicans realized they didn’t have any specific articles of impeachment in the resolution. They spent the next two weeks whipping up the 11 specific articles to cite Johnson. “It was very much a chaotic affair,” said Bergeron, noting that neither the House nor the Senate had ever tackled an impeachment of a president. “They understood the basics, because they had done it with lesser officials such as federal judges. But they were on uncharted grounds with a president.” Many of those rules written in 1868 are being followed in Congress today. Just the legal arguments presented by both sides in the Johnson case fill two large volumes in the Senate’s library.

Precedents no help today But Bergeron said he doubts legal precedents from the Johnson case will be of much help to the current lawmakers as they decide the fate of President Clinton on allegations of perjury and obstructing justice. “You’re talking about a political fight—it came down to a matter of counting votes,” he said.

Like Clinton, Johnson was not a popular president with those who controlled Congress. As a senator from Tennessee, Johnson had been the only Southerner to vote against secession, and President Abraham Lincoln sought to reward him and get votes from the South by appointing him as his vice presidential nominee on the National Union ticket in 1864. Johnson became president in April 1865 at the end of the Civil War, after Lincoln’s assassination, and sought to continue Lincoln’s healing policies of rebuilding a nation slowly. Members of the radical wing of the Republican Party, which control-led both the House and the Senate, felt the Union’s victory allowed them to push whatever policies they wished over what Rep. Thaddeus Stevens, R-PA, called a “conquered province.” “From the first few months, the radicals showed they had no intention of working with Johnson. There was enmity from the beginning,” Bergeron said.

Battle with vetoes In a series a legislative fights, Johnson repeatedly vetoed the radicals’ legislation—29 times in less than four years, more than twice as often as any other president to that time. One of those bills—a measure that forbade the president from firing a Cabinet officer without Senate approval (Tenure of Office Act) — eventually would bring the crisis to a head. After the 1866 elections, in which the Republicans gained two-thirds control of both the House and the Senate, Congress began to contemplate impeachment of this “accidental president” with charges and countercharges of tyrannies and conspiracies. Rep. James Ashley, R-Ohio, was convinced Johnson was implicated in Lincoln’s assassination. He also maintained that missing pages numbered 3, 4, 12 and 15 had been ripped from assassin John Booth’s diary because they mentioned Johnson’s negotiations with Confederate leader Jefferson Davis.

The issue came to a head in February 1868 when Johnson decided to fire Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, who had been appointed by Lincoln in 1862. Johnson’s act was deliberately provocative, Bergeron said. The president knew firing Stanton would provoke an uproar in Congress. Three days after Johnson replaced Stanton with Ulysses Grant, the House voted 126-47 to impeach Johnson.

Kept low profile Bergeron said Johnson hired five lawyers to defend himself, but otherwise kept a low profile until the matter went to the Senate. “As we also see now, the president really has nothing to say until the House completes its work.” Bergeron said. The lawyers sought to slow down the process, contenting Congress was rushing to judgment, treating impeachment “as if it were a case before a police court.” House Republicans saw no reason for delay. As Rep. John Logan told senators, “We are not doubtful of your verdict. Andrew Johnson has long since been tried by the whole people and found guilty, and you can but confirm that judgment.” But the case fell apart in the Senate, where seven Republican “recusants” bolted from the radical ranks by questioning the motives of those who brought the charges against Johnson, and asking whether the offenses were serious enough to remove Johnson from office. Johnson also launched a clever behind-the-scenes campaign to gather support from moderates, cutting deals to head off legislative controversies, and offering conciliatory appointments to office. After 11 weeks of debate, the Senate took its first vote May 16. The tally was 35-19, one short of the two-thirds needed for impeachment. Ten day’s later, two more articles of impeachment were brought up to vote, with similar results. The impeachment crippled Johnson’s presidency over its remaining 10 months, but Bergeron said it had little lasting impact on Washington’s institutions, and made no new political careers.

Unit 6: Turn of the Century

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Tested Information:I. Industrialization

A. Innovations in Technology 1. Bessemer process2. Interchangeable Parts3. Steam Engine4. Telegraph5. Electricity6. Telephone7. Light bulb and phonograph

B. Monopolies and trusts were created to stifle competition and led to individuals amassing tremendous wealth1. Vertical and Horizontal Consolidation2. Government subsidy for big business3. Robber Barons and Captain of Industry show the dual sides of how American

business leaders were viewed by the public.C. Economic philosophies reflect the belief that individual and national wealth is the

result of an unregulated market-place and the strengths and abilities of individuals to create that wealth1. Social Darwinism2. Gospel of Wealth3. Laissez-Faire

D. Labor movement1. Movement grew as a result of

a. Low wagesb. Harsh working conditionsc. Inequitable distribution of wealth

2. Unionsa. Knights of Labor-first successful American unionb. American Federation of Labor-union opened only to skilled workersc. IWW-Industrial Workers of the World-radical union that believed that “the

working class and the employing class” had nothing in common3. Strikes

a. Pullmanb. Haymarketc. Homesteadd. Bisbee Deportatione. The U.S. government supported big business by suppressing organized

labor through legislation and Supreme Court decision

II. ImmigrationA.. The arrival of millions of “New” immigrants created social, political and economic

challenges for the United States.B. Rise in NativismC. Immigrants arriving at Ellis Island and Angel Island were put through a battery of

physical and mental tests before being allowed to enter the U.S.D. Chinese Exclusion Act-made immigrants born in China ineligible for U.S.

citizenship and restricted immigrant Chinese laborersE. Immigration Act of 1924-created a quota system for immigrants

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III. UrbanizationA. Massive immigration and the industrialization led to increased urban populations

and reflected a shift from an agrarian to urban society.B. City services could not keep up with this population explosion leading to

overcrowded and unsanitary living conditions (i.e. tenement housing)

IV. Political CorruptionA. One of the effects of the massive wealth created through industrialization was the control

the Robber Barons had over government at the local, state and national levels.B. One result of the problems created by urbanization was the development of

political machines that ran city services and gained power and wealth through fraud. (i.e. the boss system, voter fraud, graft, and Tammany Hall)

V. Progressive Movement-created social, political, and economic reforms at the local, state and national levels to address some of the greatest problems in turn of the century America.A. Social Improvements

1. Child Labor Laws- limited hours children could work and raised the minimum age at which companies could hire children

2. Muckrakers wrote books and articles exposing the levels of political and economic corruption and the problems of workers, immigrants and urban dwellersa. Upton Sinclair’s book, The Jungle, led to the passage of the Meat Inspection and

Pure Food and Drug Actsb. Jacob Riis published the book How the Other Half Lives which showed the

horrible living conditions in the tenements of New York CityB. Political Improvements

1. Populist Movementa. Arose in reaction to the declining political voice of average citizens.

Farmers made up the largest number of followers.b. Proposed major social, political, and economic reforms, many of which were

passed by the Progressives.2. Amendments

a. 16th Amendment created the national income taxb. 17th Amendment led to U.S. Senators being directly elected rather than

appointed by state legislatures as a direct result of political corruptionc. The Temperance Movement was created by women like Francis Willard and

Carrie Nation who were concerned about the perceived negative impact of alcohol on domestic life. Much of the perception of the negative impact

can be tied to the rise of immigration in the era. This movement led to the passage of the 18th Amendment in the 1920s.

d. The 19th Century suffrage movement to give women the right to vote which led to the passage of the 19th Amendment

3. Theodore Roosevelt - Progressive president (Republican) known for the following areas of reform:a. Conservation of natural resources b. Creation of the national park system, c. Trust-busting-created legislation to regulate the power of the trusts and

monopoly

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4. Direct Democracya. Initiativeb. Referendumc. Recalld. Direct primary

People Andrew Carnegie – founder of Carnegie Steel (later known as U.S. Steel.) Ultimate

immigrant success story who advocated the Gospel of Wealth. Alexander Graham Bell- inventor of the telephone Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony- leaders of the 19th Century

women’s suffrage movement (Seneca Falls Convention) Henry Ford – perfected the use of the first assembly line to mass produce cars that the

average American could afford. Jacob Riis-Social reformer who published How the Other Half Lives, a book with graphic

photos and descriptions of the horrific living conditions in the tenements of New York City.

John D. Rockefeller - oil tycoon who created the Standard Oil trust. J.P. Morgan – powerful banker who financed the expansion of the railroads and the

creation of U.S. Steel. Robert La Follette - Wisconsin governor that was instrumental in advancing the

progressive movement. Samuel Gompers - founder of the AFL Theodore Roosevelt-in addition to serving as a Republican president from 1901-1909,

also ran a third party candidate for the Progressive Party (also known as the Bull Moose party) in 1912.

Thomas Edison- perhaps the inventor most responsible for creating the modern world through his inventions like the light bulb and the phonograph

William Howard Taft – Republican president who continued progressive reform, vetoed Arizona’s state constitution because it allowed for the recall of judges. Only president to become a chief justice of the Supreme Court.

William Marcy Tweed – Corrupt political boss of New York City’s Tammany Hall. Woodrow Wilson-Democratic president who continued progressive reforms, especially

ones to regulate the economy.

Vocabulary Anarchy - Eliminating of governmental authority Bessemer Process - efficient process of smelting steel which leads to the creation

of cheap, lights, strong steel that was used to build bridges and skyscrapers Captains of Industry -positive view of industrialists that gave them credit for

improving the economy by building factories, creating jobs and expanding U.S. markets.

Communism – form of government where the ownership of all property belongs to the community as a whole.

Direct Primary- election in which all citizens vote to select nominees for upcoming elections

Gospel of Wealth-theory that people should be free to make as much money as they can, but after they make it they should give it away to better society.

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Horizontal integration/consolidation-ownership of several companies making the same product

Initiative - a process in which a legislative measure can be originated by the people rather than by lawmakers

Laissez-faire-no government regulation of business or the economy. Mass Production - ability to increase supply due to the assembly line and other

production techniques. Monopoly-exclusive economic control of an industry. Nativism-anti-foreign feelings New Immigration-those who arrived from Southern and Eastern Europe from the

1880s until the 1920s Old Immigration-those who arrived from Northern and Western Europe prior to the

Civil War Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)- a law enacted to halt the sale of contaminated

foods and drugs and to ensure truth in labeling Recall- a process for removing a public official from office by a vote of the people Referendum- a process by which a proposed legislative measure can be submitted to a

vote of the people Robber Baron-negative view of industrialists that implies they made their fortune

by stealing from the public and their competitors. Scabs/Strikebreakers - Workers who replace striking workers. Socialism – form of government where the ownership of the means of production and

distribution belong to the society, not individuals Social Darwinism-society progresses through competition, with the fittest rising

to positions of wealth and power. Suffrage - Movement to get the right to vote Temperance –19th century movement to prohibit the manufacture, sale and

consumption of alcohol that will eventually lead to the passage of the 18th amendment in the 1920s.

Trust-a group of separate companies that are placed under the control of a single managing board.

Vertical integration/consolidation-ownership of businesses involved in each step of a manufacturing process.

Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)- organized by women who were concerned about the destructive power of alcohol and the problems it was causing in families and society

State Standards covered in Unit 6I.A. IndustrializationConcept: Westward Expansion

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Performance Objective: Describe the impact the following aspects of the Industrial Revolution on the United States: transportation improvements, factory system, urbanization, and inventions

State Standard Code: US 5-5

I.B- D. IndustrializationConcept: Emergence of the Modern United StatesPerformance Objective: Analyze how the following aspects of industrialization transformed the

American Economy beginning in the late 19th Century: mass production, monopolies and trusts, economic philosophies, and labor movement.

State Standard Code: US 7-1

II. and III. Immigration and UrbanizationConcept: Emergence of the Modern United StatesPerformance Objective: Asses how the following social developments influenced American society

in the late Nineteenth and early Twentieth century State Standard Code: US 7-2

IV. Political CorruptionConcept: Emergence of the Modern United StatesPerformance Objective: Analyze events which caused a transformation of the United States during

the late Nineteenth and early Twentieth centuryState Standard Code: US 7-3

V.A. Progressive Movement- Social ImprovementsConcept: Emergence of the Modern United StatesPerformance Objective: Asses how the following social developments influenced American society

in the late Nineteenth and early Twentieth century State Standard Code: US 7-2

V.B.1-3 Progressive Movement- Political ImprovementsConcept: Emergence of the Modern United StatesPerformance Objective: Analyze events which caused a transformation of the United States during

the late Nineteenth and early Twentieth centuryState Standard Code: US 7-3

V.B.4 Progressive Movement- Direct DemocracyConcept: Emergence of the Modern United StatesPerformance Objective: Analyze the effect of direct democracy on Arizona statehood State Standard Code: US 7-4

Unit 6 Reading

Industrialization

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Prior to the Civil War, America was predominantly agricultural and rural. Although there were some industrial businesses during this time, they were usually small, family-owned enterprises. But after the Civil War, American industries grew at a fast pace. There were several reasons for this rapid growth. First, America was rich in iron ore, crude oil, coal, and other natural resources needed for industrial growth. Second, but no less important, American custom and law favored industrial growth. America had established a free enterprise, capitalist economic system. At the heart of this system was the right of individuals to own private businesses and operate those businesses as the owner wished. This capitalist system with its wide open economic freedom was a powerful incentive for entrepreneurs (risk-taking businessmen). They began to build new businesses and experiment with business methods which would yield higher profits.

American businessmen discovered that large companies had an economic advantage over small ones. To raise capital (money) for business expansion, many entrepreneurs incorporated their businesses and sold shares of stock. Eager to own a part of these growing businesses and share in their profits, many people bought stock in promising corporations.

The most successful of these entrepreneurs were called "captains of industry." They greatly expanded their businesses by buying out other businesses or combining with them. One of these "captains" was Andrew Carnegie who built the world's largest steel mill. Another leader was John D. Rockefeller who combined his Standard Oil Company with other oil refining corporations and formed the giant Standard Oil Trust. By the late 1800s, Rockefeller's trust had gained a monopoly of the oil refining business. Another industrial leader was Henry Ford who became the world's largest auto maker. His success was largely due to his adaptation of the assembly-line method of mass production.

Meanwhile, inventors also played an important role in America's industrial growth. Foremost among these was Thomas Edison. His many electrical innovations, such as the light bulb, led to the creation of industries which generated electricity and manufactured electrically-powered devices.

America's attitudes about labor also encouraged industrial growth. Acknowledging the need for industrial workers, the U.S. maintained, with few restrictions, an open immigration policy. Attracted by America's promise of economic opportunity, immigrant workers came by the millions. When labor disputes broke out during the 1800s, the U.S. government either remained uninvolved or sided with business owners. On many occasions, police officers or U.S. troops broke up strikes. Thus, workers' unions remained weak, and employers were usually able to set wages and working conditions as they wished. Despite hardships, America's factory workers labored on and helped build the U.S. into an industrial giant.

Immigration

In the fifty years between 1860 and 1910, the rural population of the United States nearly doubled, while the urban population increased sevenfold. These increases were due in part to the waves of immigrants who had begun arriving in the United States earlier in the century. Between

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1830 and 1850, roughly 2.5 million immigrants arrived in America, most of them from Great Britain and Ireland. Between 1820 and 1880, roughly three million Germans migrated to the United States. Most Irish immigrants settled in the northeastern United States—New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Illinois, Ohio and New Jersey. German farmers tended to migrate to the Midwest—Illinois, Wisconsin, and Missouri in particular—where land was cheap. Many Norwegians and Swedes settled in Minnesota, the Dakotas, and Wisconsin. In addition, the West Coast saw the arrival of 160,000 Chinese immigrants, many arriving as laborers in the l860s to work on the Transcontinental Railroad.

In the early 1880s, immigration patterns changed. Jews from Russia and Poland, diverse ethnic groups from Austria and Hungary, Italians, and Japanese migrated to the United S4ites. The new immigrants, like their predecessors, were motivated by similar political, economic and social pressures to leave their homeland. Starvation, poverty, religious and/or ethnic persecution, and disease caused thousands to leave their native lands. The Irish Famine, for example, caused over 200,000 Irish to migrate to the United States in 1850. By the end of 1854, roughly two million Irish—a quarter of the country’s entire population—migrated to the United States as a result of the famine.

Most immigrants left their home countries expecting to find a better life. The voyage over to the United States, however, did not prove easy for many. Ships carrying immigrants from northern Europe had so many deaths en route to America that they were often called “coffin ships.” Upon arrival in United States, many immigrants were searched and interrogated at processing centers such as Ellis Island in New York and Angel Island in California. For most immigrants, life in the United States proved far more challenging than expected. Most immigrants were poverty-stricken and had no money for transportation or land. Instead, they tended to settle close to the port where they disembarked. They dug canals, ran steamboats, and worked in factories. Urban immigrant ghettoes formed in major urban cities throughout the United States.

As the number of immigrants grew, a significant current of anti4mmigrant sentiment known as “Nativism” began to develop. Nativism eventually found political expression in the anti-foreign, anti-Catholic “Know-Nothing” party that flourished in the 1850s. The Know-Nothings eventually split over the issue of slavery, but anti-immigrant sentiment continued through the turn of the century. In the 1 870s and 1 880s, new federal legislation was introduced limiting the number of immigrants allowed into the United States. For example, in 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act restricted the number of Chinese immigrants permitted. The federal government developed quotas and created the Immigration and Naturalization Service to enforce the quotas.

Despite the hardships endured by many new immigrants to the United States between 1820 and 1920, many found a higher quality of life. The United States offered immigrants a chance to work and to build new lives, while the immigrants themselves helped to diversify the country, bringing new cultures, languages, and insights to the growing nation.

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Urbanization

The American society of the 1700s and early 1800s was predominantly rural and agricultural. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, an increase in manufacturing transformed America into an urban, industrial society.

As American industries grew during the late 1800s, so did America's urban areas. Populations of cities like Pittsburgh and Chicago increased rapidly as steel mills and other large businesses hired workers by the thousands. The rising urban population led to an increased demand for food and other needs. "Downtown" retail businesses such as the newly developed department stores flourished. Those who greatly profited from this economic growth often built lavish homes in exclusive neighborhoods. But many poorly-paid laborers could only afford housing in run-down city slums.

Cities offered their residents many opportunities. City governments constructed museums, libraries, concert halls, and parks. Recognizing people's willingness to spend money on recreation, entrepreneurs built amusement parks, dance halls, and other such establishments.

Immigrants became an important part of city life. People of the same nationality often chose to live together. Soon ethnic neighborhoods sprang up in many cities. Immigrants often continued to practice their "Old World" customs and traditions. This added great diversity and richness to American society.

Industrial cities faced many "growing pains." Urban populations produced large quantities of garbage and other wastes. Cities, therefore, built sanitation and sewer systems. Polluted ground water forced cities to find new sources of drinking water. Trolley car lines and elevated railroads were built to relieve congested streets. As urban crime grew, city governments expanded their police forces.

While industrialization created a new and different life in the cities, it also affected people in rural America. As cities grew, the demand for farm produce increased. This caused many farmers to abandon subsistence farming and grow cash-crops for sale in city markets. These farmers began to buy factory-made items, such as tools, instead of making them by hand. The establishment of mail-order houses such as Sears, Roebuck and Company encouraged rural Americans to purchase manufactured goods. The Sears catalog became one of the symbols of America's transition to an industrial society.

Progressive Movement

America's transition from an agricultural to an industrial society during the late 1800s and early 1900s brought many changes. Some of these changes were for the better -- industrial

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growth made America a wealthy nation. Some of the changes were for the worse -- serious political and economic problems began to threaten the quality of American life. But the presence of these problems spurred into action an army of reform-minded Americans called progressives. These progressives were determined to solve America's political and economic problems.

Government corruption was one major political problem of the post-Civil War period. At the heart of much of this corruption were political machines and their powerful bosses. By stuffing ballot boxes or otherwise rigging elections, political machines could control elections. The use of the spoils system was also common. According to this system, elected officials often appointed unqualified friends or political supporters to government jobs. Bribery for political favors was also common. This corruption threatened American democracy.

Progressive reformers worked to correct these wrongs and make America more democratic. In 1883 the Civil Service Reform Act was passed which required that applicants for certain government jobs take a civil-service test. Scores on these tests, not contacts with an official or machine boss, determined who received government jobs. The power of political machines further weakened when states created a system of primary elections. These elections allowed all party members, to select a party's candidates. States also began using secret ballots for elections. The states made other democratic reforms such as recall, initiative, and referendum. Probably the most important political reform was the 19th Amendment, ratified in 1920, which granted women the right to vote. Unfortunately, progressives did little to protect the rights of black Americans.

America also faced serious economic problems during the late 1800s. During these years some industrialists became extremely wealthy, but other Americans remained desperately poor. Meanwhile, giant monopolies gained control of entire industries. These monopolies used their power to crush competition and raise prices. This made some people richer and others poorer.

Progressive reformers tried to solve the economic problems. They urged Congress to make laws to regulate businesses and limit their wrong-doing. Congress responded by passing the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. This law gave government the power to regulate interstate railroads. Two other regulatory laws were the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 and the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914. These laws gave government the power to break up monopolies. Other economic reforms helped curb environmental waste, dangerous working conditions, and production of unhealthy foods and drugs. Reform-minded Presidents, such as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, supported many progressive reforms, and boosted the progressive cause.

Industrialization Vocabulary

Andrew Carnegie: founder of U.S. Steel which came to control almost the entire steel-making industry and wrote the Gospel of Wealth.

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Alexander Graham Bell: inventor of the telephone

Bessemer process: efficient process of smelting steel which leads to the creation of cheap, strong, light-weight steel that was used to build bridges and skyscrapers

Captains of Industry: positive view of industrialists that gave them credit for improving the economy by building factories, creating jobs, and expanding the U.S. markets

Capitalism: an economic system based on private ownership of property.

Communism: form of government where the ownership of all property belongs to the community as a whole. There is no private ownership of property.

Corporation: a business chartered by the state. It is legally separate from the individuals who own it. The owners are called stockholders in that business.

Entrepreneur: one who is willing to take risks to start and direct a new business.

Free enterprise system: an economic system in which individuals and corporations are free to conduct their businesses with little or no interference from government.

Gospel of Wealth: book that argued that people should be free to make as much money as they can, but after they make it they should give it away to better society

Henry Ford: perfected the assembly line to mass produce the Model-T car, a car the average person could afford

J.P. Morgan: powerful banker who financed the expansion of the railroads and the creation of U.S. Steel

John D. Rockefeller: oil tycoon who created the Standard Oil Company

Labor union: an association of workers who unite to protect their interests or gain better working conditions.

Laissez-faire: a non-interventionist, "hands-off" approach by government to the economic affairs of a nation -- similar to the concept of free enterprise.

Lockout: the temporary closing down of a business by an employer to force employees to accept the employer's demands.

Mass Production: ability to increase supply due to the assembly line and other production techniques Monopoly: exclusive or total control of a certain industry. (For example, Rockefeller's Standard Oil Trust monopolized the oil refining industry in the U.S.)

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Philanthropist: a person who donates time or money for the benefit of others.

Robber Barron: negative view of industrialists that implies they made their fortune by stealing from the public and their own companies

Samuel Gompers: founder of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in 1886

Scabs: people hired to cross picket lines and work jobs being boycotted by striking workers.

Social Darwinism: a belief of the late 1800s and early 1900s that the wealthiest and most powerful citizens had proven themselves to be society's most worthy leaders.

Thomas Edison: inventor of the light bulb, phonograph, movie projector and many other useful products

Trust: a group of separate companies that are placed under the control of a single managing board.

Immigration and Urbanization Vocabulary

Assimilation: the process of becoming absorbed. (For example, minority groups sometimes become assimilated into the general population by intermarriage.)

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Chinese Exclusion Act (1882): a law which barred immigration from China for ten years and denied U.S. citizenship to those who had already immigrated.

Immigration Act of 1924: created a quota system for immigrants which allowed the government to restrict certain types of immigrants (new immigrants) from entering the country

Nativists: Americans who wanted to halt immigration so that the U.S. would be populated only by native-born Americans.

New Immigrants: those who arrived from Southern and Eastern Europe from the 1880s until the 1920s

Old Immigrants: those who arrived from Northern and Western Europe prior to the Civil War

Slums/Ghetto: overcrowded, run-down working communities.

Tenement house: a building which is divided into apartments, particularly one that provides substandard living conditions and is located in a poorer section of a city.

Urbanization: migration of people to the cities for work.

Xenophobia: fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners or of anything that is strange or foreign

Progressive Movement Vocabulary

Captains of Industry: positive view of industrialists that gave them credit for improving the economy by building factories, creating jobs, and expanding the U.S. markets

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Conservationism: belief that the environment should be protected so that future generations may be able to use it

Eighteenth Amendment (1919): outlawed the manufacture, sale, or transportation of liquors within the United States.

Jacob Riis: published the book How the Other Half Lives which showed the horrible living conditions in the tenements of New York City

The Jungle: led to the passage of the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act

Merit System: a system built into the Civil Service system which requires that government jobs be given to those who merit (deserve) that job on the basis of performance on a competitive civil service examination.

Muckraker: a person who investigates and reports corruption in government and other problems of society.

Nineteenth Amendment (1920): granted all U.S. citizens, including women, the right to vote.

Patronage: the practice by winners in an election of awarding government jobs to their political supporters.

Political corruption: dishonesty on the part of government officials such as rigging elections or accepting bribes in exchange for governmental favors.

Political machine: an organization controlled by political party leaders which would sometimes use illegal methods, such as ballot-box stuffing, to ensure victory for candidates chosen by the party leaders.

Populist Movement: political movement of the late 1800s which appealed to western farmers by supporting the idea of a graduated income tax and the direct election of senators and by opposing the use of the gold standard

Progressive Movement: a reform movement of the early 1900s aimed at correcting America's political, social, and economic problems.

Pure Food and Drug Act (1906): law that provided for federal inspection of meat products, and forbade the manufacture, sale, or transportation of tainted food products or poisonous patent medicines.

Robber Barron: negative view of industrialists that implies they made their fortune by stealing from the public and their own companies

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890): a law which attempted to end monopolistic business methods by making "combinations in restraint of trade" illegal.

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Seventeenth Amendment (1913): an amendment to the Constitution which gives citizens in each state the right to directly elect their state's two senators. Prior to this amendment, the senators were chosen by the state legislators.

Sixteenth Amendment (1913): amendment which permitted the taxation of each individual's income based on a rate that increases as the person's income increases.

Suffrage: the right to vote

Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Stanton: advocated equality for women and a constitutional amendment to allow women to vote (19th Amendment)

Tammany Hall: the headquarters and name of the Democratic Party organization (founded in 1789) in New York City.

Temperance Movement: movement in the late 1800s and early 1900s to end drinking in the United States

Theodore Roosevelt: President of the United States who believed in conservationism and recognized the hardships faced by American workers

Upton Sinclair: a socialist muckraker who wrote “The Jungle” which described the poor conditions of the Chicago meat packing industry.

William Taft: President of the United States who continued the Progressive Movement and the only president to become Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.

William Tweed: corrupt political boss of New York City’s Tammany Hall

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Unit 7: Imperialism

Tested Information:I. Imperialism

A. Causes of Imperialism1. Need for natural resources2. Need for new markets.3. Nationalist Competition4. Manifest Destiny

B. Purchase of Alaska1. Purchased from Russia for political reasons.2. extension of the Monroe Doctrine3. Example of executive rights to negotiate treaties for land purchase.

C. Hawaii1. Hawaii becomes a U.S. territory in 18982. US seeking refueling station for China trade3. US seeking a military foothold in the Pacific

D. Spanish American War1. Causes

a. yellow journalismb. De Lome letterc. sinking of the USS Maine

2. Turning point to becoming a world power3. First time U.S. took on an Imperial power 4. Encouraged the U.S. to strengthen the Navy5. Annexation of noncontiguous lands to US: Puerto Rico, Guam and the

Philippines6. Filipino insurrection against American occupation7. Cuba became a U.S. sphere of influence (Platt Amendment)

F. Panama Canal1. Need for quick transportation from Eastern factories to the Orient. 2. Military need in the Pacific

G. China1. Open Door Policy: favored open trade relations between China and other

countries

II. World War IA. Causes of the War

1. Nationalism2. Imperialism/ Militarism3. System of Alliances

a. Triple Alliance- Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italyb. Triple Entente- Great Britain, France, and Russia

4. Assassination of Archduke Franz FerdinandB. War in Europe

1. Allied Powers- Great Britain, France, and Russia2. Central Powers- Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria3. U.S. remains neutral4. Trench warfare

C. U.S. entry into the War

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1. Sinking of the Lusitania2. Zimmerman Telegraph3. U.S. declares war on Germany4. U.S. institutes the Selective Service Act5. U.S. forces break the stalemate and turn the tide of the war

D. End of the War1. Armistice begins on November 9, 19182. Treaty of Versailles

a. Great Britain and France want to punish Germanyb. Wilson’s Fourteen Points

- self-determination of people- creation of the League of Nations

c. U.S. Congress refuses to ratify treatyE. Results of the War

1. Attitude of disillusionment2. U.S. returns to isolationism

Imperialism People Admiral Dewey - Defeated the Spanish Fleet in the Philippines. Theodore Roosevelt - Rough Rider in Spanish-American War; President given

credit for modernizing foreign policy that helps the U.S. become a world power in the 20th century; won Nobel Peace prize for negotiating an end to the Russo-Japanese War in 1905

William Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer- publishers who used their newspapers to stir up public sentiment for support of US involvement in helping Cuba liberate themselves from Spanish control

William McKinley - President during the Spanish American war; conflicted over annexation of the Philippines

WWI People Archduke Franz Ferdinand- his assassination by a Serbian national led to the beginning

of WWI Czar Nicholas II- leader of Russia during WWI Kaiser Wilhelm II- leader of Germany during the majority of WWI Woodrow Wilson- President of the U.S. during WWI and responsible for the creation of

the League of Nation

Imperialism Vocabulary Annex - to incorporate land into another country. De Lome letter - The Spanish diplomat's letter was critical of U.S. President McKinley

and the prospects for peace. It was leaked to the US press and became one of the causes of the Spanish-American War.

Filipino Insurrection- a rebellion by Filipinos who opposed the U.S. annexation of the Philippines and instead wanted independence for their country.

Imperialism - Gathering of colonies for mercantilist reasons Manifest Destiny- belief it was the God given right of Americans to expand to the Pacific

Ocean and beyond (Pacific Islands and Central and South America) Monroe Doctrine - 1823 U.S. policy that stated that North, Central and South

America were not to be the sites for future European colonization and the U.S.

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would not interfere in Europe’s internal affairs and expanded US influence in the Western Hemisphere starting in the late 1800s

Open Door Policy - policy where all nations would have equal trading privileges in China

Platt Amendment- gave the U.S. the right to establish naval bases in Cuba and to intervene in Cuban affairs.

Roosevelt Corollary - Theodore Roosevelt’s extension to the Monroe Doctrine that allowed for U.S. intervention in the nations of the Western Hemisphere

Sphere of Influence - areas of a nation where a foreign country has special privileges, often trading rights, denied to other foreign nations

“Seward’s folly” - term used to describe the purchase of Alaska because immediate economic benefits were not apparent

Yellow Journalism - the use of sensationalized and exaggerated reporting by newspapers or magazines to attract reader, this was used by Hearst and Pulitzer to help start the Spanish American War.

WWI Vocabulary Armistice- an agreement by two opponents to stop fighting. Disillusionment- attitude of post WWI America over reasons the U.S. entered

World War I in the first place. Doughboys: American infantrymen who fought in World War I. League of Nations- an association of nations designed to promote world peace

and international cooperation -- later replaced by the United Nations. Nationalism- attitude that the members of a nation have when they care about their

national identity Selective Service Act- a law which authorized the U.S. government to draft men

between the ages of 21 and 31 into military service. The age limits were later expanded to 18 and 45.

Treaty of Versailles- the treaty negotiated in Versailles, France which formally ended World War I.

Zimmerman telegraph- a diplomatic note sent by the German Foreign Secretary, Arthur Zimmerman, to the German minister in Mexico which authorized the minister to seek a German-Mexican alliance if the U.S. declared war on Germany.

State Standards covered in Unit 8I. ImperialismConcept: Emergence of the Modern United StatesPerformance Objective: Analyze events which caused a transformation of the United States during

the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.State Standard Code: US 7-3

II. World War IConcept: Emergence of the Modern United StatesPerformance Objective: Analyze events which caused a transformation of the United States during

the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.State Standard Code: US 7-3

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Unit 7 Reading

Imperialism

During the early years of U.S. history, many Americans wanted the U.S. to isolate itself from the affairs of the rest of the world. But that did not happen. The world changed rapidly during the 19th century. This change encouraged more U.S. involvement in world affairs.

One change in the 1800s was rapid industrialization of U.S. and Europe. This caused Americans as well as Europeans to look abroad for raw materials and markets for their manufactured products. A second major development during the 19th century was growing concern by nations that they might not be able to survive in an increasingly warlike world. To survive in such a world, some nations wanted to increase their territorial size, economic power, and military strength. Growing feelings of nationalism fed the nations' determination to survive. Nationalism is a feeling of strong pride and loyalty towards one's country and nationality.

Led by these two powerful forces -- the wish for more trade and the desire for greater national strength -- many nations adopted an aggressive foreign policy of expansionism called imperialism. Imperialist nations believed that colonies would provide them with raw materials, markets, and military bases. Nations such as Great Britain were quick to acquire overseas colonies. By the end of the 19th century, Great Britain had gained control of many colonies in Africa and Asia. Other European nations also competed for overseas possessions.

At first Americans were reluctant to expand beyond North America. But during the mid-1800s, some Americans began to argue that the U.S. needed to increase its economic and military power by gaining control of more territory. This belief led to the U.S. purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867. Meanwhile, the U.S. negotiated special trading rights with Pacific nations such as Japan.

Near the end of the 1800s, developments in Latin America captured the attention of the U.S. A Cuban revolt against Spanish colonial rule dominated the headlines of sensationalist newspapers called the "yellow press." Then in 1898, while docked at Havana, Cuba, the U.S. battleship Maine exploded. Quick to blame Spain, many Americans demanded war.

The resulting Spanish-American War was a turning point in U.S. history. The victorious U.S. took control of former Spanish possessions such as the Philippines and Puerto Rico. After some debate over the wisdom and morality of becoming an imperialist power, the U.S. decided to control these lands. The U.S. became an imperial power.

The war also prompted other U.S. expansionist moves. First, the U.S. annexed Hawaii in 1898 because of its militarily, strategic location. Second, the U.S. gained land in the Isthmus of Panama through which to dig a canal. The U.S. government believed it needed such a canal to protect U.S. interests in both the Atlantic and Pacific. Finally, to prevent European nations from exploiting internal problems in Latin-American countries, President Theodore Roosevelt issued his Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904. The corollary stated that the U.S. could intervene in the internal affairs of Latin-American countries. Both Presidents Taft and Wilson

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exercised this power by sending U.S. troops into Latin America to "straighten out" economic problems or political unrest. Latin-American nations generally thought these actions violated their sovereignty.

Meanwhile in the U.S., many Americans objected to U.S. imperialistic policies. They formed the Anti-Imperialist League and lobbied against annexing such lands as Hawaii and the Philippines. These people claimed that the U.S. betrayed its democratic principles by ruling over other peoples and denying them their right of self-determination.

But many if not most Americans supported U.S. expansion abroad. Some were highly ethnocentric and nationalistic. They believed both Americans and the peoples of U.S. possessions would benefit from expanding American culture and power.

World War I

The late 1800s and early 1900s were years of imperialist competition. Nationalist pride and the desire for economic and military power caused nations like the United States to search the world for potential colonies. By the late 1800s, European countries colonized most of Asia and Africa. Imperialist nations competed intensely for the few bits of land that remained. Concerned that this competition could lead to war, nations such as Great Britain and Germany began to strengthen their military forces. Seeking even greater security, some nations formed military alliances.

During the late 1800s, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy joined in a military alliance called the Triple Alliance. Fearing this alliance, Great Britain, France, and Russia created their own military alliance called the Triple Entente. At the same time, smaller nations sought protection from larger ones. Russia for example, promised to protect the small nation of Serbia from its enemy, Austria-Hungary. Meanwhile, the U.S. refused to join any alliance. It honored its traditional policy of neutrality in European affairs.

Unfortunately, the competitive climate and the alliance system helped plunge the world into war. In Sarajevo, Bosnia on June 28, 1914, a pro-Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, assassinated the Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife. The Archduke Ferdinand was the only direct heir to the Austria-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary claimed Serbia was partly responsible for the assassination and declared war. Honoring its pledge to protect Serbia, Russia entered the war. France and Britain then joined Russia in an alliance which called itself the Allied Powers. Meanwhile Germany, Bulgaria, and Turkey joined Austria-Hungary in an alliance called the Central Powers. Within months of the Archduke's assassination most of the world's powerful nations were locked in a deadly conflict called the Great War (later to be renamed World War I).

When war broke out in Europe, President Wilson once again reaffirmed America's neutrality. He also insisted on America's right as a neutral nation to transport non-war materials to warring nations. Although both Britain and Germany interfered with American ships, the deadly attacks of German submarines most angered Americans. Not wishing to offend the U.S., the Germans limited their attacks for several years. But in early 1917, the German leader, Kaiser Wilhelm,

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ordered unlimited submarine warfare on any ships in the war zone, including American ships. Outraged at these attacks, the U.S. declared war on Germany.

With America's entry into the war, President Wilson did not limit his goal to the mere defeat of the Central Powers. He also worked for a permanent, world peace. Towards this end, Wilson announced in early 1918 his famous plan for world peace, called the Fourteen Points. Of particular significance was the fourteenth point, which called for the creation of a world confederacy called the League of Nations. By urging creation and U.S. membership in a League of Nations, Wilson proposed the U.S. abandon its old policies of isolationism and neutrality. Instead, Wilson proposed a new foreign policy of cooperation with other nations for the good of the world.

In late 1918, Germany asked for an armistice. World War I came to an end. Soon afterwards, Wilson and the other Allied leaders met in Versailles, France to draft a peace treaty. Among its provisions was a redrawing of the map of Europe. The leaders established new nations, such as Czechoslovakia, and recreated Poland on lands taken from Russia and the defeated Central Powers. Over the objections of Wilson, the treaty severely punished Germany by stripping away its colonies and forcing it to pay heavy reparations. But the treaty did include Wilson's major goal -- the League of Nations.

Much to Wilson's disappointment, America did not support a new internationalist foreign policy. Many Americans feared that membership in the League would only result in American participation in more foreign wars. In 1919, the U.S. Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles and its League of Nations. In rejecting the League, the U.S. returned to its traditional policy of isolationism. America's brief experiment with internationalism seemed to end.

Imperialism Vocabulary

Annex: to incorporate land into another country.

De Lome Letter (1898): a note written by the Spanish Ambassador to the United States which criticized President McKinley by calling him weak and helped generate public support for a war with Spain.

Ethnocentrism: the belief that one's own race, nation, or culture is superior to all others.

Foreign policy: a nation's plan for dealing with other nations. (For example, when war broke out between Great Britain and France, President Washington adopted, in 1793, a foreign policy of neutrality.)

Imperialism: a policy by which one nation seeks to acquire or control another land or country which is usually not next to that country.

Internationalism: a foreign policy of cooperation with other nations for the good of all.

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Intervention: the act of interfering, often with military force, in the internal affairs of another country with the intent of changing conditions in that country.

Isolationism: a policy of avoiding relations, such as diplomatic involvement, with other nations.

Jingoist: one who is extremely nationalistic and is quick to advocate using military force to achieve national goals.

Manifest Destiny: belief it was the God given right of Americans to expand to the Pacific Ocean and beyond

Monroe Doctrine (1823): U.S. policy that stated that North, Central, and South America were not to be the sites for future European colonization and the U.S. would not interfere in Europe’s internal affairs.

Open Door Policy (1899): a policy set forth by the U.S. urging nations with spheres of influence in China to allow all nations to trade freely with China.

Philippine Insurrection (1899-1902): a rebellion by Filipinos who opposed the U.S. annexation of the Philippines and instead wanted independence for their country.

Platt Amendment (1903): gave the U.S. the right to establish naval bases in Cuba and to intervene in Cuban affairs

Roosevelt Corollary (1904): an expansion of the Monroe Doctrine in which President Theodore Roosevelt claimed for the U.S. the right to intervene in Latin America when necessary to preserve order.

Social Darwinism: the idea that strong businesses, nations and/or cultures should dominate the weaker ones.

Sphere of influence: a geographic area which is under the control or influence of a strong foreign power.

Theodore Roosevelt: U.S. President given credit for modernizing U.S. foreign policy that helps the U.S. become a world power and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize for negotiating the end to the Russo-Japanese War.

William McKinley: U.S. President during the Spanish-American War who was conflicted over the annexation of the Philippines.

Xenophobia: fear and hatred of foreigners or anything foreign.

Yellow journalism: the use of sensational headlines and stories with little attention to fact designed to stir up the emotions of readers.

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World War I Vocabulary

Armistice: an agreement by two opponents to stop fighting.

Disillusionment: attitude of post WWI America over reasons the U.S. entered World War I in the first place.

Doughboys: American infantrymen who fought in World War I.

International law: a body of rules guiding the relations between nations that most nations have agreed should be followed by all. (For example, most nations have agreed that all nations should treat their prisoners of war in a humane way.)

International waters: oceans and all other waters (except those claimed as territorial waters of a nation) which are open to ships of all nations.

League of Nations (1920-1946): an association of nations designed to promote world peace and international cooperation -- later replaced by the United Nations.

Russian Revolution (1917): the revolution in Russia in which the government of the Czar was overthrown and later replaced by a communist government led by Lenin.

Sedition Act (1918): an amendment to the Espionage Act of 1917 which outlawed disloyal statements about the U.S. government.

Selective Service Act (1917): a law which authorized the U.S. government to draft men between the ages of 21 and 31 into military service. The age limits were later expanded to 18 and 45.

Treaty of Versailles (1919): the treaty negotiated in Versailles, France which formally ended World War I.

Triple Alliance: a military alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed before World War I. (Italy dropped out of the Triple Alliance when the war broke out in 1914.) Turkey and Bulgaria joined the alliance in 1914.

Triple Entente: a military alliance of Great Britain, France, and Russia formed before World War I broke out.

War bonds: a certificate stating that the government has borrowed a certain amount of money for the war effort and that this money will be repaid, with interest added, to the lender.

Zimmerman Note (1914): a diplomatic note sent by the German Foreign Secretary, Arthur Zimmerman, to the German minister in Mexico which authorized the minister to seek a German-Mexican alliance if the U.S. declared war on Germany.

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Unit 8: Twenties and Thirties

Tested Information:I. Twenties

A. Collision of traditional values with the forces of modernity 1. Women: Flappers (Looks, Behavior, Morality), 19th Amendment2. Prohibition-18th Amendment, Speakeasies, Bootleggers, Enforcement3. Harlem Renaissance- resurgence of black culture, music (birth of Jazz), and

literature4. Great Migration of African Americans to the North, 5. Scopes Trial- Fundamentalism vs. Darwinism

B. Red Scare/Nativism1. Causes

a. Reaction to Eastern European immigrants (Jews and Catholics) and all other foreigners to northern cities

b. Reaction to fear of Communist revolution spreading to the US2. Results

a. Sacco-Vanzetti caseb. Palmer Raids- raids against suspected communists and enemies of

Americac. Restricting immigration (1924 Quota Act )- set a quota on how many

immigrants could enter the U.S. per country based on the census of 1890d. Re-emergence of the KKK- increase in membership, harassment and

violence by the KKK towards anything or anyone that was anti-American (Jews, Catholics, Immigrants, and African Americans)

C. Economics1. Mass production of goods/Assembly Line

- Automobile (Model T)2. Consumer Goods:

- Radio, Household appliances like radio, vacuum, washing machine. . .3. Standard of Living

- Not equally prosperous for everyone, i.e. farmers and laborers4. Stock Market

- Speculation, buying on margin5. Mobility, both social and geographic (agrarian to urban)

D. Foreign Policy1. Return to isolationism

II. ThirtiesA. Economic causes of the Depression

1. Economic policies of the 1920’sa. Over production by business and industryb. Availability of easy credit

2. Investment patterns/Stock Market Crasha. Over speculation and margin buyingb. Bank failures

B. Dust Bowl1. Drought conditions occurred across the South and Midwest2. Poor farming techniques and drought contribute to farm foreclosures 3. Migration to West (California)

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C. Effects of Society1. High levels of unemployment2. Business failure and layoffs3. Increased levels of poverty: Hoovervilles, bread lines, fragmentation of

familiesD. Election of Franklin Roosevelt

1. Caused by the failures of the Hoover administration to end the Depression and the election results were impacted by media images of suffering citizens and the attack on the Bonus Army

E. Roosevelt’s New Deal1. Changes the relationship and expectations between government and the

American people 2. New Deal addresses Relief, Reform and Recovery programs like:

a. Jobs Program like WPA- Works Progress Association, largest of New Deal programs and CCC- Civilian Conservation Corps, created jobs for unemployed youth (individual programs not tested)

b. Social Security- old age pension, workers insurance, etc…c. TVA- Tennessee Valley Authority; created jobs and electricity in least developed

regions of the countryd. SEC: Securities and Exchange Commission, created to regulate financial

marketsF. Opposition to the New Deal

1. Demagogues like Huey Long and Fr. Coughlin criticized the New Deal saying that it didn’t go far enough in creating economic relief

2. The Supreme Court declared parts of the New Deal to be unconstitutional which led FDR to create what became known as the Court Packing Plan

3. Court Packing Plan- FDR tried to add Supreme Court justices to protect his programs

People: Al Capone- Leading US gangster in the 1920s who made much of his fortune from

selling illegal liquor during prohibition Calvin Coolidge - President who promoted big business (“Man who builds a factory,

builds a temple”) Charles Lindbergh - First to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean; considered one of the

greatest celebrities of the decade Demagogue- a person, especially an orator or political leader, who gains power and

popularity by arousing the emotions, passions, and prejudices of the people Duke Ellington - African American musician and composer Flappers - Description of young women: rebellious, energetic and bold; changed

attitudes, morals and behavior for women Franklin Roosevelt - President who created the New Deal, credited for getting the

US out of the Depression, believed that the government’s job was to help the people

Henry Ford - his use of the assembly line and other production techniques provide automobiles for the masses

Herbert Hoover - believed in a Laissez-faire economic policy, President during the stock market crash, received the blame for the depression due to his ineffective response to the depression, and believed that is was not the government’s job to help the people

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Langston Hughes - African American writer of the Harlem Renaissance Marcus Garvey - promoter of the Back to Africa movement and Black Pride Sacco and Vanzetti - Anarchist immigrants whose murder conviction and execution

reflected the controversy of the Red Scare Warren G. Harding - Presided over corrupt administration. (Teapot Dome scandal)

Vocabulary Bonus Army- in 1932 WWI veterans demanded that Congress pay their promised

bonuses immediately because of the impact of the Depression. President Hoover used the US Army to dismantle their “Hoovervilles” setup around DC

Bootleggers - slang term used to describe suppliers of illegal alcohol Communism - government theory promoting the elimination of classes. Great Migration-movement of African-Americans to northern cities, starting in the

World War I era, seeking factory work Hoovervilles - Shanty towns facetiously named after Herbert Hoover Isolationism - foreign policy avoiding interaction with other countries except for trade Laissez Faire - economic policy in which the government does not get involved in

the economy and businesses. Margin Buying - putting a small percent down on the purchase of stock and

borrowing the rest Nativism - extreme anti-immigrant feeling New Deal - FDR’s relief, recovery and reform program to combat the Great

Depression Priming the pump - use of public (government) spending to stimulate private

industry (economic foundation of the New Deal) Prohibition - 18th amendment that banned the manufacture and sale of alcoholic

beverages Scopes Trial- pitted the supporters of fundamentalism (belief in literal interpretation

of the Bible) with those of scientific theory over the origins of mankind (evolution) Speakeasy - Illegal prohibition era bars Speculation - Investing in stocks with the hope of a fast and profitable return

State Standards covered in Unit 8I.A. and C. TwentiesConcept: Emergence of the Modern United StatesPerformance Objective: Assess how social developments influenced American Society in the late

nineteenth and early twentieth centuryState Standard Code: US 7-2

I.B. and D. TwentiesConcept: Emergence of the Modern United StatesPerformance Objective: Analyze events which caused the transformation of the United States during the

late nineteenth and early twentieth centuryState Standard Code: US 7-3

II. ThirtiesConcept: Great DepressionPerformance Objectives: Describe the causes and consequences of the Great DepressionState Standard Code: US 8-1

Unit 8 Reading

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The Twenties

The 1920s was a decade of great vitality and social change in America. Some writers called it the Roaring 20s.

The changes of the 1920s were, in part, a reaction to the sacrifice and ill feelings following the World War I experience. Many Americans were bitter about America's participation in that "European war." Many also feared that the ideology of the 1917 Marxist revolution in Russia might spread to the U.S. Some Americans were also tired of the reforming crusade of progressives such as the Democratic President, Woodrow Wilson. Sensing this postwar resentment, the conservative Republican presidential candidate of 1920, Warren G. Harding, promised the voters a "return to normalcy." Harding won the presidential election with over 16 million of the 26 million votes cast.

The reaction to the war also helped produce a carefree, self-indulgent mood in America. Many people cast aside the traditional "save for a rainy day" ethic and instead borrowed and spent money on new cars, movies, professional sports, illegal liquor, and other thrills of the time. This consumption produced an economic boom. The government's laissez-faire approach to the economy during the 1920s also allowed for greater industrial growth. However, not all people shared in the prosperity. For example, falling crop prices created hardships for farmers.

The postwar mood encouraged social changes. Women, who gained some economic opportunity during the war, worked for even greater advancement and equality with men after the war. The sense of liberation during the 1920s also prompted literary and artistic creativity. Blacks continued their efforts to end racial discrimination.

Some Americans opposed changes in the traditional American way of life. Some were shocked at the "unfeminine" behavior of "liberated" women, such as the flappers. Many were also intolerant of the "un-American" customs of some immigrants and demanded restricted immigration. Unions also demanded a reduction in immigrant labor. Responding to this pressure, the federal government enacted a quota system limiting immigration. A revived Ku Klux Klan voiced extreme intolerance of change. The new KKK vowed to oppose "un-American" types such as socialists, immigrants, Catholics, Jews, and blacks who tried to enter the mainstream of American life. This intolerance was a dark side of the Roaring 20s.

The economic boom of the 1920s carried the seeds of its own collapse. A "buy-now-pay-later" mentality fueled the prosperity of the Roaring 20s. The sudden popularity of installment buying during the 20s caused an increased demand in autos, radios, and other popular items of the time. This resulted in booming production and profits for most of America's industries. The willingness to borrow also fed the rising bull market of the 20s. Investors bought stocks on margin (10% down payment -- borrow the rest). They speculated that they would be able to sell at a profit when other eager buyers drove stock prices even higher.

The borrowing and buying spree of the Roaring 20s came to an end in October of 1929. Some stockholders began to sell because they believed the economy had become overextended -- too much money borrowed and too many products produced. As these stockholders sold, stock

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prices dropped. Other stockholders, especially those who bought on margin, began to panic and rushed to sell. As more and more sold their shares, stock prices fell to record lows. This sudden fall of stock prices became known as the Stock Market Crash.

The crash caused a psychological reaction around the country. Concerned with the possible over-extension of the economy, some businesses cut production and laid off workers. The unemployed were forced to cut back their spending. As consumer demand dropped, businesses laid off even more workers. This cycle continually repeated, and the country plunged into a depression. Meanwhile, the stock market crash and rising unemployment caused many to fear that banks might not recover their loans. People began a "run on the banks" to withdraw their money. This money was then often hidden in secret places, such as under floor boards or inside mattresses. With much money out of circulation and less money available for some to spend and others to earn, the depression grew more severe.

The Thirties

Herbert Hoover, who was President during the first years of the depression, made some attempts to stimulate the economy. At his urging, Congress passed a tax cut designed to leave people with more spendable money. Hoover also asked Congress to authorize more public construction projects. Through Hoover's urging, Congress passed the Reconstruction Finance Corporation in 1932 which loaned money to banks and corporations. These efforts, however, did not halt the slide into an ever-deepening depression. People blamed Hoover for not doing more to restore the economy. Some people also criticized Hoover for opposing direct federal relief (welfare) to the needy. In the elections of 1932, American voters rejected Hoover and elected the Democratic candidate, Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Once in office, F.D.R. and a heavily Democratic Congress carried out a program to end the depression called the New Deal. Massive federal work projects gave jobs to the unemployed. The FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation) program made the banking system more secure. The Fair Labor Standards Act helped workers by establishing a minimum wage. To aid the unemployed, disabled, elderly, and needy children, Congress passed the Social Security Act. These and other New Deal laws did much to bring relief to the poor and recovery and reform to America's economy.

Not all were happy with the New Deal. Conservative Republicans accused New Deal regulations of destroying the American free enterprise system and the spirit of individualism. They also said that New Deal relief (welfare) programs weakened people's resolve to be self-reliant. But there were other critics that claimed F.D.R. was not doing enough. People like Senator Huey Long advocated radical "share our wealth" programs which called for taking wealth from the rich and giving it to the poor. But, despite this opposition to the New Deal, most Americans supported it.

The Twenties Vocabulary

Al Capone: leading U.S. gangster in the 1920s who made much of his fortune from selling illegal liquor during Prohibition.

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Bear market: a prolonged period of time during which prices of stocks drop.

Bootleg liquor: alcoholic beverages that have been smuggled (illegally transported) and illegally sold.

Bull market: a prolonged period of time during which stock prices rise.

Buying on margin: the practice of buying stock with a down-payment and borrowing the rest.

Calvin Coolidge: U.S. President during the mid-1920s who promoted big business (“Man who builds a factory, builds a temple”).

Eighteenth Amendment (1919): outlawed the manufacture, sale, or transportation of liquors within the United States.

Flapper: a name given to young women of the 1920s who broke away from traditional ways of behavior and dress.

Great Migration: the movement of African- Americans from southern plantations to northern cities in search of factory work. The movement began during World War I.

Harlem Renaissance: a period, especially during the 1920s, when black artists, writers, and musicians in Harlem and elsewhere contributed to a rebirth of black culture.

Henry Ford: his use of the assembly line and other production techniques provide automobiles for the masses.

Herbert Hoover: U.S. President during the stock market crash and the early years of the Great Depression.

Ku Klux Klan: xenophobic (fear or hatred of foreigners) group that reemerged during the twenties in response to an increase in immigration

Laissez-faire: a non-interventionist, "hands-off" approach by government to the economic affairs of a nation -- similar to the concept of free enterprise.

Langston Hughes: African American writer of the Harlem Renaissance

Marcus Garvey: early civil rights leader who promoted the “Back to Africa” movement and black pride

Nativists: Americans who wanted to halt immigration so that the U.S. would be populated only by native-born Americans.

Palmer Raids (1919-1920): mass arrests and deportations of suspected communists and “enemies” of America

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Prohibition (1919-1933): a time when the manufacture, transportation, and sale of liquor was illegal in the U.S.

Quota system (1921-1965): a system of limiting immigration to the U.S. by assigning to each nation an immigration quota (number of people from that country who would be allowed to immigrate to the U.S.).

Red Scare (1918-1920): a time when many Americans feared that communists ("reds") were planning a communist uprising in the U.S.

Sacco and Vanzetti: anarchist immigrants whose murder conviction and execution reflected the controversy of the Red Scare.

Scopes Trial (1925): pitted supporters of fundamentalism with those of the scientific theory over the origins of mankind

Speakeasy: a bar, tavern, or similar business that served liquor illegally during Prohibition (1919-1933).

Speculator: a person who buys or sells with the hope of making a profit from a rise or fall in prices.

Warren Harding: considered one of the worst presidents in U.S. history due to the amount of corruption within his administration.

The Thirties Vocabulary

Bonus Army (1932): a group of unemployed World War I veterans who marched in Washington D.C. demanding the payment of the bonus they were promised for military service.

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Boondoggles: make-work projects that produce little of true value.

Business cycle: the tendency of the economy (as observed over the past decades) to expand into a boom economy, then contract into a recession or depression, and then begin to expand once again.

Buying on margin: the practice of buying stock with a down-payment and borrowing the rest.

Civilian Conservation Corporation (CCC): created jobs for unemployed youth

Court Packing Plan (1937): attempt by FDR to increase the number of justices that sit on the U.S. Supreme Court in order to prevent his programs from being declared unconstitutional

Deficit spending: the practice of spending more money than the government takes in.

Deflation: a rise in the value of money with a decrease in prices.

Demagogue: a person who by appealing to people's emotion and prejudice seeks to become their leader. Examples include Father Coughlin and Hewey Long.

Dust Bowl: name given to the Sothern and Midwestern parts of the country where severe dust storms caused major ecological and agricultural damage to farm land.

Economic depression: a period of marked decline in business activity with a sharp increase in unemployment.

Franklin Roosevelt (FDR): U.S. President who created the New Deal and is given credit for getting the U.S. out of the Great Depression

Herbert Hoover: U.S. President who has received the blame for the Great Depression due to his ineffective response to the Great Depression.

Hoovervilles: shanty towns that popped up during the Great Depression and negatively named after President Hoover.

Laissez-faire: a non-interventionist, "hands-off" approach by government to the economic affairs of a nation -- similar to the concept of free enterprise.

New Deal: FDR’s relief, recovery, and reform program to combat the Great Depression

Priming the Pump: the use of public (government) spending to stimulate private industry. This idea provided the economic foundation of the New Deal.

Redistribution of wealth: the practice of lessening the gap between the rich and poor with programs which take money from wealthier citizens and use that to benefit those in need.

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC): created in 1933 to regulate financial markets

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Social Security Administration: old age pension, workers insurance

Speculation: investing in stocks with the hope of a fast and profitable return on your investment

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): created jobs and electricity in the least developed regions of the country (Tennessee River Valley).

Welfare state: a country where the government has an obligation to provide basic human services, such as medical care, to persons in need of such services.

Works Progress Administration (WPA): the largest of all New Deal programs which hired artists

OVERVIEW: THE ROARING TWENTIES

‘A great social and economic experiment, noble in motive and far-reaching in purpose.”

- Herbert C. Hoover Speaking of Prohibition in a letter to William E. Borah, Feb. 28, 1928.

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Following the election of Warren G. Harding in 1920 and a brief two-year recession, the

American economy began an unprecedented period of growth. The nation’s industrial capacity

expanded quickly, as did the income of its citizens; America’s position in world trade became

unrivaled. In the corporate world, once-disdained captains of industry became national heroes.

The nation’s manufacturing, for example, rose by more than 60 percent during the decade; the

gross national product increased at an average of five percent a year; and output per worker rose

by more than 33 percent.2 A boom in the automobile industry fueled the economy and new

industries benefited from technological growth, including radio, motion pictures, aviation, and

electronics, as well as industries which capitalized on inventions such as new plastics and

synthetic fibers. With the economic boom came the new notion of “consumerism.” Consumerism

maintained that not just the affluent but the middle classes as well should be able to buy items

not just because of need, but for the sheer pleasure and enjoyment of buying and owning. Many

citizens purchased electric refrigerators, washing machines, and vacuum cleaners. During the

economic growth of the 1920s, both consumerism and advertising came of age.

However, widespread economic growth during the third decade of the twentieth century did

not occur without social and cultural conflicts. Culturally, the 1920s saw a bitter dispute between

the forces of modernism associated with the new urban-industrial society and the forces of

traditionalism associated with provincial, rural communities.3 Many farmers moved from

surrounding rural areas to cities. Increasing tensions between the old society and the new became

apparent in arguments over race, religion, and prohibition. In New York City, a group of African

American intellectuals, poets, novelists, and artists created a wide range of works that

emphasized the richness of their racial heritage; the movement as a whole came to be known as

the “Harlem Renaissance.” In addition, innovations in the artistic, music, and intellectual

communities added to the creative ferment of the “Jazz Age.” In contrast, the Ku Klux Klan

experienced its greatest growth during this time period and drew its members primarily from

2 American History, A Survey, Seventh Edition, Volume II Since 1865, Knopf, New York,1987, pg. 677. 3 Ibid 1.

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small towns and rural areas in the south. The organization claimed 4 million members in 1924

and terrorized Catholics, Jews, African Americans, and foreigners.

In addition to cultural conflicts, the 1920s experienced political tensions and public

policy disputes. Controversy erupted over the 18 amendment, which prohibited the manufacture,

sale, and consumption of alcohol. The first Prohibition commissioner promised to enforce the

amendment, but Prohibition succeeded only in stimulating organized crime. Led by notorious

gangsters such as Al Capone, the bootleg alcohol industry produced large profits for many

criminals, but also led to bloody gang wars and violent deaths. Crime was not just limited to

gangsters: early in the decade, members of President Harding’s administration were involved• in

a shady scheme that came to be known as the Teapot Dome Scandal, and encouraged distrust of

the Republican party. Harding himself suffered two heart attacks and died in office; Calvin

Coolidge, a taciturn New Englander with a squeaky-clean record and a reputation for honesty,

succeeded Harding and was able to restore faith in the administration.

The Roaring Twenties, as this new era is often referred to, hoped to embrace “normalcy,”

in the words of Harding. But the decade turned out to be anything but “normal” and was marked

by dramatic social, intellectual, and economic change. Many felt that economic prosperity would

last forever, and no one thought that the good times would virtually end overnight. However, in

October, 1929, the crash of the stock market sparked off a series of events that plunged the

nation into a severe economic depression, ending a decade of prolonged growth and a period of

unprecedented social reform.

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OVERVIEW: IMPACT OF THE DEPRESSION

“I pledge you I pledge myself to a new deal for the American people”

-Franklin D. Roosevelt, acceptance speech, Democratic National Convention, Chicago, 1932

The 1920s had been characterized by exceptional economic growth, the development of a

consumer society, an expansion of the middle class, a rapid social change. However, danger

signs began to emerge near the end of the decade. Too much of the economic expansion had

been based on “buying on margin” in the stock market and buying on credit in the marketplace.

As a result, people were creating enormous personal debt. When stock prices began to fall,

brokers began calling in “margin” debts, and people responded by selling their stocks at a rapid

pace. On Tuesday October 29, 1929, the stock market experienced what has come to be called

“The Great Crash.” Losses exceeded $30 billion. Many people were ruined financially. This

signaled the beginning of the Great Depression.

Not all of the impact of the Depression was the result of business and consumer practices

—weather was also a factor. The Midwest was hit by dust storms in the early 30s, then drought

combined with the wind to turn these once fertile plains into what became known as the “Dust

Bowl.” Farmers watched helplessly as their crops withered away, then found themselves unable

to pay off their debts since they had nothing to sell. Many lost their land to foreclosure and

effectively became refugees in their own country. Among the hardest hit were the fanners from

Oklahoma, many of whom traveled west to California in search of work, but often found more

hardship. John Steinbeck immortalized the plight of the “Okies” in his classic novel The Grapes

of Wrath.

When Franklin Roosevelt assumed the presidency in 1933, the United States and the rest

of the western world was in a deep economic depression. He immediately began to implement

the “three R’s” that would characterize the collection of programs and measures that came to be

known as the New Deal: relief, recovery, and reform. In his first hundred days in office,

Roosevelt pushed program after program through Congress. He closed the banks, had Congress

pass the Emergency Banking Act, and established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

(FDIC) and the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA). To familiarize Americans

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with his plans, he initiated a series of “fireside chats” that were broadcast over the radio. These

chats became one of the hallmarks of his presidency, and helped add to his already substantial

nationwide popularity.

In 1933 Congress passed the National Industrial Recovery Act. This legislation

established the National Recovery Administration (NRA) and had the broad goal of bringing

about economic stability through business planning, such as fair practice codes for wages,

working conditions, production, and pricing. The result was mixed, as some people felt that the

reforms were not being administered fairly and were favoring certain groups over others.

Ensuing New Deal legislation moved from specifically trying to fix problems in the economy to

creating jobs for the large numbers of unemployed. In 1935 the Works Progress Administration

(WPA) was established and charged with constructing hospitals, schools, and playgrounds. In

addition, the WPA provided significant funding for the arts, helping musicians, painters, writers,

actors, and historians to produce an outpouring of creative projects.

However, not everyone was in favor of the New Deal programs. Some believed the

government had not done enough to aid the suffering; others felt it had gone too far and imposed

regulation in places where it did not belong. One of the greatest sources of opposition was the

Supreme Court, who frustrated FDR to no end by questioning the constitutionality of and

delaying the implementation of key pieces of legislation. To get around the “nine old men” who

he felt were keeping the country mired in the throes of the Depression, Roosevelt proposed a

constitutional amendment that would add up to six new judges to the Supreme Court and up to

44 judges to lower federal tribunals. He claimed that the Court was overworked and that the new

justices would help the existing ones clear the backlog of cases, but many people were skeptical.

The controversy over this “court-packing” plan (as it came to be known) was one of the largest

that FOR had to face.

Ironically, America came out of the Depression primarily as the result of having to face a

larger threat: the looming specter of World War II. Preparing for war required increased

production, which provided a boost to the economy that lasted through the war and laid the basis

for the boom of the 1950s. The New Deal’s impact nonetheless was huge and still continues to

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affect America today: key government programs such as Social Security, the FDIC, the Federal

Housing Administration, and others originated in the I 930s. Whether or not the New Deal was a

“success” remains a matter for debate. No definitive evidence exists proving that the New Deal

pulled the country out of the Depression; however, it did break new ground in terms of social

legislation and centralized control of the economy, and it changed the way in which people

conceptualized what the role of federal government should be—all legacies which persist to this

day.

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Unit 9: World War II

Tested Information:I. World War II

A. Movement away from isolationism1. Neutral in European Affairs in the late 1930’s2. Lend-Lease Act: allowed U.S. to “sell, transfer, exchange, lend or lease”

defense materials to the Allied nations3. Embargo placed on scrap metal and fuel oil to end Japanese aggression4. Atlantic Charter: Allied agreement affirming right of people to choose their

own government and be free of foreign aggressionB. Economic recovery from the Great Depression

1. Conversion of factories from consumer to war production 2. Jobs were created for

a. Minoritiesb. Women c. Men in military

C. Home front transformations and the role of women and minorities:1. Civilian contribution to the war effort included:

a. scrap metal and rubber drivesb. war bond drivesc. victory gardens d. rationinge. New job opportunities for women and minorities in defense plantsf. Hollywood created propaganda, and used movie stars to promote it, to

encourage Americans to support the war by buying bonds, following the rules of rationing, etc.

D. Executive Order 9066:1. Japanese internment camps located in isolated parts of west and southwest

(Arizona camps in Poston and on Gila Reservation) created to preventJapanese immigrants and Japanese-Americans from aiding Japan’s war effort

E. War mobilization 1. Native American Code Talkers helped maintain military security in the Pacific

theater by transmitting orders in their native language2. Military included African-American, Hispanic and Native American soldiers

however African-Americans served in segregated military units F. Turning points (D-Day, Midway, Yalta Conference)

1. Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor ends U.S. isolationism, U.S. declares war on Japan December 8th, 1941(Attack on Pearl Harbor December 7th, 1941)

2. Operation Overlord/D-Day, June 6, 1944, Allied invasion to liberate France 3. Manhattan Project develops the atomic bomb, controversy later arose about

the use of the bomb at Hiroshima and Nagasaki4. Yalta Conference in 1945 meeting of Allied leaders to make plans for postwar

Germany and Eastern Europe and where the Soviets agree to enter war against Japan

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People Big Three- the Allied leaders: Franklin Roosevelt (US President), Winston

Churchill (British Prime Minister), Joseph Stalin (Soviet leader) Dwight D. Eisenhower - Supreme Allied Commander in European theater Douglas MacArthur-Allied Commander in Pacific theater Navajo Code Talkers-Native-Americans who helped maintain military security in

the Pacific Theater by transmitting orders in their native language Rosie the Riveter - Symbol of women’s role in the war effort Hideki Tojo - General and Prime Minister that led Japan to war with the U.S. Harry S. Truman - U.S. President who made the decision to use the atomic bomb

to end the war

Vocabulary Allied Powers - U.S., Britain, Soviet Union, and others Axis Powers - Germany, Italy, Japan Isolationism - Foreign policy avoiding interaction with other countries except for

trade. Neutrality - Not taking sides in a conflict. Propaganda - Persuasive techniques used by governments to raise support for their war

effort. Rationing - Limiting the use of food and materials used for war effort by the civilian

population. V-E Day - Victory in Europe (5-8-45) V-J Day - Victory in Japan on (8-15-45)

State Standards covered in Unit 9I. World War IIConcept World War IIPerformance Objectives: Describe the impact of American Involvement in World War IIState Standard Code: US 8-2

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Unit 9 Reading

World War II

The World War I experience helped generate an anti-foreign and isolationist mood in America. To many Americans, U.S. involvement in that "European war" had been a costly mistake and a tragic waste of human life. American idealism gave way to feelings of disillusionment and betrayal. Anti-foreign feelings increased when European nations, with the exception of Finland, failed to repay their war debts to America. Postwar bitterness made many Americans determined to avoid future European entanglements.

This isolationist mood surfaced in several ways. First and most important, the U.S. rejected the Treaty of Versailles and membership in its League of Nations. Later, in the 1930s, Congress strengthened U.S. isolation by passing strict neutrality laws. Meanwhile, Congress restricted immigration from foreign nations with laws such as the Quota Act of 1921 and the National Origins Act of 1924.

Despite America's isolationist mood during the 1920s and 1930s, events slowly pulled the U.S. toward an internationalist foreign policy. The first signs of this came in the 1920s with an international agreement at the Washington Conference to limit warship building. Another sign of interest in world affairs was the Kellogg-Briand Pact, in which 62 nations, including the U.S., signed a pledge outlawing war.

The U.S. also moved toward cooperation with Latin America. The Coolidge and Hoover administrations were more willing to negotiate solutions to problems with Latin American nations than were earlier administrations. President Franklin Roosevelt was also eager to improve U.S. Latin American relations. He promised the U.S. would adopt the policy of "a good neighbor." In what came to be known as the Good Neighbor Policy, the U.S. pledged that it would end its past policy of interventionism in the internal affairs of Latin American nations.

Meanwhile, major developments abroad eventually caused America to become more involved in the affairs of the rest of the world. Postwar problems in Italy led to the rise in 1922 of the Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini. Economic problems in Germany, as well as resentment over the Treaty of Versailles, led to the rise in 1933 of the Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler. At first the aggressive demands of these dictators were appeased by League of Nations members such as Britain and France. But the appeasement ended when Hitler invaded Poland in September 1939. Great Britain and France declared war on Germany -- World War II began.

When war broke out in Europe, the U.S. reaffirmed its policy of neutrality. But this policy began to change when the Allies seemed unable to stop the advance of the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan). In November 1939, the U.S. abolished its arms embargo and allowed any country to buy weapons and military supplies from the U.S. This law helped the Allies more than the Axis. In March 1941, the U.S. gave the Allies even more help by lending them military equipment through the lend-lease program. After Germany invaded the U.S.S.R. in June of 1941, this new member of the Allies also received lend-lease aid. In August of 1941, F.D.R. and Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Great Britain drew up a statement of war aims

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called the Atlantic Charter. In it, the U.S. and Great Britain (and later the U.S.S.R.) agreed to work for a world free from aggression. Meanwhile, the U.S. showed its disapproval of Japanese aggression in Asia. The U.S. placed an embargo on the shipment of gasoline, scrap iron, and other commodities to Japan. The U.S. also began lend-lease aid to China, which was a victim of Japanese aggression.

America's final step away from isolation towards full-fledged international participation came immediately after Japan's attack on the U.S. navy base at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. With America's declaration of war on Japan, Japan's Axis allies (Germany and Italy) declared war on the U.S. America became a full partner in the Allied effort to defeat the Axis.

Japan's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, quickly led to full American involvement in World War II. One day later the U.S. declared war on Japan. Germany and Italy, Japan's Axis allies, then declared war on America. The U.S. reciprocated by declaring war on the Axis. The U.S. then joined in a full military partnership with Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and other members of the Allies.

Although Japan pulled America into the war, the U.S. decided to send most of its military force against Hitler's Germany. Germany was considered far more dangerous than Japan. Germany had to be stopped before it could defeat the Soviet Union. Germany also had to be defeated before its scientists could complete development of an atomic bomb.

In November, 1942, America sent its troops against the German forces in North Africa. After the Allied victory in Africa, U.S. forces attacked German forces in Italy. Then on D-Day (June 6, 1944), the Allies mounted a huge amphibious attack on Hitler's forces along the northern coast of France. Despite heavy casualties, the Allies established a beachhead and then battled their way inland. Allied troops liberated France and other western European nations from Nazi control while pushing eastward toward Germany. Meanwhile, the Red Army of the Soviet Union, at a cost of millions of lives, stopped the Nazi advance into Soviet territory. In 1943, the Soviets started to push the Nazis back towards Germany. By early 1945, Allied armies were marching into Germany. On May 7, 1945, Germany surrendered. During these final days, Hitler committed suicide.

As the Allies closed in on Germany, they revealed the horrible fact that Hitler had carried his racist beliefs to their "logical" conclusion. At places such as the death camp at Auschwitz, the Nazis systematically carried out Hitler's "final solution" to the "Jewish problem." By the time the Allies had arrived to stop the genocide, the Nazis had murdered over six million Jews. The Nazis also engaged in the mass murder of Gypsies, and mistreated prisoners of war, especially Russians.

Meanwhile, the U.S. also fought a war on the other side of the world against Japan. Brilliant tactical moves by the U.S. navy led to a major Japanese defeat in the Battle of Midway in 1942. The U.S. then pursued an island-hopping campaign across the Pacific. U.S. forces seized strategically important islands in the Pacific and then "leapfrogged" over less important islands to the next strategic locations. Using this strategy, American forces moved closer to Japan without needless loss of men and materiel. Finally, by 1945, the U.S. forces had "hopped"

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to islands so close to Japan that direct bombing raids on Japan were launched. Two such raids occurred in August 1945 when American B-29 bombers dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan soon surrendered, and World War II ended. A new era, however, the nuclear age, was just beginning.

The Axis' defeat was impossible without the participation of America's civilian population. Men and women worked overtime to produce huge quantities of war materials. To conserve on resources needed for the war, the country rationed gasoline, rubber, and other commodities. Few people complained. Support for the war was high. There was, however, at least one unfortunate wartime development within the U.S. American citizens of Japanese ancestry were considered potentially disloyal and thus sent to internment camps. This action, as well as seizing Japanese-American's property, was in direct violation of their rights as U.S. citizens.

Long before the end of the war, the Allies began working on plans for postwar peace. In 1941 F.D.R. and Churchill drew up the Atlantic Charter which stated the Allies' war aims. Among them was restoring self-government to all conquered nations and establishing a new world organization to replace the League of Nations. In February 1945, Churchill, Stalin, and an ailing Roosevelt -- he died two months later -- met at Yalta (in the U.S.S.R). At the Yalta Conference, the leaders agreed that nations liberated from the Axis would be allowed to establish independent, democratically elected governments. They also agreed that Germany and its capital, Berlin, would be divided into four zones and occupied by the Allies. Also, a special military court would be created to try Axis leaders charged with war crimes such as the mass murder of Jews. Finally, the Allied leaders agreed to begin writing a charter (constitution) for a new world organization to be called the United Nations.

When the war ended, the Allies fulfilled several peace agreements. They established a new world organization, the United Nations, and this time the U.S. Senate voted in favor of U.S. membership. They set up a special war-crimes court in Nuremberg, where the judges found nineteen Nazi leaders guilty and ordered them punished. The Allies established additional courts to try lower-ranking Nazis. They divided Germany and its capital into four zones and occupied it. Unfortunately, not all nations liberated from the Nazis were set free. The Soviet Union imposed communist rule on East European nations that it "freed" from the Nazis. Anger over this Soviet violation of the Yalta Agreement caused a new conflict called the "cold war."

The U.S. Home front

Millions of Americans were concerned about jobs, prices, and the stock market; there were too many problems at home for them to worry about events in Europe and in Asia. However, with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December, 1941, American isolation ended and the Second World War began to affect nearly every household.

While GIs fought at places such as Guadalcanal, Iwo Jima, Normandy, and Anzio, millions of ordinary Americans back on the “home front” assisted in the “Great Crusade.” Millions of women worked in industrial plants helping to create an “arsenal of democracy,” while nearly 250,000 women enlisted in various military “auxiliary” units during the war.

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The war also affected many minority groups. Native-born Americans of Japanese ancestry (the Nisei) were considered to be a danger to national security and were placed into “internment” camps, where their civil liberties were greatly restricted. While African Americans were drafted into military service and fought for human rights around the world, back at home they still lived in a segregated society. Nearly 25,000 Native Americans also enlisted during the war years.

In the war years, scientific development and research also continued, and civilians benefited from medical and scientific advancements made by scientists employed by the U.S. government. Radar and sonar turned out to have valuable non-military uses, DDT was used not only to keep soldiers from being harassed by insects but also to keep insects away from crops, and “miracle drugs” such as penicillin became common.

Hollywood also became involved in the war effort. Directors made films (such as Frank Capra’s “Why We Fight” series) which were used to build morale and rally public support against the Axis nations. Entertainers such as Bob Hope, Bing Crosby, Jack Benny, and others led efforts to entertain troops and sell war bonds. Many “greats” in the entertainment field enlisted in the service and became role models, including Henry Fonda, James Stewart, and Clark Gable. Journalists such as Ernie Pyle, Edward R. Murrow, and William L. Shirer became household names as millions of Americans came to depend upon their stories to let them know what was happening in the war.

Sports heroes of the I 940s also enlisted in the armed forces, including Joe Louis, Ted Williams, and Joe DiMaggio. Although many major leaguers left for war, President Roosevelt requested that professional baseball continue in order to maintain morale at home. Depleted rosters altered the traditional balance of power in baseball and allowed teams that were perennial losers to become winners, such as the St. Louis Browns, who won their only league pennant during the war years. Women also found opportunities in sports when Chicago Cubs owner Philip Wrigley created a women’s professional baseball league. Most sports teams also began playing the National Anthem prior to contests during the war years in an effort to promote patriotism.

The U.S. government, which had already become a daily part of citizens’ lives during the New Deal, further increased its control through various federal agencies that attempted to maintain supplies of needed materials for the war effort. Agencies such as the Office of Price Administration froze wages, prices, and rents in order to reduce inflation. The OPA also rationed scarce food items such as meat, butter, cheese, vegetables, sugar, and coffee The War Production Board played a crucial role by strictly allocating fuel and materials considered vital to the war effort, including heating oil, gasoline, metals, rubber, and plastics. Millions of ordinary Americans assisted in the war effort by conserving scarce goods and organizing “scrap drives” to provide needed materials. Ration “stamps” became common, and people found themselves not only having to budget their finances, but also having to keep track of how many stamps it took to buy scarce items.

In order to provide funds for the war millions bought war bonds, while thousands of Americans found themselves doing what they had never done before—paying income taxes. For

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many people, the new tax rates took a bigger portion of their incomes, and most lower- and middle-income Americans for the first time became subject to tax withholding and tax liability.

Many Americans also became involved in civil defense, concerned about a possible invasion of the United States. Ordinary citizens found themselves ensuring that blackout conditions were maintained, running draft boards, ensuring that rationing was smooth, and scanning the skies for enemy aircraft.

The combined strength of the Allies (the U.S., Great Britain, and Russia) eventually forced Axis surrenders in Europe and Asia. The world entered the “atomic age” with detonation of nuclear devices at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Veterans returned home to find that the country had changed greatly, and also found a wealth of new opportunities open to them. Members of what Tom Brokaw would later call “The Greatest Generation” benefited from the GI Bill and attended college, bought homes, started businesses, and in general began to build prosperous new lives for themselves. Many veterans also married and became parents, beginning the “Baby Boom” of the 1950s and 1960s.

While the war cost billions of dollars and thousands of American lives, it also changed American society and government forever, Though the Axis threat had been defeated, Americans who believed they could resume their normal lives found that the country now faced new threats from communism in the Cold War, and some veterans found themselves being called back into military service to fight communist aggression in Korea.

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World War II Vocabulary

Allies: the name given to the alliance of Great Britain, France, the United States and Russia.

Appeasement: the action of giving in to the demands of the powerful in order to please or pacify them.

Atlantic Charter (August 1941): a statement signed by President Franklin Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill pledging that both the U.S. and Great Britain would work for a world free of aggression.

Axis: name given to the alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan before and during World War II.

Big Three: allied leaders: Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin.

Cash-and-Carry Plan: a policy established by the Neutrality Act of 1939 which allowed nations at war to buy weapons from the U.S. provided foreign ships transported those weapons from the U.S. (The law was intended to help Great Britain and France obtain weapons for their fight against the Axis.)

D-Day (June 6, 1944): the day on which a large, Allied amphibious force attacked Axis military positions on the coast of northern France.

Douglas MacArthur: Allied Commander in the Pacific Theater

Dwight Eisenhower: Allied Commander in the European Theater

Embargo: a ban on trading with another country.

Executive Order 9066: authorized the creation of relocation camps in which many Japanese-Americans were placed during World War II Fascism: a political system, led by a dictator, that glorifies the power of the state, advocates private ownership of businesses, and suppresses any opposition to that power.

Genocide: the destruction or extermination of an entire group of people. The word was first applied to the attempted extermination of Jews by Nazi Germany.

Harry Truman: U.S. president who made the decision to use the atomic bomb at the end of WWII.

Lend-Lease Act (1941): a law allowing nations fighting against the Axis, such as Great Britain, to borrow or lease military equipment from the U.S.

Manhattan Project: America's program which built the world's first atomic bomb in 1945.

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Navajo Code Talkers: helped maintain military security in the Pacific by transmitting orders in their native language.

Neutrality: not taking sides in a conflict

Nuremberg Trials (1945-1946): trials at which Nazi leaders were judged for war crimes, including crimes against humanity.

Propaganda: persuading views for the war and against the enemy through the use of movie and posters

Rationing: limiting the use of food and materials used for war

Rosie the Riveter: symbol of the role women assumed during the war effort

V-E Day: the day when the war ended in Europe (May 5, 1941). It is also known as Victory in Europe Day.

V-J Day: the day when the war against the Japanese ended thus ending World War II (August 15, 1941). It is also known as Victory in Japan Day.

Victory gardens: vegetables, fruit, and herbs grown by individuals to reduce demand on the public food supply in order to support the war effort.

Yalta Conference (1945): a meeting at Yalta where Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin agreed on post-war policy, such as the treatment of Germany, its occupied nations, and the creation of the United Nations.

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Unit 10: Cold War and Foreign Policy Post WWII

Tested Information:I. International Activism

A. Membership in the United Nations1. to maintain international peace and security2. further international cooperation in solving economic, social, cultural and

humanitarian problems throughout the world.B. Marshall Plan: Economic aid to Western Europe C. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)- military alliance between U.S. and

Western European nations formed to stop the spread of communismII. Cold War

A. Berlin Airlift1. American reaction to Soviet blockade of divided Berlin in 1948-49

B. Truman Doctrine1. policy that stated the U.S. would support Greece and Turkey and free people

anywhere in the world resisting communism (containment)C. Expanding and strengthening of communism (in 1949)

1. Communist regime in China2. Soviet nuclear weapons

D. Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)1. Arms Race2. Civil defense: citizens prepared for a possible nuclear attack by building bomb

shelters and having students practice “duck and cover” drills at school3. Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty (SALT)-series of treaties where the US and

USSR agreed to begin limiting the number of nuclear weapons their country held

4. Sputnik5. Military Industrial Complex6. Nuclear-Test ban Treaty

E. Korean War1. Caused by Domino Theory and containment policy2. Country remains divided at the 38th parallel3. UN Police Action4. Called the “Forgotten War” because it comes in between WWII and Vietnam

F. Cuba 1. Bay of Pigs invasion

a. failed attempt to overthrow Fidel Castrob. led to massive Cuban migration to Florida

2. Cuban Missile Crisisa. example of brinkmanshipb. closest the US and USSR came to direct war

G. Vietnam War1. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution-alleged attack by North Vietnam against a US ship;

Following this event, Congress provides LBJ a “blank check”, escalating American military involvement in Vietnam

2. Tet offensive-turning point following this North Vietnamese offensive, public support for the war declined

3. Vietnamization-Nixon’s plan to gradually withdraw US combat troops and return fighting to the South Vietnamese army

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4. Anti-war protesta. originated on college campuses, but participants came from many parts of

American society as the war dragged onb. Kent State became one of the most controversial conflicts when National

Guard troops fired on anti-war demonstrators and four students were killed5. War Powers Act (1975)

a. limits executive branch on its ability to commit U.S. forces overseas and requires president to inform Congress before involving U.S. forces in foreign wars

People Harry Truman - U.S. president during Berlin Airlift and who called for UN

support of South Korea in 1950 General Douglas MacArthur - General who led U.S. and UN troops in the

Korea War. He wanted to use Atomic bombs against China and Korea’s neighboring countries to end the conflict. He was fired by Truman.

Dwight D. Eisenhower - U.S. president at the end of the Korean conflict; ordered CIA to begin planning secret invasion of Cuba to overthrow Fidel Castro, leading to Bay of Pigs disaster

John F. Kennedy - U.S. president during Bay of Pigs invasion and missile crisis in Cuba; sent military advisors to aid South Vietnam in their conflict with North Vietnam

Lyndon B. Johnson - U.S. president that escalated American military involvement in Vietnam

Richard M. Nixon - U.S. president who ended U.S. involvement in Vietnam; established détente with China and the Soviet Union

Mao Zedong - won control of China in a civil war in 1949; communist leader of China 1949-76

Ho Chi Minh - Communist leader of Vietnam 1954-69: his government aided the rebels in South Vietnam who were trying to overthrow the anti-communist government there

Vietcong - South Vietnamese rebels who supported communist government of North Vietnam

Fidel Castro - communist leader of Cuba 1959- ; allowed the Soviet Union to place nuclear weapons on the island in 1962 leading to the Cuban Missile Crisis

Nikita Khrushchev - Soviet leader during construction of Berlin Wall and the Cuban Missile Crisis

Vocabulary Cold War - conflict between the Soviet Union and the U.S. carried on by political

and economic means instead of direct military confrontation Containment - U.S. policy to stop the spread of communism Mutually Assured Destruction - a philosophy that kept the super powers from

bombing each other because each side had the ability to annihilate the other Military Industrial Complex - term coined by Eisenhower to describe the informal alliance

between key military, governmental and corporate decision makers in the profitable weapons procurement and military-support system; Eisenhower warned of their influence in his presidential farewell address

Satellites - country dominated politically and economically by the Soviet Union during the Cold War

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Iron Curtain - term coined by Winston Churchill to describe the division between communist and non-communist live

Police Action - a local military action without declaration of war; against violators of international peace and order 

Domino Theory - Eisenhower’s theory that allowing one country in a region to fall under communist control would cause the others in that region to do the same thing

Vietnamization - Nixon’s policy to gradually withdraw U.S. troops from Vietnam while training the South Vietnamese to take more responsibility for their own defense

Détente-the easing of tensions between the US and a communist nation

State Standards tested in Unit 10I. International ActivismConcept: Postwar United StatesPerformance Objective: Analyze aspects of America’s post World War II foreign policy.State Standard Code: US 9-1

II. Cold WarConcept: Postwar United StatesPerformance Objective: Analyze aspects of America’s post World War II foreign policy.State Standard Code: US 9-1

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Unit 10 Reading

During World War II, the Allies hoped to prepare a postwar peace which would endure for generations. The cornerstone of that peace would be the United Nations.

But this peaceful world order did not come to be. Instead, hostility between the Soviet Union and the United States erupted and threatened to bring about a third world war. This period of hostility became known as the cold war. Most Americans claimed that the Soviet Union started the cold war by violating the Yalta Agreement of 1945. Instead of granting freedom to those East European nations that it liberated from the Nazis, the Soviet Union imposed communist rule on them. In addition, the Soviet Union closed the border between Soviet-dominated Eastern Europe and Western Europe. This border, and the restrictions on movement and thought that it represented, became known as the "iron curtain." Meanwhile, the Soviets as well as a few others blamed cold war hostility on "anti-communist" hysteria in the U.S. and other western capitalist countries.

Cold war tension increased when the Soviet Union attempted to extend communism through so-called "wars of national liberation." In carrying out this policy, the Soviet Union encouraged rebellions in other nations. One such revolt was fomented in Greece in 1946.

Under the leadership of President Truman, the U.S. responded quickly to these Soviet actions. In 1947, the President proclaimed the Truman Doctrine. In it, the U.S. promised to help other nations resist threats to their "free institutions and national integrity." Acting on this promise, the U.S. sent military supplies to Greece. The communist-led revolt failed. The U.S. also established the Marshall Plan (1948) which helped European nations rebuild their war-torn economies. The U.S. established the Point Four program in 1950 to help the needy in other parts of the world. In addition to being humanitarian, these programs attempted to make countries less vulnerable to communist-led insurgencies. The N.A.T.O. alliance further strengthened European security. Under this alliance the U.S., Canada, Iceland, and nine Western European nations pledged to help each other if any were attacked.

Communist expansion in Asia presented a more difficult challenge to the U.S. After World War II, Chinese communists resumed their efforts to control China. Despite the shipment of U.S. military supplies to the non-communist government of China, the communists won (1949). In 1950, North Korea (under a communist government) invaded South Korea. Heretofore, the United Nations Security Council had been unable to block such aggression because of Soviet Union vetoes. But in June 1950 the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council. Taking advantage of this unique opportunity, the Security Council voted to request member nations to create a United Nations force and block further conquest of South Korea.

In foreign affairs, the Eisenhower years (1953-1961) got off to a good start. In June of 1953, an armistice ended the fighting in Korea. Meanwhile, in March of 1953, the Soviet dictator, Stalin, died. Many hoped that new Soviet leadership would lead to better U.S. Soviet relations. But hopes for peaceful coexistence between the two super powers did not materialize. Americans were angered at Khrushchev's brutal crushing of a democratic reform movement in Hungary in 1956. The U.S. was also angry over continued Soviet support for communist revolts in places

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such as Vietnam. Meanwhile, the Soviets blamed the U.S. for deepening the cold war. They criticized the U.S. for its support of repressive leaders such as Ngo Dinh Diem of South Vietnam. The Soviets also blamed America's spy-plane flights over the Soviet Union for deepening cold war suspicions. Cold war distrust intensified when Fidel Castro established communist rule in Cuba. Despite American efforts to remove him from power, Castro, with the help of the Soviets, kept his grip on Cuba.

In 1957 the U.S.S.R. scored two major technological breakthroughs. In October, it launched "Sputnik," the world's first artificial satellite, into orbit. Later the Soviet Union successfully tested the first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). Americans were shocked that the U.S. seemed to be losing the arms and space race with the Soviet Union.

When the Eisenhower years closed, many Americans were unsure about the nation's security. In the national elections of 1960, Democrats blamed the Republicans for America's failure to keep the U.S. military strong. In a close election, the voters rejected the Republican presidential candidate, then Vice-President Richard M. Nixon, and instead elected the Democratic candidate, Senator John F. Kennedy.

When Kennedy took office in 1961, America's major foreign policy challenge was the removal of Cuba's communist dictator, Fidel Castro. To accomplish this, Kennedy approved a plan to help Cuban exiles invade Cuba and reestablish non-communist rule. Despite U.S. training and equipment, the exile's attack on Cuba, known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, failed.

The failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion made people think Kennedy was weak. Future developments would change that perception. After learning that the Soviets were building guided-missile bases in Cuba, Kennedy ordered a naval blockade of Cuba. The Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, claimed that the blockade was illegal and constituted an act of war. But Kennedy refused to lift the blockade. Furthermore, he stated that an attack on the U.S. by Cuba would be interpreted as an attack by the Soviet Union. Rather than risk war with the U.S., the Soviet Union agreed to remove its missiles. Most Americans hailed Kennedy as a hero for his handling of the Cuban missile crisis.

After Kennedy’s Assassination in 1963, LBJ, as President Lyndon B. Johnson was often called, hoped to apply his power abroad as effectively as he was able to do at home. He asked for and received, with the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution of 1964, Congressional authority to send troops into South Vietnam. Johnson was determined to stop the communist advances in that country. Despite a massive escalation of combat missions and bombing raids, the communists refused to give up. Meanwhile many Americans began to protest U.S. involvement in the war. They became impatient with America's failure to quickly defeat the Viet Cong (South Vietnamese communists) and their North Vietnamese allies. Many people were also embarrassed over the failure of South Vietnamese leaders to gain the loyalty and active support of many South Vietnamese. Rather than serve in the Vietnam War, some American men resisted the draft. Anti-war demonstrations increased.

The once-popular LBJ became the constant target of anti-war feelings. Faced with almost certain defeat in the 1968 presidential elections, LBJ decided not to seek reelection. In his place,

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the Democratic Party nominated Hubert Humphrey. But many voters turned away from the once-popular Humphrey because of his long support of Johnson's war policies. Instead, the voters turned to the Republican candidate, Richard Nixon, who promised to bring an honorable end to the war in Vietnam.

The Vietnam War

“I knew from the start that I was bound to be crucified either way I moved. If left the woman I really loved—the Great Society—in order to get involved with that bitch of a war on the other side of the world, then I would lose everything at home. . . But if I left that war and let the Communists take over South Vietnam, then I would be seen as a

coward and my nation would be seen as an appeaser and we would both find it impossible to accomplish anything for anybody anywhere on the entire globe.”4

- President Lyndon B. Johnson

The roots of the conflict between the United States and the North Vietnamese went all the way back to when French authorities and military personnel arrived on Vietnamese soil during the second half of the nineteenth century. The French conquest of Indochina was part of a larger pattern of European imperialism, as the French took advantage of the Vietnamese land and people to export rice, rubber, and coal. During the early 20th century, however, resentment of French rule helped spur the rise of Vietnamese nationalism. It was during this time that Ho Chi Minh, who would later lead the North Vietnamese in the war against the United States, became a committed Communist revolutionary.5

In 1945, at the end of World War II and Japanese/French occupation, Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam to be an independent country, free of imperial rule, Years of fighting between the French and Vietnamese followed. The U.S. sent aid, committing money and resources to support the French in the hopes of preventing the spread of communism. Ultimately, however, the French were dealt a devastating defeat at Dien Bien Phu; shortly afterward at the Geneva Conference, they formally withdrew from Vietnam, and a treaty divided the country at the 17 parallel. The northern half of Vietnam, ruled by Ho Chi Mirth, was committed to communism and the southern half of Vietnam was committed to democracy. The Kennedy and Johnson administrations, in the wake of the Cold War, felt it necessary to prevent the spread of communism into South Vietnam at all costs. The “Domino theory,” subscribed to by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara and other Johnson advisers, maintained that if one country became communist, neighboring countries would themselves become communist, falling like dominoes.

In 1964, after a skirmish between North Vietnamese ships and U.S. destroyers in the Tonkin Gulf just off Vietnam, Johnson presented Congress with what came to be known as the Gulf of Tonkin resolution. The resolution essentially gave Johnson the power to increase the American military presence in Southeast Asia, and marked the beginning of full-scale U.S. involvement in the conflict between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. It would take roughly fifteen years for the United States to find peace both at home and abroad. The fighting in Vietnam was characterized by “search and destroy” missions, often leading frustrated U.S. soldiers into poor and/or unoccupied villages. Troops neither spoke the language, nor could they easily identify the 43 “Vietnam, An American Ordeal" by George Donelson Moss pg. 157.54 Please note that it is difficult to summarize the entirety of the Vietnam War in two pages or less. I recommend, “Vietnam, An American Ordeal’ by George Donelson Moss as all excellent resource on the U.S./Vietnam Conflict.

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enemy. The Vietcong—familiar with the climate, terrain, and seasons—engaged the United States in guerilla warfare on their own territory. The U.S. engaged in massive bombing campaigns that often spilled over into neighboring Laos or Cambodia. Atrocities occurred on both sides; the most famous case involved American soldiers occurred in 1968 and came to be known as the My Lai Massacre. In the Quang Ngai Province U.S. troops killed roughly 300 to 400 innocent civilians while searching for Vietcong guerrillas. The incident received widespread media attention, and provoked both shock and outrage back home. Lt. William Calley became the public face of the massacre, and was the first American to be court-martialed for committing atrocities during war.

Antiwar protests became more and more prevalent as the U.S. commitment in Vietnam escalated. They were fueled by and joined with many of the social movements going on at the same time such as the civil rights movement, the Women’s Liberation movement, and I 960s counterculture, and “flower power.” Protesters engaged in acts of civil disobedience, and although most rallies were peaceful, some turned violent, leading to beatings, arrests, and even the deaths of some antiwar advocates. Students rioted on university campuses, conscientious objectors rose in numbers, and draft dodgers fled to Canada or Mexico.

The war finally came to an end for the U.S. in 1973, when Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and President Nixon agreed to sign the Paris Accords, ending U.S. involvement and bringing soldiers (and prisoners of war) home. Two years later, North Vietnamese troops captured Saigon, the South Vietnamese capital, bringing the war to an end and unifying the country under communist rule. Although the American War in Vietnam ended in 1973, the United States did not normalize its relations with the Vietnamese government until the 1990s.

1950s Cold War Vocabulary

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Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961): a failed attempt by CIA-trained, anti-communist Cuban exiles to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro.

Berlin Airlift (1948-1948): American reaction to the Soviet blockade of divided Berlin, Germany

Berlin Wall (1961-1989): barrier surrounding West Berlin that prevented East Germans access to West Berlin and served as a symbol of the Cold War

Brinkmanship: pushing negotiations to the point just before war breaks out in order to protect national interests

Civil Defense: citizen preparation for a possible nuclear attack on the United States. Examples include building a bomb shelter and students practicing “duck and cover” drills in school.

Cold War: conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States carried on by political and economic means instead of direct military confrontation.

Communism: government theory promoting the elimination of classes and equal distribution of wealth within society

Containment: rigid anti- soviet policies formulated by the American government to check Soviet expansion.

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): a time of confrontation between the U.S. and the Soviet Union when the U.S. threatened to use force to remove Soviet guided missiles from Cuba. The Soviets finally agreed to remove the missiles.

Domino theory: the belief that if one country in a region, such as Southeast Asia, fell to communists, neighboring countries would also fall.

Douglas MacArthur: General who led U.S. and UN troops in the Korea War. He wanted to use the atomic bomb against China and Korea’s neighboring countries in order to end the conflict. He was fired by Truman.

Dwight Eisenhower: U.S. president at the end of the Korean conflict and ordered the CIA to begin planning a secret invasion of Cuba to overthrow Fidel Castro which lead to the Bay of Pigs disaster

Fidel Castro: communist leader of Cuba after 1959 who allowed the Soviet Union to place nuclear weapons on the island in 1962.

Harry Truman: U.S. president during Berlin Airlift and who called for UN support of South Korea in 1950

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Iron curtain: a term referred to a restrictive Soviet-made barrier placed around the Soviet Union and other countries it dominates. These barriers have begun to disappear starting in 1989.

John F. Kennedy: U.S. President during the Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis and also sent U.S. military advisors to South Vietnam

Mao Zedong: won control of China in a civil war in 1949and became the first communist leader of China from 1949-1976

Marshall Plan (1948): U.S. aid to help Western European countries rebuild their war-torn economies after World War II.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): a western military alliance formed in 1949 to defend against possible Soviet aggression in Europe.

Nikita Khrushchev: Soviet leader during the construction of the Berlin Wall and the Cuban Missile Crisis

Police action: a military action without a declaration of war; against violators of international peace and order.

SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization): military alliance formed in 1954 by the United States, Australia, France, New Zealand, Philippine Republic, Thailand, and the United Kingdom.

Sputnik (1957): first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite launched by the Soviet Union and led to the space race and an increased emphasis on science and math education within the United States

Thirty-eighth Parallel: dividing line between North and South Korea.

Truman Doctrine (1947): statement promising aid to nations threatened by aggression or subversion.

United Nations: international peacekeeping organization established after World War II which works to solve economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems throughout the world

1960s and 1970s Cold War Vocabulary

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Agent Orange: code name for the U.S. military’s use of herbicides and defoliants to destroy the jungles in Vietnam

Arms Race: competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War

Civil Defense: citizen preparation for a possible nuclear attack on the United States. Examples include building a bomb shelter and students practicing “duck and cover” drills in school.

Détente: relaxation of tensions between the U.S. and a communist nation

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964): Congressional authorization for the use of U.S. military forces to protect American lives and interests in Vietnam.

Ho Chi Minh: Communist leader of Vietnam and his government aided the rebels in South Vietnam

Kent State Massacre: controversial incident that occurred on a college campus when the National Guard opened fire on anti-war demonstrators and killed 4 students

Lyndon B. Johnson: U.S. President that escalated American military involvement in Vietnam

Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD): belief that the U.S. could deter potential Soviet attacks by having enough nuclear weapons to destroy the Soviet Union even if it attacked first.

Napalm: highly explosive gelatinized gasoline used by the United States in the Vietnam War

Ngo Dinh Diem: U.S. backed President of South Vietnam whose murder destabilized South Vietnam

North Vietnamese Army (NVA): communist forces that wished to unify Vietnam and opposed American presence in Vietnam

Operation Rolling Thunder: code name for the sustained bombing of North Vietnam by the United States Air Force

Richard Nixon: U.S. President who ended U.S. involvement in Vietnam and first president to visit communist China.

Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty (SALT): series of treaties where the U.S. and the USSR agreed to begin limiting the number of nuclear weapons their country held

Tet Offensive: turning point in the Vietnam War and convinced Americans that the U.S. was not winning the war despite positive reports from U.S. generals

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Viet Cong: communist rebels, native to southern parts of Vietnam, who fought against the anti-communist government of South Vietnam between 1956 and 1975.

Vietnamization: President Nixon's policy of gradually replacing U.S. combat troops in Vietnam with South-Vietnamese soldiers.

William Westmoreland: commanding general of U.S. forces in Vietnam

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Unit 11: 50s and 60s Domestic Society

Tested Information:I. 1950s and 1960s Domestic Society

A. McCarthyism1. 2nd Red Scare and fear of communism2. House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) held hearings to root out

possible communists in government and societyB. Postwar prosperity and growth

1. Growth of suburbsa. FHA loans made buying a house easier for average Americansb. interstate highways connected the US and created the American

automobile culture2. Baby boom

a. population boom following WWII b. massive numbers born in this generation had a huge impact on American

society, government and culture3. GI Bill: veterans benefits (direct result of what had happened with the Bonus Army

in the 1930s) leads to an increase in college enrollment and an expanding middle class

C. Popular Culture1. Conformity v. counterculture

a. traditional values vs. “drugs, sex, rock n’ roll” (ex: Elvis Presley and others)

2. lead to radical political activism3. Mass media: music, television and movies create a common culture and serve

as a way for the “counterculture” to deliver its messageD. Protest Movements (covered in 9-1 and 9-3)E. Assassination of political leaders

a. 1960s was a period of violence where national leaders were assassinated (there will be NO questions specifically about the assassinations of the leaders listed below)- examples: John F. Kennedy (1963), Malcolm X (1965), Robert Kennedy (1968),

Martin Luther King Jr. (1968)F. Social Reforms

1. Great Society and the War on Poverty- President Johnson’s legislative agenda that sought to:a. reduce povertyb. increase educational opportunities (ex: Headstart)c. provide social and economic assistance to poor Americans (examples

include Medicare and Medicaid)2. Protection of consumers and the environment; Earth Day and creation of the EPA

G. Space race and technological developments1. Sputnik

a. Increased spending in education, especially for math and science, following the Soviet Union’s launch of the Sputnik satellite

b. Led to the space race between the US and the USSR2. NASA created in reaction to Sputnik and to beat the Soviets in landing a

manned spacecraft on the moon, which happened in 1969

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People Counterculture - young Americans in the 1960s who rejected mainstream

American life; members included hippies and anti-war activists Lyndon B. Johnson - President involved who created the Great Society programs and

who took over after Kennedy was assassinated John F. Kennedy - president involved with Civil Rights movement and the space race;

assassinated in 1963. Robert Kennedy - served as Attorney General under JFK and actively supported the

Civil Rights movement; ran for President, and was assassinated, in 1968 Martin Luther King Jr. - Civil rights leader assassinated in 1968. Malcolm X - Member of the Nation of Islam who preached separation of the races;

assassinated in 1965.

Vocabulary Baby Boomers - Name given to the generation born between 1946 and 1964 Consumerism - Americans buying products, much of it on credit, to improve standard of

living, following WWII. Sunbelt - Growth of suburbs in the southwestern states, causing a significant shift

in population away from the Northeast and Midwest. War on Poverty/ Great Society - Government programs that sought to reduce poverty,

increase educational opportunities and provide social and economic assistance to poor Americans.

State Standards covered in Unit 11I.A. McCarthyismConcept: Postwar United StatesPerformance Objective: Describe aspects of post World War II domestic policyState Standard Code: US 9-2

I.B-E. Domestic SocietyConcept: Postwar United StatesPerformance Objective: Describe aspects of post World War II American societyState Standard Code: US 9-3

Unit 11 Reading

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America readjusted to peace-time life after World War II. But the transition was not easy. Since the economy was still geared toward wartime production, consumer products, such as automobiles, were scarce. The demand for scarce products caused prices to rise. Workers demanded pay increases to match the rising cost of living. When employers granted raises, the costs of production went up, causing even more inflation -- a phenomenon called the wage-price spiral. When employers rejected wage requests, as they increasingly did, unions often retaliated by calling strikes.

The growing labor problem as well as cold war concerns created an atmosphere which helped political conservatives. Led by conservative Republicans, Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947 over President Truman's veto. This law weakened the power of labor unions. One clause of the act outlawed closed-shop agreements. Another clause allowed states to ban union-shop agreements. The conservative mood of the postwar period also frustrated Truman's efforts at economic and civil rights reforms.

In addition, by 1952, the difficulties of the cold war began to affect the American mood. Charges of communist subversion by people such as Senator Joseph McCarthy convinced many Americans that the Soviet Union had planted its agents in high U.S. government positions. Meanwhile, America's military action in Korea resulted in a growing number of American casualties. Many Americans blamed the nation's Democratic leaders for America's difficulties. In the national elections of 1952, American voters rejected the Democratic Party which had controlled the federal government for twenty years. The voters elected a Republican Congress and Republican President, Dwight D. Eisenhower.

In economic affairs, President Eisenhower adopted a middle-of-the-road approach to government involvement in the economy. Despite urgings by some conservative Republicans, he did not want to abandon all New Deal regulations and return to the laissez-faire policies of the 1920s. But at the same time, Eisenhower did not want to restrict America's free-enterprise system with further regulations. This moderate approach to government involvement in the economy was called "Modern Republicanism."

Modern Republicanism seemed well suited to the America of the 1950s. During these years, the economy functioned well. Government intervention seemed unnecessary. The ever-increasing demand for new cars, TV's, home appliances, and other products spurred economic growth. In part, the postwar "baby boom" fueled this growth. Increased family size led to a housing-construction boom, especially in city suburbs. Child-oriented industries flourished. Meanwhile, construction of a massive interstate highway system spurred economic growth even more.

In the early 1960s, Kennedy had only moderate success in his attempts to solve America's domestic problems. One success was a Kennedy initiated tax cut which stimulated the economy and pulled America out of a recession. But Kennedy was able to accomplish little in the area of civil rights reform. A reluctant Congress blocked his legislative reforms. Had Kennedy more time, he might have prevailed. An assassin's bullet ended the Kennedy presidency in 1963.

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Kennedy's successor, Lyndon Johnson, was more effective in dealing with Congress. In a program called the Great Society, President Johnson and the Democratic controlled Congress created a great body of laws aimed at improving the quality of American life. The Congress passed civil rights laws outlawing segregation and ending literacy tests for voting. Another phase of the Great Society program, called the War on Poverty, tried to eliminate poverty and its related problems. Programs such as the Job Corps, Head Start, Medicaid, and Medicare were but a few of the major efforts to apply liberal solutions to economic problems.

1950s and 1960s Domestic Society Vocabulary

Baby Boomers: name given to the generation born between 1946 and 1964. This group has had a huge impact on American society, government, and culture

Conformity: the process by which an individual's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors change in order to fit in with societies norms

Consumerism: buying products, mostly on credit, to improve the standard of living in the United States following World War II.

Counterculture: individuals or groups who rejected mainstream American life or norms. This idea was especially popular in the 1960s.

Dwight Eisenhower: U.S President responsible for the creation of the Interstate Highway System

Elvis Presley: one of the first rock idols of the rock and roll era

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): created in December 1970 in order to regulate air pollution, water pollution, and other environmental problems in the U.S.

Earth Day (April 22nd): designed to inspire awareness and appreciation for the Earth’s environment. It was first celebrated in 1970.

Fair Deal: President Truman's program to broaden some New Deal programs such as increasing the minimum wage for interstate businesses.

FHA Loans: made buying a house easier for average Americans

G.I. Bill of Rights (1944): a law formally known as the Servicemen's Readjustment Act which provided low-interest loans or other benefits to World War II veterans seeking education, business opportunities, and homes.

Great Society: government programs proposed that sought to reduce poverty and increase opportunity for poor Americans

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House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC): held hearings headed by Senator McCarthy to root put possible communists in the government and society.

Interstate Highway System: created for defense purposes but eventually connected the U.S. and created the American automobile culture.

John F. Kennedy: President involved with the Civil Rights movement and the space race. He was assassinated in 1963.

Lyndon B. Johnson: President involved in the creating the Great Society programs and who took over after JFK’s assassination.

Malcolm X: member of the Nation of Islam who preached about separation of the races and was assassinated in 1965.

Martin Luther King Jr.: Civil rights leader assassinated in April of 1968 in Memphis, Tennessee.

Mass Media: music, television, and movies used to create a common culture. It also served as a way for the counterculture to deliver its message

McCarthyism: a making of unjustified accusations against people and intimidating would-be defenders of the innocent by threatening similar accusations against them

NASA: created in reaction to Soviet space exploration. The first goal of this program was to land the first manned spacecraft on the moon

Robert Kennedy: actively supported the Civil Rights movement, ran for president, and was assassinated in 1968.

Space Race: race between the USSR and the U.S. over who could be the first to land a manned spacecraft on the moon.

Sputnik (1957): first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite launched by the Soviet Union and led to the space race and an increased emphasis on science and math education within the United States

Sunbelt: growth of the suburbs of the southwestern states and showed a population shift away from the Northeast and Midwest

Twenty- second Amendment: constitutional amendment limiting a President to two terms.

Unit 12: Civil Rights Movements

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Tested Information:I. African-American Civil Rights Movement

A. Montgomery Bus Boycott-1. Rosa Parks- refused to give up her seat to a white man and was arrested. This act

of civil disobedience jump started the modern Civil Rights movement 2. Martin Luther King, Jr. serves a leader of the protest. First involvement in the

Civil Rights Movement3. established the precedent of using non-violent protest

B. Central High School1. First school in the South to be desegregated because of Brown v. Board of

Education ruling2. Little Rock 9- nine African- American black students that 3. example of state’s rights vs. the power of the federal government

a. Eisenhower used federal troops to protect the 9 African-American students who were integrating the high school

C. Birmingham Demonstrations1. King changes some previous strategy using direct non-violent confrontation

like sit-ins and school age student marches to desegregate facilities in Birmingham, AL

2. King was arrested, placed in solitary confinement, and wrote one his most famous works, Letter from a Birmingham Jail

3. Media images of fire hoses being used against demonstrators gained worldwide sympathy for the Civil Rights movement

D. March on Washington1. Massive demonstration to put pressure on President Kennedy to pass a

comprehensive Civil Rights bill2. “I Have a Dream” speech given by Martin Luther King, Jr. 3. After the March on Washington, the movement will split into sectors: SNCC/SCLC

remaining nonviolent, the Black Power Movement and the Nation of Islam promoting violence/ a quicker response.

E. Black Power Movement1. Formed by younger African Americans who felt that the strategies of leaders

like King were not creating change fast enough2. Black Panthers were the most prominent of these groups and felt that equality

for African Americans could be achieved only through their efforts-believed in equality AND segregation

F. Legislation and Constitutional Amendments1. Civil Rights Act 1964

a. Desegregated all public facilitiesb. Created equal employment opportunity through the Equal Employment

Opportunities Commission (EEOC)2. Voting Rights Act 1965

a. federal law protecting voting rightsb. violent attack on protesters in Selma, Alabama (marching for voting rights)

persuaded President Johnson and Congress to passc. banned the use of literacy testsd. created Federal oversight on voter registration and elections

3. 24th Amendment- banned the use of poll taxesII. Latino Civil Rights Movement

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A. Cesar Chavez 1. considered the leader of the Latino Civil Rights Movement2. help form the United Farm Workers union

B. United Farm Workers1. worked to improve the lives and working conditions of migrant farm workers2. used non-violent protests, especially boycotts, to achieve their goals

C. La Raza Unida1. Political Party formed in the 1960s to promote Hispanic issues at the local, state and

federal government levels.2. chief goal of La Raza was to end work, housing, and education discrimination of

Hispanic Americans.III. Women’s Rights Movement

A. National Organization for Women (NOW)1. formed to eliminate discrimination and harassment in the workplace, schools,

the justice system, and all other sectors of society B. Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

1. Constitutional amendment that stated “Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex”

2. The Amendment was not passed. It was defeated by the statesC. Title IX

1. federal law that gave female students equal opportunity to participate in athletics

D. Roe v Wade1. Supreme Court decision legalizing abortion

IV. Supreme Court DecisionsA. Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

1. overturned separate but equal decision from Plessy v FergusonB. Warren Court (1953-1969)

1. Decisions protected the rights of the accuseda. Miranda v Arizona (1966)

C. Burger Court (1969-1986)1. Roe v. Wade (1973)- legalizes abortion in the United States2. New York Times Co. v. U.S. (1971)- the government must prove that publication of

information will create a clear and present danger before they can use prior restraint on U.S. media

People Black Panthers - militant political party that created by Huey Newton and Bobby

Seale who wanted African-Americans to lead their own communities; directly confronted the police; preached Black Power

Stokely Carmichael- member and leader of SNCC who would become a founder of the Black Power Movement after becoming frustrated over the lack of progress under the nonviolence movement.

Cesar Chavez - Leader of the United Farm Workers and migrant farmers who fought for farm laborers rights using non-violence

Betty Friedan - Wrote the book “Feminine Mystique”, published in the early 1960s, which advocated for women equality in the society and the workplace.

Lyndon B. Johnson - president who passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Great Society programs

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Robert Kennedy – served as the Attorney General during JFK’s administration and used Federal Marshals to protect civil rights activists, especially the Freedom Riders

Martin Luther King Jr. - Civil rights leader who used non-violence; one of the founders of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference; involved in Montgomery Bus Boycott, Birmingham, March on Washington, Selma March

Thurgood Marshall - NAACP lawyer involved with the Brown v. Board of Ed. decision and later appointed as the first African-American to the Supreme Court

Rosa Parks - Civil Rights activist associated with the Montgomery Bus Boycott Gloria Steinem- leading feminist spokeswoman starting in the 1970s and founder

of Ms. magazine Malcolm X - Member of the Nation of Islam who preached separation of the races

Vocabulary Black Power - African-American movement seeking unity and self-reliance CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE-breaking an unjust law in order to have it changed or

overturned through the court system Defacto Segregation - Segregation by fact, people segregate by choice Dejure Segregation - Segregation by law (legal segregation based on race) It is illegal

today Desegregation/integration - Ending segregated in schools and public facilities Feminism – belief in the political, economic, and social equality of men and

women Literacy Test/ Poll Tax/Grandfather Clause - Methods used by Southern states to

keep African-Americans from voting NAACP - National Association Advancement of Colored People, first organization

dedicated to improve civil rights for African Americans Nation of Islam- A religious and political organization that encouraged black pride,

separation and self sufficiency among Blacks. Its noted spokesperson during the Civil Rights Movement was Malcolm X. Under Malcolm X, the Nation of Islam created their own schools, restaurants, and a newspaper.

Nonviolence Resistance - Protest technique that breaks segregation laws and provokes violence from law enforcement officials.

Separate but equal - Phrase used to describe the decision in the 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson case that legalized segregation in schools and all public accommodations

SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference)- non violent civil rights organization led by Martin Luther King, Jr. This organization began as the Montgomery Improvement Association to support the Montgomery Bus Boycotts and then morphed to a regional organization to plan protests throughout the South.

SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee)- non violent civil rights organization created and led by college students. The original goal of SNCC was to desegregate lunch counters. Later SNCC would create over 30 Freedom Schools throughout the South.

State Standards covered in Unit 12I. African- America Civil Rights MovementConcept: Postwar United StatesPerformance Objectives: Describe aspects of post World War II domestic policy

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State Standard Code: US 9-2

II. Latino Civil Rights MovementConcept: Postwar United StatesPerformance Objectives: Describe aspects of post World War II American SocietyState Standard Code: US 9-3

III. Women’s Rights MovementConcept: Postwar United StatesPerformance Objectives: Describe aspects of post World War II American SocietyState Standard Code: US 9-3

IV. Supreme Court DecisionsConcept: Postwar United StatesPerformance Objectives: Describe aspects of post World War II domestic policyState Standard Code: US 9-2

Unit 12 Reading

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The beginning of the Reconstruction era brought new hope to many African Americans in the South. Slavery had been abolished, and the newly instituted 13 14 and 15 amendments promised legal equality for blacks. However, Reconstruction came to an end in the middle of the 1870s, and in the subsequent “Redemption” period blacks in the South saw many of the civil rights gains they had made gradually eliminated. “Black Codes” and Jim Crow laws were set up to limit the movement and rights of African Americans. Poll taxes were imposed to deter blacks from registering to vote, and literacy tests were often required at the polls to prevent illiterate blacks from voting; illiterate whites were exempted from the tests by so-called “grandfather clauses.” In addition, racist organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan used threats and strong-arm tactics such as burning and lynching to subjugate and oppress blacks.

In 1896, the Supreme Court’s “separate but equal” decision in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson confirmed the legality of segregation in the South and led to an increase in separate facilities for blacks and whites. Churches, schools, restaurants, buses and trains, and even public restrooms were segregated, and were rarely even “equal” in terms of quality. In addition, segregation was not just confined to the South: up through World War II military troops were segregated even though they were fighting against a common enemy.

The landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas put an end to legal segregation. The Court overturned Plessy v. Ferguson, tossing out the “separate but equal” doctrine by ruling that separation itself was inherently unequal.

The Movement and Its Leaders

The civil rights movement in the United States was a political, legal, and social struggle to gain full citizenship rights and to achieve racial equality for African Americans. The movement was a challenge both to segregation laws and to customs separating blacks and whites. The movement encompassed a wide range of individuals and organizations, challenging segregation and discrimination with a variety of activities including protest marches, boycotts, and a refusal to abide by segregation laws.

Many believe that the movement effectively began with the Montgomery bus boycott in 1955. On Dec. 1, 1955, a black woman named Rosa Parks had refused to surrender her bus seat to a white passenger and as a consequence had been arrested for violating city laws. The black community responded by forming the Montgomery Improvement Association to boycott the transit system and chose as their leader a local minister named Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. The bus boycott represented the first real organized challenge to segregation law in the South.

The bus boycott raised Dr. King to national prominence, and he formed a strategy of nonviolent confrontation that was used by many who protested segregation, from the black college students who staged “sit-ins” to protest segregated lunch counters to young whites from the North who ventured south to take part in such as the 1961 Freedom Rides protesting segregation on buses and in bus stations. Organizations such as the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating

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Committee (SNCC) also played key roles in orchestrating protests and training protesters in the tactics of nonviolence.

However, peaceful protests often met violent resistance, and participants were sometimes beaten up by angry mobs. Even the police used their nightsticks on protesters, turned high-power fire hoses on them, and fired tear gas at them. Many died as well: the Ku Klux Klan bombed several black churches, NAACP leader Medgar Evers was assassinated in 1963, and in 1964 three young civil rights workers in Mississippi (an African American and two whites from the North) were brutally murdered. However, rather than slowing the movement, these attempts at intimidation only strengthened the resolve of those fighting for civil rights. The movement continued to gain steam and reached a milestone in the 1963 March on Washington. A racially mixed crowd of more than 200,000 people took part in a peaceful march, then gathered around the Reflecting Pool to hear Dr. King give his famous “1 Have a Dream” speech.

Other participants in the civil rights movement advocated different tactics than Dr. King’s strategy of nonviolence. The “black pride” and black nationalist movements took a much more strident approach to gaining equality, and many took their cue from Malcolm X, a Black Muslim minister who had stated a willingness to gain freedom and equality for African Americans “by any means necessary.” This brand of civil rights appealed to many blacks who thought that Dr. King and his supporters were moving too slowly and wasting their time by working within “the system.” Though tensions existed between those who followed Dr. King and those who followed Malcolm X. they both realized that many of their goals were the same, and they consequently devoted their energies to fighting discrimination rather than to fighting each other.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964

By the mid-1960s, civil rights protests had begun to make an impression on the country as a whole, and pressure mounted on Congress to pass a measure that would eradicate many forms of discrimination. The result was the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964, which addressed specific problems such as literacy tests used to abridge black voting rights, segregation of public facilities, and equal opportunity for employment, laying down a ban on discrimination based on “race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.” The Act was the greatest political achievement of the civil rights movement, and continues to shape American life to this day.

Civil Rights Movement Vocabulary

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Black Panthers: militant political party who wanted blacks to lead their own communities; directly confronted police; and preached Black Power

Black Power: African-American movement seeking unity and self-reliance

Brown v. Board of Education (1954): a case in which the Supreme Court declared that laws requiring racial segregation in public schools were unconstitutional.

Cesar Chavez: leader of the United Farmer Workers and fought for farm laborers rights using non-violence

Civil disobedience: resistance to governmental authority aimed at forcing that authority to change policies believed to be wrong.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: an act which banned discrimination in voting requirements and by employers and businesses engaged in interstate commerce.

Desegregation/ integration: ending segregation in schools and public facilities

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) (1982): constitutional amendment that declared that equality under the law would not be denied or infringed upon by the United States or any state based on the account of sex

Feminism: theory of favoring the political, economic, and social equality of men and women

Gloria Steinem: leading feminist spokeswoman starting in the 1970s and founder of Ms. magazine

Literacy Test/ Poll Tax: methods used by southern states to keep blacks from voting.

Lyndon B. Johnson: President who signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965

Malcolm X: member of the Nation of Islam who preached separation of the races

Martin Luther King Jr.: Civil Rights leader who used non-violence

Modern Civil Rights Movement: a renewed effort, especially during the 1950s and the 1960s, by blacks and their supporters to gain for blacks’ equality under the law.

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955): the refusal by blacks in Montgomery, Alabama to ride city buses until city ordinances which discriminated against black bus passengers was repealed.

NAACP: the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded in 1909, whose goal was to work for black people’s civil rights.

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National Organization for Women (NOW): formed to eliminate discrimination and harassment in the workplace, schools, the justice system, and all other sectors of society

Robert Kennedy: served as U.S. Attorney General under President John F Kennedy and used federal marshals to protect civil rights activists

Roe v. Wade (1972): Supreme Court decision legalizing abortion in the United States

Rosa Parks: civil rights activist associated with the Montgomery Bus Boycott

“Separate but Equal”: used to describe the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson case that legalized segregation in schools and public accommodations

Thurgood Marshall: NAACP lawyer involved with the Brown v. Board of Education decision and later became the first African-American Supreme Court Justice.

Title IX (1972): federal law that gave female students equal opportunity to participate in athletics

Voting Rights Act of 1965: federal law protecting the voting rights of all U.S. citizens including blacks

Warren Court: time in Supreme Court history that is responsible for expanding civil liberties, civil rights, and other decisions that protected the rights of the accused

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Unit 13: Contemporary U.S. History

Tested Information:I. Contemporary U.S. History

A. 1970s1. Watergate2. OPEC/oil crisis3. Middle East4. Camp David Accords5. Iran Hostage Crisis

B. 1980s1. Afghanistan2. Iran/Contra3. HIV/AIDS4. Conservative Revolution5. Graying of America6. End of Cold War7. Environmental Movement8. Black Monday (Oct. 1987)

C. 1990s- present1. Contract with America2. “Desert Storm”- First War in Iraq3. Domestic and International Terrorism

a. World Trade Center bombingb. Oklahoma Cityc. September 11, 2001/ Post 9/11 d. “War on Terror” e. Patriot Actf. Afghanistang. Iraq War- “Operation Iraqi Freedom”

4. Impeachment of Bill Clinton5. Technology Revolution

a. Personal computersb. Internetc. Cell phones

6. 2000 Presidential Election

People Jimmy Carter - U.S. president who brokered peace between Israel and Egypt under the

Camp David Accords; during his administration Iranian militants seized the U.S. embassy in Iran and held 52 Americans hostage for over a year

Ronald Reagan - stepped up efforts to end communism in the Soviet Union by arms build up, support for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI); used military and economic aid to aid anticommunist forces in Latin America

Mikhail Gorbachev - Soviet leader who introduced the reforms of glasnost (openness) and peristoika (restructuring) that eventually led to the collapse of the Soviet Union starting in 1990

George H.W. Bush – 41st President; President during the First Gulf War Bill Clinton – 42nd President; advocated economic reform Al Gore – Clinton’s Vice-President and Democratic Party candidate in 2000 election

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George W. Bush – 43rd President; President during Sept. 11 and start of Afghanistan and Iraq Wars

Saddam Hussein – Sunni Muslim and Bathist Party dictator of Iraq from 1979-2003 Al-Qaeda – radical Islamic fundamentalists that declared US an enemy in its jihad;

responsible for the bombing of the World Trade Center on Sept. 11

Vocabulary Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) “Star Wars” Jihad – “holy war” Glasnost - openness Peristoika – restructuring (used to refer to economic reforms) Terrorism / terrorist - violence or the threat of violence, especially bombing, kidnapping,

and assassination, carried out for political purposes War on Terror - the U.S. response to the September 11, 2001 attacks by Islamic terrorists on the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and other targets, involving

coordinated action domestically and internationally by the armed forces, the intelligence community, law enforcement, the criminal justice system, and the banking community

State Standards covered in Unit 13I. Contemporary United StatesConcept Contemporary United StatesPerformance Objective: Describe how key political, social, environmental, and economic events of

the late 20th century and early 21st century affected and continue to affect the United States

State Standard Code: US10-3

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Unit 13 Reading

The America of 1968 seemed to be a country in crisis. Riots, demonstrations, and assassinations plagued the nation. Many blamed America's problems on President Johnson's leadership and the war in Vietnam. On Election Day in 1968, Americans turned to Richard Nixon for new leadership.

Richard Nixon won the election in 1968 largely on his promise to achieve "peace with honor" in Vietnam. Soon after taking office, Nixon instituted his policy of Vietnamization, which called for the gradual replacement of U.S. combat troops with South Vietnamese soldiers. Nixon also increased bombing attacks on North Vietnam. He believed these attacks would hinder communist attacks on the South and persuade North Vietnam to seek a negotiated peace. Despite the bombings, the communists were not quick to negotiate. The war dragged on, the bombings increased, and the anti-war demonstrations in America became larger and violent. Finally, in early 1973, the two sides negotiated a treaty. North Vietnam agreed to halt its attacks on the South, and the U.S. agreed to pull its forces out of South Vietnam. But soon after the U.S. withdrawal, the communists resumed their attacks. In 1975, South Vietnam fell. The North and South reunited as a single, communist state called the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

Despite its failed attempts to contain communism in Vietnam, the U.S. had some foreign policy achievements during the Nixon years. Seeking to improve relations between the U.S. and China, President Nixon recognized the legitimacy of China's communist government. He proposed that the United Nations grant China a seat on the Security Council. President Nixon also tried to improve relations with the Soviet Union. In 1972, Nixon and the Soviet leader, Leonid Brezhnev, signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I), which limited each country's production of certain strategic weapons. This effort to ease cold war tensions between the U.S. and the communist powers was called detente.

In domestic affairs Nixon's policies caused controversy. On taking office, Nixon tried to cut former-President Johnson's War on Poverty programs. In bitter battles with the President, Democrats in Congress attempted to block Nixon's efforts. Intense, even underhanded, rivalry between Nixon and the Democrats developed. This climate of hostility and suspicion led Nixon supporters to attempt to steal secrets from the Democratic Party Headquarters in the Watergate office complex. During the following months, investigations revealed that Nixon and/or his staff tried to cover up their role in the Watergate break-in. Faced with what appeared to be eventual impeachment, Nixon resigned. This was the first time in U.S. history that a President was forced from office.

Vice-President Gerald Ford replaced Nixon. Claiming that it was in America's interest to put an end to the Watergate ordeal, Ford pardoned Nixon of any crimes he might have committed. Many people faulted Ford for granting Nixon a pardon. In the 1976 presidential election, the Democratic nominee, Jimmy Carter defeated Ford.

Carter hoped to use his presidency to make a better, more humane world. In what came to be known as his human rights policy, Carter announced that the U.S. would not support the government of any country, even those of military allies, which violated the human rights of its

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people. As a part of his quest for a better world, Carter led peace talks which resulted in a treaty between two arch enemies, Israel and Egypt.

But other problems plagued the Carter presidency. Led by Arab oil producers, an oil cartel called the Organization of Oil Exporting Countries (OPEC) repeatedly raised the price of their oil. This, in turn, led to price inflation in the U.S. Meanwhile, unemployment increased, despite a massive government program of education and training for the unemployed. In 1979 the U.S. suffered another setback when Iranians took more than 50 Americans as hostages. Carter's failure to gain their release accentuated his image as a weak leader.

In the presidential contest of 1980, Americans showed their disapproval of Carter and elected instead the conservative Republican candidate, Ronald Reagan.

REAGAN VOWS TO MAKE AMERICA STRONG AGAIN

The Republican nominee in the 1980 presidential election was the former actor and governor of California, Ronald Reagan. He campaigned for the presidency on a largely conservative platform. Reagan claimed that past "liberal" policies of excessive taxation and governmental regulation by Democrats had stifled businesses as well as individuals. He also claimed that "liberal, big-government" policies of Democrats had contributed to the unemployment and inflation problems of the 1970s. Reagan promised that, if elected, he would "get the government off the backs of the people" and restore economic freedom. Reagan also attacked President Carter's defense policies. Claiming that Carter's return of the Panama Canal and the national humiliation of the Iran hostage crisis demonstrated America's growing weakness -- candidate Reagan promised to make America strong again. Many Americans were attracted to Reagan's conservative message. He defeated Carter by a wide margin.

Once in office, Reagan was true to his campaign promises. With the support of Republicans and conservative Democrats in Congress, he eased some regulations on businesses and cut taxes. Some federal social programs were also cut. Military expenditures, however, were not cut. Instead, Reagan led the most expensive peacetime military buildup in the nation's history.

President Reagan was also determined to halt and, if possible, reverse the spread of communism. Early in his administration, he ordered a military invasion of the Caribbean island nation of Grenada. This resulted in the toppling of that nation's communist government. Reagan also successfully increased military aid to El Salvador in an effort to halt the communist rebellion in that nation. Meanwhile, the Reagan administration sought to end communist rule in Nicaragua by financing anti-communist rebels, called Contras. But Congress ended this pro-Contra effort when it learned of illegal efforts by the CIA and others to assist the Contras.

REAGAN AND GORBACHEV BEGIN TALKS TO REDUCE NUCLEAR WEAPONS STOCKPILES IN THE U.S. AND U.S.S.R.

Meanwhile, President Reagan's hard-line attitude toward the Soviet Union produced some important results. In 1983 he proposed that the U.S. build a system of space satellites that would

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protect America from a guided-missile attack by the Soviet Union or any other enemy. Though this program, called the Strategic Defense Initiative ("Star Wars"), would be one of the most complex and expensive programs ever attempted by the U.S., many Americans supported the idea. The Soviets, however, were alarmed by Reagan's Star Wars proposal. In 1985 the new Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, found himself in a dilemma. If the Soviet Union tried to build its own expensive Star Wars system, it would put an unbearable strain on the country's already weak economy. But if the Soviets did not build its own anti-missile defenses, the American Star Wars system would give the U.S. a tremendous advantage in any war. Gorbachev decided to solve this problem by proposing a bold plan.

He suggested that the U.S. and U.S.S.R. drastically reduce their stockpiles of nuclear weapons. This would make the building of a Star Wars system unnecessary. President Reagan, who also wanted to reduce the number of offensive weapons, began to negotiate with Gorbachev towards a reduction of both U.S. and U.S.S.R. nuclear weapons. Meanwhile, Gorbachev announced that the Soviet government would end its strict control over its people. Gorbachev said that Soviet citizens would be given greater economic and personal freedom. Americans were pleasantly surprised at Gorbachev's ideas. He was greeted by cheering crowds when he visited the U.S. Many hoped that the cold war was finally coming to an end. Many Americans gave Reagan's policies credit for forcing changes within the Soviet Union.

BUSH CONTINUES THE POLICIES OF REAGAN

America's initial judgment of the Reagan years was revealed in the results of the presidential election of 1988. The Republican nominee, George Bush (who had been vice-president under Reagan), promised that he would continue the conservative policies of the Reagan years. Bush easily defeated his Democratic opponent, Michael Dukakis, who the Republicans labeled as a big-spending liberal. Many observers also saw the election as a sign that Reagan had made conservatism the dominant force in America.

During his presidency (1989-1993), George Bush's domestic policies were quite conservative. Like Reagan, Bush rejected a call for "big-government" solutions to social problems, and he tried to further reduce government regulations on businesses. When the U.S. slid into an economic recession in 1992, Bush did not take strong federal actions to revive the economy.

Though President Bush followed a rather "hands-off" approach to domestic problems, he was extremely active when it came to foreign affairs. In late 1989 he ordered U.S. forces to invade Panama and arrest its dictatorial ruler, Manuel Noriega. Bush claimed Noriega violated U.S. law by conspiring with others to smuggle drugs into the United States. In 1990 Bush again responded with action after Iraq launched a surprise attack on its oil-rich neighbor, Kuwait. Fearing that Iraq's leader, Saddam Hussein, might also try to conquer Saudi Arabia, Bush sent troops there to block any further attacks. Bush then played a leading role in convincing the United Nations to authorize member nations to use military power, if necessary, to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi control. In early 1991 a United Nations force, composed mainly of American units, quickly drove the Iraqis out of Kuwait.

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THE COLD WAR COMES TO AN END

Meanwhile, the Bush years witnessed one of the most important developments of the 20th century -- communist governments in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union collapsed and the cold war came to an end. During the late 1980s people in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union used their newly granted freedom of speech (a freedom granted by Gorbachev) to speak out against communist rule. Soon anti-communist demonstrations became so large that communist authorities could no longer control them. Communist governments gave into the demonstrators' demand for democratic elections. In one Eastern European country after another, communist governments were voted out of power and replaced with people who promised democratic and free-market reforms. Anti-communists gained control of East Germany and then cooperated with West Germans to reunite the two parts into a single nation in 1990. Both the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. gave the reunification of Germany their blessing. This cooperation, as well as friendly negotiations between the U.S. and Soviet Union during 1990, caused many people to regard that year as the end of the cold war.

The following year, communist rule ended in the Soviet Union as anti-communist leaders in several republics (like Russia's Boris Yeltsin) called upon their republics to secede from the Soviet Union. By late 1991 it became clear that most, if not all, of the Soviet republics were going to leave the Soviet Union. Mikhail Gorbachev resigned as leader of the rapidly collapsing Soviet Union. By the end of 1991 the Soviet Union has ceased to exist.

BUSH LOSES THE 1992 ELECTION TO CLINTON AS A RESULT OF GROWING DOMESTIC PROBLEMS

Americans gave President Bush high marks for his handling of foreign affairs. But during 1991 and 1992 many people began to criticize Bush for his handling of domestic problems. During the presidential campaign of 1992 the nominee of the Democratic Party, Bill Clinton, claimed that Bush had ignored the needs of average Americans. Meanwhile, an independent presidential candidate, Ross Perot, charged that both Bush and his predecessor, Ronald Reagan, had allowed the government's debt to rise from $1 trillion to $4 trillion. These charges caused Bush's popularity to drop even more.

Meanwhile, Clinton proposed a plan to pay off the national debt by raising taxes on the rich. He also promised voters that he would reform the nation's health-care system so that all Americans would be covered. Bush claimed that Clinton's ideas were far too liberal and that his "tax-and-spend" proposals would lead to high taxes for all and greater government regulation of businesses. But Americans were ready for a change. In November 1992 voters elected Bill Clinton as America's 42nd president.

CONSERVATIVE OPPOSITION FORCES CLINTON TO RETHINK SOME OF HIS DOMESTIC GOALS

When Clinton took office in January 1993, he promised America a "New Direction." Many people thought changes would come thick and fast. But this was not to be. Republicans in Congress, as well as conservative Democrats, resisted some of Clinton's "liberal" proposals.

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Congress refused to enact Clinton's national health-insurance plan claiming that it was too expensive and that it gave government too much control over people's personal medical decisions. Clinton's difficulties with Congress caused many people to view him as a weak leader.

The public's growing lack of confidence in Clinton's leadership became strikingly clear during the mid-term congressional elections of 1994. For the first time in nearly 50 years, Americans elected a conservative Republican majority to both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The new Republican-controlled Congress then promised to provide the leadership which Clinton seemed unable to give. It began to draft laws to balance the budget and cut back "expensive" social programs.

Congressional Republicans were particularly eager to scrap the nation's welfare system. They claimed that it weakened traditional values such as individualism and self-reliance. At first Clinton opposed deep cuts in welfare programs. But the stunning Republican victory in the 1994 Congressional elections, as well as the failure of his national health-insurance plan, convinced Clinton that he would have to rethink his position on welfare. The result was the Welfare Reform Act of 1996. It authorized each state to create its own welfare program. The federal government would help states finance these programs as long as states required most adults on welfare to find work within two years. States would also have to limit a welfare recipient to no more than a total of five years of benefits. The law also ended the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program. This meant that large numbers of people would no longer be entitled to federal aid.

CLINTON'S FOREIGN POLICY EXPERIENCES SUCCESS ABROAD

On taking office in January of 1993, Clinton inherited a difficult foreign-policy problem. Hundreds of Haitians were fleeing by boat to Florida and other southern states in order to escape the dictator, General Cedras, who had seized power from Haiti's democratically elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide. Concern by many native Floridians over the sudden immigration into their state, plus news reports that many Haitian boat people drowned in rough seas, forced Clinton to take action. At the urging of the U.S. and other nations, on January 31, 1994 the United Nations authorized U.N. members to use force, if necessary, to remove the dictator Cedras from power. Fearing an attack from the U.S., Cedras agreed to step down and allow Aristide to return to power. Many people praised Clinton for resolving the problem in Haiti without bloodshed.

Another foreign-policy difficulty which Clinton inherited was the ongoing civil war in Bosnia between Bosnian Muslims and Bosnian Serbs. The mass murder of civilians and other horrific atrocities, particularly at the hands of the Bosnian Serbs, reminded people of the Nazi policy of genocide during World War II. United Nations peacekeepers were unable to halt the fighting, particularly because of continued hostility by Bosnian Serbs. The U.S. and other NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) members then began bombing raids against Serb military positions. This action convinced Serb leaders to accept a U.S. invitation to meet with Bosnian Muslims at an air force base near Dayton, Ohio. There the warring parties agreed that Bosnia would be divided into two sections, one for the Bosnian Serbs and the other for Bosnian Muslims

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and Bosnian Croats. (The Croats were another ethnic minority which lived in northern and western parts of Bosnia.) The agreement also called for 60,000 NATO peacekeeping troops to be sent to Bosnia, one-third of which would come from the U.S. Many people praised Clinton and American diplomats for providing leadership which helped end the bloodshed in Bosnia.

Yugoslavia again became the focus of world attention in 1999. Beginning in March 1998, ethnic Albanians in the Yugoslav province of Kosovo came under attack from the Serbian nationals of Yugoslavia. In an effort to stop "ethnic cleansing," NATO began air strikes in March 1999. After 10 weeks of bombing, Yugoslav leader Milosevic indicated a willingness to settle the conflict. But by this point hundreds of thousands of ethnic Albanians had been forced from their homes into neighboring countries.

Meanwhile, American foreign policy in the Middle East also saw positive results. Clinton, like previous presidents of the post-World War II period, urged Israelis and Palestinians to settle their differences with some kind of compromise. Leaders of other nations did the same. Against this backdrop, in 1993 Norwegian diplomats invited Israeli and Palestinian negotiators to a series of meetings near Oslo, Norway. As a result of these negotiations, the Palestinians agreed to recognize Israel's right to exist. For its part, Israel agreed to recognize the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) to be the legal representative of the Palestinian people. Understandings reached at Oslo led to further agreements. The important issue of land-ownership was partly resolved when Israel agreed to pull its troops out of Gaza and large parts of the West Bank region and to grant Palestinians limited self-rule in these areas. One of the treaties was signed at a White House ceremony on September 28, 1995. On this occasion President Clinton successfully urged the leaders of Israel and the Palestinians to shake hands in peace -- a handshake which became the symbol of long-awaited peace between the two ancient enemies.

TERRORISM AND OTHER ACTS OF VIOLENCE DISRUPT AMERICA DURING CLINTON'S FIRST TERM

On February 26, 1993, just weeks after Clinton assumed office, Americans were alarmed by reports that terrorists had detonated a massive bomb near the base of the New York City's World Trade Center (Twin Towers). The FBI began a swift and intensive investigation which quickly led to the arrests and conviction of Arab terrorists. This, as well as the arrest of other Arabs who had plotted to blow up the United Nations building, caused many Americans to fear that more terrorist bombings would be forthcoming.

However, the next major act of violence in the U.S. was not committed by foreign terrorists, but by Americans themselves. On April 19, 1993, a fire broke out while federal agents raided the compound of the Branch Davidian cult in Waco, Texas, where the cult allegedly stored illegal weapons. The fire killed 72 cult members, including their leader, David Koresh. Though there was evidence that the raid was justified and that cult members had started the fire themselves, the federal government was criticized for its handling of the crisis.

Then on April 19, 1995, exactly two years after the Waco incident, a massive truck bomb was detonated outside the federal building in Oklahoma City, killing 169 people (including one rescue worker). Though some Americans jumped to the conclusion that the bombing was the

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work of foreign terrorists, they later learned that two former U.S. soldiers, Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols, were arrested and charged with the crime. According to reports, McVeigh and Nichols were seeking revenge on the U.S. government for its raid on the Branch Davidian cult two years earlier.

Meanwhile, another form of violence was dominating the news -- that of violence toward women. This problem was highlighted by the tragic story of Nicole Brown Simpson. On June 12, 1994, Nicole's mutilated body, along with that of her friend, Ron Goldman, was discovered. A long history of physical abuse against Nicole at the hands of her then-husband, O.J. Simpson, caused many to suspect that he had abused Nicole in the most extreme way -- by murdering her. This history of abuse, as well as the discovery of physical evidence, led to Simpson's arrest on the charge of murder. The trial took nearly a year but the jury was quick to find Simpson "not guilty." Simpson's defense attorneys had convinced the jury that there was a possibility that police had "planted evidence" in an effort to "get" Simpson. Many people, including the Goldman and Brown families, were outraged at the verdict. Since Simpson could not be retried for the same crime (double jeopardy is unconstitutional), the Brown and Goldman families decided to sue Simpson in civil court for the "wrongful deaths" of Nicole and Ron. This time Simpson lost. The civil jury found him liable and ordered him to pay $33.5 million in damages. The case of Nicole Brown led other women to speak out against those who abused them. For example, several female soldiers in the U.S. military services complained that they had been abused by servicemen. Subsequently, President Clinton and the heads of the military services declared a policy of "zero tolerance" of abuse towards servicewomen.

CLINTON WINS REELECTION IN 1996 AND SETS GOALS FOR A SECOND TERM

Midway through President Clinton's first term in office, few people thought he could win reelection to a second term. His failure to achieve his plan for health-insurance reform and the smashing Republican victory in the Congressional elections of 1994, seemed to demonstrate Clinton's loss of public support. To make matters worse, Clinton's name was associated with a number of so-called scandals. One of these involved accusations that Clinton, while governor of Arkansas, was involved in an illegal use of money to pay for his campaigns and property in Arkansas. Then, just weeks before the election, news stories reported accusations that Clinton and the Democratic Party had used questionable methods to finance his 1996 presidential campaign.

But during the campaign, Clinton was able to draw attention to some of his accomplishments. The tax increase that he had pushed for in 1993, though unpopular, had led to a significant decrease in the federal deficit. Clinton claimed that the lowering of the deficit and his other economic policies had strengthened the nation's economy and created more jobs. He also pointed to other accomplishments, such as enactment of stricter gun-control laws and a significant increase in the minimum wage. Clinton also reminded voters of his record of protecting a woman's right to have an abortion, something his Republican opponent, Robert Dole of Kansas, opposed. Meanwhile, many Americans continued to praise Clinton for his foreign policy accomplishments in Haiti and Bosnia.

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On Election Day, 1996, Clinton earned a second term in office by winning a substantial majority of electoral votes. But the popular vote count revealed that still Clinton lacked wide support -- he won only 49% of the ballots cast. Dole received 41%. Ross Perot, nominee of the Reform Party, got 8%. The remaining 2% of the vote was split between other minor-party candidates.

CLINTON'S SECOND TERM

In the first two years of his second term, President Clinton continued to benefit politically from an exceptionally strong economy that was characterized by the lowest unemployment, the lowest rate of inflation, and the lowest federal deficit in more than 20 years. Public opinion polls showed strong approval for his conduct of the presidency, which was even further strengthened when, in 1997, he arrived at a ground-breaking agreement with Congress to balance the federal budget by 2002.

Nonetheless, significant problems for the president included charges left over from the 1996 presidential campaign that he, Vice-President Gore, and the Democratic Party had engaged in illegal fundraising practices. In 1997 a Senate committee headed by Fred Thompson of Tennessee looked into those issues, with inconclusive results. Democrats argued that Republicans had engaged in similar or even worse practices but that the Republican Congress was not interested in investigating those. Charges that China had acquired secret U.S. missile technology as the result of technology-transfer waivers granted by the White House were tied to the claim that the president of the U.S. company that might have transferred that technology was a large contributor of campaign funds to the Democratic Party. When President Clinton announced that he would be the first U.S. president in a decade to visit China, some members of Congress urged him to cancel his trip until that issue had been investigated and resolved. Clinton, however, chose to continue to pursue closer relations with China.

The President also faced potential difficulties resulting from a Supreme Court decision permitting Paula Jones to pursue a lawsuit charging him with sexual harassment. The president's attorneys had argued that such a suit should be postponed until the president left office, but the Supreme Court rejected those arguments. The president did win a victory, however, when some months later, a federal district judge dismissed the suit on the grounds that even if they were true, the allegations made against the president did not rise to the level of sexual harassment as defined by law.

One result of the initial decision to allow the lawsuit to proceed, however, was an investigation by independent counsel Kenneth Starr into matters surrounding legal depositions earlier made in the Jones case. Questions arose as to whether, in claiming there had been no sexual relationship between them, President Clinton and a former White House intern, Monica Lewinsky, had perjured themselves under oath. Also under investigation was whether the president had sought to obstruct justice by helping Ms. Lewinsky find a private sector job in order to buy her silence about their relationship. In September Starr sent the results of his investigation to Congress. A month later the House of Representatives opened impeachment hearings. In December, the House voted to impeach President Bill Clinton on two charges: lying under oath to a grand jury about his relationship with Ms. Lewinsky and obstruction of justice

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for coaching his secretary to lie about this relationship. After a 37-day trial -- largely dominated by partisan politics -- the Senate voted to acquit the President on both charges.

The Republican Party continued to face internal divisions of various sorts. A group of Republican House members, concerned that Speaker Gingrich's ethical problems and strategic political errors had severely undermined his ability to present the Republican viewpoint to the American people, plotted secretly to remove him from the Speakership. When their plan became known prematurely, however, it was quickly aborted. Nevertheless, Gingrich resigned both his Speakership and his Congressional seat following Republican loses in the 1998 mid-term elections. In the Senate, the chair of the Foreign Relations Committee, Jesse Helms, a staunchly conservative Republican, succeeded in blocking the nomination of Governor William Weld of Massachusetts, a moderate Republican, to be the U.S. ambassador to Mexico.

The U.S. faced a crisis when Saddam Hussein, the president of Iraq, refused to allow U.N. inspectors to examine certain facilities suspected of being sites for the preparation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons. The U.S. threatened the use of military force if inspections were not allowed, and seemed to go the brink of war, at which point Iraq suddenly acceded to the U.S. demands.

U.S. involvement in global affairs continued to grow on several fronts. Regarding the civil war in the former Yugoslavia, President Clinton announced that U.S. peacekeeping troops would remain in Bosnia indefinitely, a change from his previous policy that had announced a set time for the troops' return. In Northern Ireland, President Clinton's emissary, former Senator George Mitchell, helped to negotiate a settlement for a peace plan that was ultimately overwhelmingly supported in a referendum voted on by the people of that land. Nuclear testing by India, which prompted retaliatory testing by Pakistan, her longtime foe, generated concern in the U.S. regarding potential political and military destabilization in that part of the world. Finally, economic instability in Asia, Brazil and Russia aroused anxiety that the American economy would be adversely affected. However, after a brief drop, the stock market continued to soar -- with the Dow Jones Industrial Average eventually breaking the 11,000 mark late in the summer of 1999.

Domestically, the U.S. found Congress unwilling or unable to deal with some of the issues at the top of the nation's agenda. Campaign finance reform failed when it was found that insufficient votes were available to break a Senate filibuster preventing a vote on the reform. Also failing to pass Congress was a settlement between the U.S. government and the tobacco industry whereby that industry would give the government billions of dollars to help pay for the medical costs of the illnesses caused by cigarette smoking. With the American economy still growing, the national government finds itself with a budget surplus running into the hundreds of billions of dollars. A budget debate now developed over what to do with the surplus: whether to enact tax cuts, put the money into social security, pay down the national debt, or expand spending.

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APPENDIX

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THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

Action of Second Continental Congress, July 4, 1776

The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America

WHEN in the Course of human Events,it becomes necessary for one People to dissolve the Political Bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the Powers of the Earth, the separate and equal Station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent Respect to the Opinions of Mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the Separation.

WE hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness -- That to secure these Rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just Powers from the Consent of the Governed, that whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these Ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its Foundation on such Principles, and organizing its Powers in such Form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient Causes; and accordingly all Experience hath shewn, that Mankind are more disposed to suffer, while Evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the Forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long Train of Abuses and Usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object, evinces a Design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their Right, it is their Duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future Security. Such has been the patient Sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the Necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The History of the present King of Great- Britain is a History of repeated Injuries and Usurpations, all having in direct Object the Establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid World.

HE has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public Good.

HE has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing Importance, unless suspended in their Operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

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HE has refused to pass other Laws for the Accommodation of large Districts of People, unless those People would relinquish the Right of Representation in the Legislature, a Right inestimable to them, and formidable to Tyrants only.

HE has called together Legislative Bodies at Places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the Depository of their public Records, for the sole Purpose of fatiguing them into Compliance with his Measures. HE has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly Firmness his Invasions on the Rights of the People.

HE has refused for a long Time, after such Dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of the Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the Dangers of Invasion from without, and the Convulsions within.

HE has endeavoured to prevent the Population of these States; for that Purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their Migrations hither, and raising the Conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.

HE has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.

HE has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the Tenure of their Offices, and the Amount and Payment of their Salaries.

HE has erected a Multitude of new Offices, and sent hither Swarms of Officers to harrass our People, and eat out their Substance.

HE has kept among us, in Times of Peace, Standing Armies, without the consent of our Legislatures.

HE has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.

HE has combined with others to subject us to a Jurisdiction foreign to our Constitution, and unacknowledged by our Laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:

FOR quartering large Bodies of Armed Troops among us;

FOR protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:

FOR cutting off our Trade with all Parts of the World:

FOR imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

FOR depriving us, in many Cases, of the Benefits of Trial by Jury:

FOR transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended Offences:

FOR abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an arbitrary Government, and enlarging its Boundaries, so as to render it at once an Example and fit Instrument for introducing the same absolute Rules into these Colonies:

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FOR taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:

FOR suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with Power to legislate for us in all Cases whatsoever.

HE has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.

HE has plundered our Seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our Towns, and destroyed the Lives of our People.

HE is, at this Time, transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the Works of Death, Desolation, and Tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty and Perfidy, scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous Ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized Nation.

HE has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the Executioners of their Friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.

HE has excited domestic Insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the Inhabitants of our Frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known Rule of Warfare, is an undistinguished Destruction, of all Ages, Sexes and Conditions.

IN every stage of these Oppressions we have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble Terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated Injury. A Prince, whose Character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the Ruler of a free People.

NOR have we been wanting in Attentions to our British Brethren. We have warned them from Time to Time of Attempts by their Legislature to extend an unwarrantable Jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the Circumstances of our Emigration and Settlement here. We have appealed to their native Justice and Magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the Ties of our common Kindred to disavow these Usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our Connections and Correspondence. They too have been deaf to the Voice of Justice and of Consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the Necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of Mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace, Friends.

WE, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the World for the Rectitude of our Intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly Publish and Declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES; that they are absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political Connection between them and the State of Great-Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which INDEPENDENT STATES may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm Reliance on the Protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.

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THE UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION

(See Note 1)

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

Article. I.

Section 1.

All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

Section. 2.

Clause 1: The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.

Clause 2: No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

Clause 3: Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. (See Note 2) The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four,

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Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

Clause 4: When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.

Clause 5: The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.

Section. 3.

Clause 1: The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, (See Note 3) for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.

Clause 2: Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. (See Note 4)

Clause 3: No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

Clause 4: The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.

Clause 5: The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.

Clause 6: The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.

Clause 7: Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.

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Section. 4.

Clause 1: The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators.

Clause 2: The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, (See Note 5) unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

Section. 5.

Clause 1: Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.

Clause 2: Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member.

Clause 3: Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal.

Clause 4: Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

Section. 6.

Clause 1: The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. (See Note 6) They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, beprivileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.

Clause 2: No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.

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Section. 7.

Clause 1: All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.

Clause 2: Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law.

Clause 3: Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.

Section. 8.

Clause 1: The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

Clause 2: To borrow Money on the credit of the United States;

Clause 3: To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

Clause 4: To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;

Clause 5: To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures;

Clause 6: To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States;

Clause 7: To establish Post Offices and post Roads;

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Clause 8: To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;

Clause 9: To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;

Clause 10: To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations;

Clause 11: To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water;

Clause 12: To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;

Clause 13: To provide and maintain a Navy;

Clause 14: To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;

Clause 15: To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;

Clause 16: To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

Clause 17: To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings;--And

Clause 18: To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

Section. 9.

Clause 1: The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.

Clause 2: The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.

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Clause 3: No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.

Clause 4: No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. (See Note 7)

Clause 5: No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.

Clause 6: No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.

Clause 7: No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.

Clause 8: No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State.

Section. 10.

Clause 1: No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.

Clause 2: No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress.

Clause 3: No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.

Article. II.

Section. 1.

Clause 1: The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows

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Clause 2: Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.

Clause 3: The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President. (See Note 8)

Clause 4: The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.

Clause 5: No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.

Clause 6: In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, (See Note 9) the Same shall devolve on the VicePresident, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.

Clause 7: The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.

Clause 8: Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:--"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of

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President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."

Section. 2.

Clause 1: The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.

Clause 2: He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.

Clause 3: The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.

Section. 3.

He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States.

Section. 4.

The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.

Article. III.

Section. 1.

The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of

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the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.

Section. 2.

Clause 1: The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;--to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;--to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;--to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;--to Controversies between two or more States;--between a State and Citizens of another State; (See Note 10)--between Citizens of different States, --between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.

Clause 2: In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.

Clause 3: The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed.

Section. 3.

Clause 1: Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.

Clause 2: The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.

Article. IV.

Section. 1.

Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.

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Section. 2.

Clause 1: The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.

Clause 2: A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.

Clause 3: No Person held to Service or Labor in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labor, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labor may be due. (See Note 11)

Section. 3.

Clause 1: New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

Clause 2: The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.

Section. 4.

The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence.

Article. V.

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.

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Article. VI.

Clause 1: All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.

Clause 2: This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.

Clause 3: The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.

Article. VII. The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.

done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth In witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names,

GEORGE WASHINGTON--President. and deputy from Virginia

[Signed also by the deputies of twelve States.]

Delaware George ReadGunning Bedford Jr.John Dickinson Richard Bassett Jacob Broom

Maryland James McHenryDaniel of St. Thomas Jenifer Daniel Carroll

Virginia John BlairJames Madison Jr.

North Carolina

William BlountKnight DobbsHugh Williamson

South Carolina John RutledgeCharles Cotesworth PinckneyCharles PinckneyPierce Butler

Georgia William FewAbraham Baldwin

New Hampshire

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John LangdonNicholas Gilman

Massachusetts Nathaniel GorhamRufus King

ConnecticutWilliam Samuel JohnsonRoger Sherman

New York Alexander Hamilton

New Jersey William LivingstonDavid Brearley

William PatersonJonathan Dayton

Pennsylvania Benjamin FranklinThomas MifflinRobert MorrisGeorge ClymerThomas Fitzsimons Jared Ingersoll James WilsonGouvernuer Morris

Attest William Jackson Secretary

NOTESNote 1: This text of the Constitution follows the engrossed copy signed by Gen. Washington and the deputies from 12 States. The small superior figures preceding the paragraphs designate Clauses, and were not in the original and have no reference to footnotes.

The Constitution was adopted by a convention of the States on September 17, 1787, and was subsequently ratified by the several States, on the following dates: Delaware, December 7, 1787; Pennsylvania, December 12, 1787; New Jersey, December 18, 1787; Georgia, January 2, 1788; Connecticut, January 9, 1788; Massachusetts, February 6, 1788; Maryland, April 28, 1788; South Carolina, May 23, 1788; New Hampshire, June 21, 1788.

Ratification was completed on June 21, 1788.

The Constitution was subsequently ratified by Virginia, June 25, 1788; New York, July 26, 1788; North Carolina, November 21, 1789; Rhode Island, May 29, 1790; and Vermont, January 10, 1791.

In May 1785, a committee of Congress made a report recommending an alteration in the Articles of Confederation, but no action was taken on it, and it was left to the State Legislatures to proceed in the matter. In January 1786, the Legislature of Virginia passed a resolution providing for the appointment of five commissioners, who, or any three of them, should meet such commissioners as might be appointed in the other States of the Union, at a time and place to be agreed upon, to take into consideration the trade of the United States; to consider how far a uniform system in their commercial regulations may be necessary to their common interest and their permanent harmony; and to report to the several States such an act, relative to this great object, as, when ratified by them, will enable the United States in Congress effectually to provide for the same. The Virginia commissioners, after some correspondence, fixed the first Monday in September as the time, and the city of Annapolis as the place for the meeting, but only four other

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States were represented, viz: Delaware, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; the commissioners appointed by Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and Rhode Island failed to attend. Under the circumstances of so partial a representation, the commissioners present agreed upon a report, (drawn by Mr. Hamilton, of New York,) expressing their unanimous conviction that it might essentially tend to advance the interests of the Union if the States by which they were respectively delegated would concur, and use their endeavors to procure the concurrence of the other States, in the appointment of commissioners to meet at Philadelphia on the Second Monday of May following, to take into consideration the situation of the United States; to devise such further provisions as should appear to them necessary to render the Constitution of the Federal Government adequate to the exigencies of the Union; and to report such an act for that purpose to the United States in Congress assembled as, when agreed to by them and afterwards confirmed by the Legislatures of every State, would effectually provide for the same.

Congress, on the 21st of February, 1787, adopted a resolution in favor of a convention, and the Legislatures of those States which had not already done so (with the exception of Rhode Island) promptly appointed delegates. On the 25th of May, seven States having convened, George Washington, of Virginia, was unanimously elected President, and the consideration of the proposed constitution was commenced. On the 17th of September, 1787, the Constitution as engrossed and agreed upon was signed by all the members present, except Mr. Gerry of Massachusetts, and Messrs. Mason and Randolph, of Virginia. The president of the convention transmitted it to Congress, with a resolution stating how the proposed Federal Government should be put in operation, and an explanatory letter. Congress, on the 28th of September, 1787, directed the Constitution so framed, with the resolutions and letter concerning the same, to "be transmitted to the several Legislatures in order to be submitted to a convention of delegates chosen in each State by the people thereof, in conformity to the resolves of the convention."

On the 4th of March, 1789, the day which had been fixed for commencing the operations of Government under the new Constitution, it had been ratified by the conventions chosen in each State to consider it, as follows: Delaware, December 7, 1787; Pennsylvania, December 12, 1787; New Jersey, December 18, 1787; Georgia, January 2, 1788; Connecticut, January 9, 1788; Massachusetts, February 6, 1788; Maryland, April 28, 1788; South Carolina, May 23, 1788; New Hampshire, June 21, 1788; Virginia, June 25, 1788; and New York, July 26, 1788.

The President informed Congress, on the 28th of January, 1790, that North Carolina had ratified the Constitution November 21, 1789; and he informed Congress on the 1st of June, 1790, that Rhode Island had ratified the Constitution May 29, 1790. Vermont, in convention, ratified the Constitution January 10, 1791, and was, by an act of Congress approved February 18, 1791, "received and admitted into this Union as a new and entire member of the United States."

Note 2: The part of this Clause relating to the mode of apportionment of representatives among the several States has been affected by Section 2 of amendment XIV, and as to taxes on incomes without apportionment by amendment XVI.

Note 3: This Clause has been affected by Clause 1 of amendment XVII.

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Note 4: This Clause has been affected by Clause 2 of amendment XVIII.

Note 5: This Clause has been affected by amendment XX.

Note 6: This Clause has been affected by amendment XXVII.

Note 7: This Clause has been affected by amendment XVI.

Note 8: This Clause has been superseded by amendment XII.

Note 9: This Clause has been affected by amendment XXV.

Note 10: This Clause has been affected by amendment XI.

Note 11: This Clause has been affected by amendment XIII.

Note 12: The first ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States (and two others, one of which failed of ratification and the other which later became the 27th amendment) were proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the First Congress on September 25, 1789. The first ten amendments were ratified by the following States, and the notifications of ratification by the Governors thereof were successively communicated by the President to Congress: New Jersey, November 20, 1789; Maryland, December 19, 1789; North Carolina, December 22, 1789; South Carolina, January 19, 1790; New Hampshire, January 25, 1790; Delaware, January 28, 1790; New York, February 24, 1790; Pennsylvania, March 10, 1790; Rhode Island, June 7, 1790; Vermont, November 3, 1791; and Virginia, December 15, 1791.

Ratification was completed on December 15, 1791.

The amendments were subsequently ratified by the legislatures of Massachusetts, March 2, 1939; Georgia, March 18, 1939; and Connecticut, April 19, 1939.

Note 13: Only the 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th articles of amendment had numbers assigned to them at the time of ratification.

Note 14: This sentence has been superseded by section 3 of amendment XX.

Note 15: See amendment XIX and section 1 of amendment XXVI.

Note 16: Repealed by section 1 of amendment XXI.

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Amendments to the Constitution

ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENTS OF, THE

Amendments to the ConstitutionCONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, PROPOSED BY CONGRESS, AND RATIFIED BY THE LEGISLATURES OF THE SEVERAL STATES, PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION (See Note 12)

Article [I.] (See Note 13)

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

Article [II.]

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

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Article [III.]

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Article [IV.]

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Article [V.]

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Article [VI.]

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.

Article [VII.]

In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Article [VIII.]

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Article [IX.]

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

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Article [X.]

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

[Article XI.]

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.

Proposal and Ratification

The eleventh amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Third Congress, on the 4th of March 1794; and was declared in a message from the President to Congress, dated the 8th of January, 1798, to have been ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the States. The dates of ratification were: New York, March 27, 1794; Rhode Island, March 31, 1794; Connecticut, May 8, 1794; New Hampshire, June 16, 1794; Massachusetts, June 26, 1794; Vermont, between October 9, 1794 and November 9, 1794; Virginia, November 18, 1794; Georgia, November 29, 1794; Kentucky, December 7, 1794; Maryland, December 26, 1794; Delaware, January 23, 1795; North Carolina, February 7, 1795.

Ratification was completed on February 7, 1795.

The amendment was subsequently ratified by South Carolina on December 4, 1797. New Jersey and Pennsylvania did not take action on the amendment.

[Article XII.]

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;--The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;--The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then

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the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. (See Note 14)--The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.

Proposal and Ratification The twelfth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Eighth Congress, on the 9th of December, 1803, in lieu of the original third paragraph of the first section of the second article; and was declared in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated the 25th of September, 1804, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 13 of the 17 States. The dates of ratification were: North Carolina, December 21, 1803; Maryland, December 24, 1803; Kentucky, December 27, 1803; Ohio, December 30, 1803; Pennsylvania, January 5, 1804; Vermont, January 30, 1804; Virginia, February 3, 1804; New York, February 10, 1804; New Jersey, February 22, 1804; Rhode Island, March 12, 1804; South Carolina, May 15, 1804; Georgia, May 19, 1804; New Hampshire, June 15, 1804.

Ratification was completed on June 15, 1804.

The amendment was subsequently ratified by Tennessee, July 27, 1804.

The amendment was rejected by Delaware, January 18, 1804; Massachusetts, February 3, 1804; Connecticut, at its session begun May 10, 1804.

Article XIII.

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Proposal and Ratification

The thirteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Thirty-eighth Congress, on the 31st day of January, 1865, and was declared, in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated the 18th of December, 1865, to have been ratified by the legislatures of twenty-seven of the thirty-six States. The dates of ratification were: Illinois, February 1, 1865; Rhode Island, February 2, 1865; Michigan, February 2, 1865; Maryland, February 3, 1865; New York, February 3, 1865; Pennsylvania, February 3, 1865; West Virginia, February 3, 1865; Missouri, February 6, 1865; Maine, February 7, 1865; Kansas, February 7, 1865; Massachusetts, February 7, 1865; Virginia, February 9, 1865; Ohio, February 10, 1865; Indiana, February 13, 1865; Nevada, February 16, 1865; Louisiana, February

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17, 1865; Minnesota, February 23, 1865; Wisconsin, February 24, 1865; Vermont, March 9, 1865; Tennessee, April 7, 1865; Arkansas, April 14, 1865; Connecticut, May 4, 1865; New Hampshire, July 1, 1865; South Carolina, November 13, 1865; Alabama, December 2, 1865; North Carolina, December 4, 1865; Georgia, December 6, 1865.

Ratification was completed on December 6, 1865.

The amendment was subsequently ratified by Oregon, December 8, 1865; California, December 19, 1865; Florida, December 28, 1865 (Florida again ratified on June 9, 1868, upon its adoption of a new constitution); Iowa, January 15, 1866; New Jersey, January 23, 1866 (after having rejected the amendment on March 16, 1865); Texas, February 18, 1870; Delaware, February 12, 1901 (after having rejected the amendment on February 8, 1865); Kentucky, March 18, 1976 (after having rejected it on February 24, 1865).

The amendment was rejected (and not subsequently ratified) by Mississippi, December 4, 1865.

Article XIV.

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age,(See Note 15) and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or

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any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.

Proposal and Ratification

The fourteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Thirty-ninth Congress, on the 13th of June, 1866. It was declared, in a certificate of the Secretary of State dated July 28, 1868 to have been ratified by the legislatures of 28 of the 37 States. The dates of ratification were: Connecticut, June 25, 1866; New Hampshire, July 6, 1866; Tennessee, July 19, 1866; New Jersey, September 11, 1866 (subsequently the legislature rescinded its ratification, and on March 24, 1868, readopted its resolution of rescission over the Governor's veto, and on Nov. 12, 1980, expressed support for the amendment); Oregon, September 19, 1866 (and rescinded its ratification on October 15, 1868); Vermont, October 30, 1866; Ohio, January 4, 1867 (and rescinded its ratification on January 15, 1868); New York, January 10, 1867; Kansas, January 11, 1867; Illinois, January 15, 1867; West Virginia, January 16, 1867; Michigan, January 16, 1867; Minnesota, January 16, 1867; Maine, January 19, 1867; Nevada, January 22, 1867; Indiana, January 23, 1867; Missouri, January 25, 1867; Rhode Island, February 7, 1867; Wisconsin, February 7, 1867; Pennsylvania, February 12, 1867; Massachusetts, March 20, 1867; Nebraska, June 15, 1867; Iowa, March 16, 1868; Arkansas, April 6, 1868; Florida, June 9, 1868; North Carolina, July 4, 1868 (after having rejected it on December 14, 1866); Louisiana, July 9, 1868 (after having rejected it on February 6, 1867); South Carolina, July 9, 1868 (after having rejected it on December 20, 1866).

Ratification was completed on July 9, 1868.

The amendment was subsequently ratified by Alabama, July 13, 1868; Georgia, July 21, 1868 (after having rejected it on November 9, 1866); Virginia, October 8, 1869 (after having rejected it on January 9, 1867); Mississippi, January 17, 1870; Texas, February 18, 1870 (after having rejected it on October 27, 1866); Delaware, February 12, 1901 (after having rejected it on February 8, 1867); Maryland, April 4, 1959 (after having rejected it on March 23, 1867); California, May 6, 1959; Kentucky, March 18, 1976 (after having rejected it on January 8, 1867).

Article XV.

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Proposal and Ratification

The fifteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Fortieth Congress, on the 26th of February, 1869, and was declared,

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in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated March 30, 1870, to have been ratified by the legislatures of twenty-nine of the thirty-seven States. The dates of ratification were: Nevada, March 1, 1869; West Virginia, March 3, 1869; Illinois, March 5, 1869; Louisiana, March 5, 1869; North Carolina, March 5, 1869; Michigan, March 8, 1869; Wisconsin, March 9, 1869; Maine, March 11, 1869; Massachusetts, March 12, 1869; Arkansas, March 15, 1869; South Carolina, March 15, 1869; Pennsylvania, March 25, 1869; New York, April 14, 1869 (and the legislature of the same State passed a resolution January 5, 1870, to withdraw its consent to it, which action it rescinded on March 30, 1970); Indiana, May 14, 1869; Connecticut, May 19, 1869; Florida, June 14, 1869; New Hampshire, July 1, 1869; Virginia, October 8, 1869; Vermont, October 20, 1869; Missouri, January 7, 1870; Minnesota, January 13, 1870; Mississippi, January 17, 1870; Rhode Island, January 18, 1870; Kansas, January 19, 1870; Ohio, January 27, 1870 (after having rejected it on April 30, 1869); Georgia, February 2, 1870; Iowa, February 3, 1870.

Ratification was completed on February 3, 1870, unless the withdrawal of ratification by New York was effective; in which event ratification was completed on February 17, 1870, when Nebraska ratified.

The amendment was subsequently ratified by Texas, February 18, 1870; New Jersey, February 15, 1871 (after having rejected it on February 7, 1870); Delaware, February 12, 1901 (after having rejected it on March 18, 1869); Oregon, February 24, 1959; California, April 3, 1962 (after having rejected it on January 28, 1870); Kentucky, March 18, 1976 (after having rejected it on March 12, 1869).

The amendment was approved by the Governor of Maryland, May 7, 1973; Maryland having previously rejected it on February 26, 1870.

The amendment was rejected (and not subsequently ratified) by Tennessee, November 16, 1869.

Article XVI.

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.

Proposal and Ratification

The sixteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Sixty-first Congress on the 12th of July, 1909, and was declared, in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated the 25th of February, 1913, to have been ratified by 36 of the 48 States. The dates of ratification were: Alabama, August 10, 1909; Kentucky, February 8, 1910; South Carolina, February 19, 1910; Illinois, March 1, 1910; Mississippi, March 7, 1910; Oklahoma, March 10, 1910; Maryland, April 8, 1910; Georgia, August 3, 1910; Texas, August 16, 1910; Ohio, January 19, 1911; Idaho, January 20, 1911; Oregon, January 23, 1911; Washington, January 26, 1911; Montana, January 30, 1911; Indiana, January 30, 1911; California, January 31, 1911; Nevada, January 31, 1911; South Dakota,

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February 3, 1911; Nebraska, February 9, 1911; North Carolina, February 11, 1911; Colorado, February 15, 1911; North Dakota, February 17, 1911; Kansas, February 18, 1911; Michigan, February 23, 1911; Iowa, February 24, 1911; Missouri, March 16, 1911; Maine, March 31, 1911; Tennessee, April 7, 1911; Arkansas, April 22, 1911 (after having rejected it earlier); Wisconsin, May 26, 1911; New York, July 12, 1911; Arizona, April 6, 1912; Minnesota, June 11, 1912; Louisiana, June 28, 1912; West Virginia, January 31, 1913; New Mexico, February 3, 1913.

Ratification was completed on February 3, 1913.

The amendment was subsequently ratified by Massachusetts, March 4, 1913; New Hampshire, March 7, 1913 (after having rejected it on March 2, 1911).

The amendment was rejected (and not subsequently ratified) by Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Utah.

[Article XVII.]

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures.

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.

Proposal and Ratification

The seventeenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Sixty-second Congress on the 13th of May, 1912, and was declared, in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated the 31st of May, 1913, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 36 of the 48 States. The dates of ratification were: Massachusetts, May 22, 1912; Arizona, June 3, 1912; Minnesota, June 10, 1912; New York, January 15, 1913; Kansas, January 17, 1913; Oregon, January 23, 1913; North Carolina, January 25, 1913; California, January 28, 1913; Michigan, January 28, 1913; Iowa, January 30, 1913; Montana, January 30, 1913; Idaho, January 31, 1913; West Virginia, February 4, 1913; Colorado, February 5, 1913; Nevada, February 6, 1913; Texas, February 7, 1913; Washington, February 7, 1913; Wyoming, February 8, 1913; Arkansas, February 11, 1913; Maine, February 11, 1913; Illinois, February 13, 1913; North Dakota, February 14, 1913; Wisconsin, February 18, 1913; Indiana, February 19, 1913; New Hampshire, February 19, 1913; Vermont, February 19, 1913; South Dakota, February 19, 1913; Oklahoma, February 24, 1913; Ohio, February 25, 1913; Missouri, March 7, 1913; New Mexico, March 13, 1913; Nebraska, March 14, 1913; New

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Jersey, March 17, 1913; Tennessee, April 1, 1913; Pennsylvania, April 2, 1913; Connecticut, April 8, 1913.

Ratification was completed on April 8, 1913.

The amendment was subsequently ratified by Louisiana, June 11, 1914.

The amendment was rejected by Utah (and not subsequently ratified) on February 26, 1913.

Article [XVIII].(See Note 16)

Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.

Section. 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Section. 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

Proposal and Ratification

The eighteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Sixty-fifth Congress, on the 18th of December, 1917, and was declared, in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated the 29th of January, 1919, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 36 of the 48 States. The dates of ratification were: Mississippi, January 8, 1918; Virginia, January 11, 1918; Kentucky, January 14, 1918; North Dakota, January 25, 1918; South Carolina, January 29, 1918; Maryland, February 13, 1918; Montana, February 19, 1918; Texas, March 4, 1918; Delaware, March 18, 1918; South Dakota, March 20, 1918; Massachusetts, April 2, 1918; Arizona, May 24, 1918; Georgia, June 26, 1918; Louisiana, August 3, 1918; Florida, December 3, 1918; Michigan, January 2, 1919; Ohio, January 7, 1919; Oklahoma, January 7, 1919; Idaho, January 8, 1919; Maine, January 8, 1919; West Virginia, January 9, 1919; California, January 13, 1919; Tennessee, January 13, 1919; Washington, January 13, 1919; Arkansas, January 14, 1919; Kansas, January 14, 1919; Alabama, January 15, 1919; Colorado, January 15, 1919; Iowa, January 15, 1919; New Hampshire, January 15, 1919; Oregon, January 15, 1919; Nebraska, January 16, 1919; North Carolina, January 16, 1919; Utah, January 16, 1919; Missouri, January 16, 1919; Wyoming, January 16, 1919.

Ratification was completed on January 16, 1919. See Dillon v. Gloss, 256 U.S. 368, 376 (1921).

The amendment was subsequently ratified by Minnesota on January 17, 1919; Wisconsin, January 17, 1919; New Mexico, January 20, 1919; Nevada, January 21, 1919; New York,

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January 29, 1919; Vermont, January 29, 1919; Pennsylvania, February 25, 1919; Connecticut, May 6, 1919; and New Jersey, March 9, 1922.

The amendment was rejected (and not subsequently ratified) by Rhode Island.

Article [XIX].

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Proposal and Ratification

The nineteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Sixty-sixth Congress, on the 4th of June, 1919, and was declared, in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated the 26th of August, 1920, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 36 of the 48 States. The dates of ratification were: Illinois, June 10, 1919 (and that State readopted its resolution of ratification June 17, 1919); Michigan, June 10, 1919; Wisconsin, June 10, 1919; Kansas, June 16, 1919; New York, June 16, 1919; Ohio, June 16, 1919; Pennsylvania, June 24, 1919; Massachusetts, June 25, 1919; Texas, June 28, 1919; Iowa, July 2, 1919; Missouri, July 3, 1919; Arkansas, July 28, 1919; Montana, August 2, 1919; Nebraska, August 2, 1919; Minnesota, September 8, 1919; New Hampshire, September 10, 1919; Utah, October 2, 1919; California, November 1, 1919; Maine, November 5, 1919; North Dakota, December 1, 1919; South Dakota, December 4, 1919; Colorado, December 15, 1919; Kentucky, January 6, 1920; Rhode Island, January 6, 1920; Oregon, January 13, 1920; Indiana, January 16, 1920; Wyoming, January 27, 1920; Nevada, February 7, 1920; New Jersey, February 9, 1920; Idaho, February 11, 1920; Arizona, February 12, 1920; New Mexico, February 21, 1920; Oklahoma, February 28, 1920; West Virginia, March 10, 1920; Washington, March 22, 1920; Tennessee, August 18, 1920.

Ratification was completed on August 18, 1920.

The amendment was subsequently ratified by Connecticut on September 14, 1920 (and that State reaffirmed on September 21, 1920); Vermont, February 8, 1921; Delaware, March 6, 1923 (after having rejected it on June 2, 1920); Maryland, March 29, 1941 (after having rejected it on February 24, 1920, ratification certified on February 25, 1958); Virginia, February 21, 1952 (after having rejected it on February 12, 1920); Alabama, September 8, 1953 (after having rejected it on September 22, 1919); Florida, May 13, 1969; South Carolina, July 1, 1969 (after having rejected it on January 28, 1920, ratification certified on August 22, 1973); Georgia, February 20, 1970 (after having rejected it on July 24, 1919); Louisiana, June 11, 1970 (after having rejected it on July 1, 1920); North Carolina, May 6, 1971; Mississippi, March 22, 1984 (after having rejected it on March 29, 1920).

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Article [XX.]

Section 1. The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin.

Section. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 3d day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.

Section. 3. If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President elect shall have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect shall act as President until a President shall have qualified; and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President elect shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall have qualified.

Section. 4. The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them.

Section. 5. Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the ratification of this article.

Section. 6. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission.

Proposal and Ratification

The twentieth amendment to the Constitution was proposed to the legislatures of the several states by the Seventy-Second Congress, on the 2d day of March, 1932, and was declared, in a proclamation by the Secretary of State, dated on the 6th day of February, 1933, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 36 of the 48 States. The dates of ratification were: Virginia, March 4, 1932; New York, March 11, 1932; Mississippi, March 16, 1932; Arkansas, March 17, 1932; Kentucky, March 17, 1932; New Jersey, March 21, 1932; South Carolina, March 25, 1932; Michigan, March 31, 1932; Maine, April 1, 1932; Rhode Island, April 14, 1932; Illinois, April 21, 1932; Louisiana, June 22, 1932; West Virginia, July 30, 1932; Pennsylvania, August 11, 1932; Indiana, August 15, 1932; Texas, September 7, 1932; Alabama, September 13, 1932; California, January 4, 1933; North Carolina, January 5, 1933; North Dakota, January 9, 1933; Minnesota, January 12, 1933; Arizona, January 13, 1933; Montana, January 13, 1933; Nebraska, January 13, 1933; Oklahoma, January 13, 1933; Kansas, January 16, 1933; Oregon, January 16,

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1933; Delaware, January 19, 1933; Washington, January 19, 1933; Wyoming, January 19, 1933; Iowa, January 20, 1933; South Dakota, January 20, 1933; Tennessee, January 20, 1933; Idaho, January 21, 1933; New Mexico, January 21, 1933; Georgia, January 23, 1933; Missouri, January 23, 1933; Ohio, January 23, 1933; Utah, January 23, 1933.

Ratification was completed on January 23, 1933.

The amendment was subsequently ratified by Massachusetts on January 24, 1933; Wisconsin, January 24, 1933; Colorado, January 24, 1933; Nevada, January 26, 1933; Connecticut, January 27, 1933; New Hampshire, January 31, 1933; Vermont, February 2, 1933; Maryland, March 24, 1933; Florida, April 26, 1933.

Article [XXI.]

Section 1. The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed.

Section 2. The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited.

Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

Proposal and Ratification

The twenty-first amendment to the Constitution was proposed to the several states by the Seventy-Second Congress, on the 20th day of February, 1933, and was declared, in a proclamation by the Secretary of State, dated on the 5th day of December, 1933, to have been ratified by 36 of the 48 States. The dates of ratification were: Michigan, April 10, 1933; Wisconsin, April 25, 1933; Rhode Island, May 8, 1933; Wyoming, May 25, 1933; New Jersey, June 1, 1933; Delaware, June 24, 1933; Indiana, June 26, 1933; Massachusetts, June 26, 1933; New York, June 27, 1933; Illinois, July 10, 1933; Iowa, July

Amendment XXII

Section 1. No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once. But this article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this article was proposed by the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term.

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Section 2. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states within seven years from the date of its submission to the states by the Congress.

Amendment XXIII

Section 1. The District constituting the seat of government of the United States shall appoint in such manner as the Congress may direct:

A number of electors of President and Vice President equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a state, but in no event more than the least populous state; they shall be in addition to those appointed by the states, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the election of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a state; and they shall meet in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth article of amendment.

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXIV

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax.

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXV

Section 1. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President.

Section 2. Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress.

Section 3. Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acting President.

Section 4. Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office,

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the Vice President shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President.

Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office.

Amendment XXVI

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States, who are 18 years of age or older, to vote, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of age.

Section 2. The Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXVII

No law varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives shall take effect until an election of Representatives shall have intervened.

NOTESNote 1: This text of the Constitution follows the engrossed copy signed by Gen. Washington and the deputies from 12 States. The small superior figures preceding the paragraphs designate Clauses, and were not in the original and have no reference to footnotes.

The Constitution was adopted by a convention of the States on September 17, 1787, and was subsequently ratified by the several States, on the following dates: Delaware, December 7, 1787; Pennsylvania, December 12, 1787; New Jersey, December 18, 1787; Georgia, January 2, 1788; Connecticut, January 9, 1788; Massachusetts, February 6, 1788; Maryland, April 28, 1788; South Carolina, May 23, 1788; New Hampshire, June 21, 1788.

Ratification was completed on June 21, 1788.

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The Constitution was subsequently ratified by Virginia, June 25, 1788; New York, July 26, 1788; North Carolina, November 21, 1789; Rhode Island, May 29, 1790; and Vermont, January 10, 1791.

In May 1785, a committee of Congress made a report recommending an alteration in the Articles of Confederation, but no action was taken on it, and it was left to the State Legislatures to proceed in the matter. In January 1786, the Legislature of Virginia passed a resolution providing for the appointment of five commissioners, who, or any three of them, should meet such commissioners as might be appointed in the other States of the Union, at a time and place to be agreed upon, to take into consideration the trade of the United States; to consider how far a uniform system in their commercial regulations may be necessary to their common interest and their permanent harmony; and to report to the several States such an act, relative to this great object, as, when ratified by them, will enable the United States in Congress effectually to provide for the same. The Virginia commissioners, after some correspondence, fixed the first Monday in September as the time, and the city of Annapolis as the place for the meeting, but only four other States were represented, viz: Delaware, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; the commissioners appointed by Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and Rhode Island failed to attend. Under the circumstances of so partial a representation, the commissioners present agreed upon a report, (drawn by Mr. Hamilton, of New York,) expressing their unanimous conviction that it might essentially tend to advance the interests of the Union if the States by which they were respectively delegated would concur, and use their endeavors to procure the concurrence of the other States, in the appointment of commissioners to meet at Philadelphia on the Second Monday of May following, to take into consideration the situation of the United States; to devise such further provisions as should appear to them necessary to render the Constitution of the Federal Government adequate to the exigencies of the Union; and to report such an act for that purpose to the United States in Congress assembled as, when agreed to by them and afterwards confirmed by the Legislatures of every State, would effectually provide for the same.

Congress, on the 21st of February, 1787, adopted a resolution in favor of a convention, and the Legislatures of those States which had not already done so (with the exception of Rhode Island) promptly appointed delegates. On the 25th of May, seven States having convened, George Washington, of Virginia, was unanimously elected President, and the consideration of the proposed constitution was commenced. On the 17th of September, 1787, the Constitution as engrossed and agreed upon was signed by all the members present, except Mr. Gerry of Massachusetts, and Messrs. Mason and Randolph, of Virginia. The president of the convention transmitted it to Congress, with a resolution stating how the proposed Federal Government should be put in operation, and an explanatory letter. Congress, on the 28th of September, 1787, directed the Constitution so framed, with the resolutions and letter concerning the same, to "be transmitted to the several Legislatures in order to be submitted to a convention of delegates chosen in each State by the people thereof, in conformity to the resolves of the convention."

On the 4th of March, 1789, the day which had been fixed for commencing the operations of Government under the new Constitution, it had been ratified by the conventions chosen in each State to consider it, as follows: Delaware, December 7, 1787; Pennsylvania, December 12, 1787; New Jersey, December 18, 1787; Georgia, January 2, 1788; Connecticut, January 9, 1788;

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Massachusetts, February 6, 1788; Maryland, April 28, 1788; South Carolina, May 23, 1788; New Hampshire, June 21, 1788; Virginia, June 25, 1788; and New York, July 26, 1788.

The President informed Congress, on the 28th of January, 1790, that North Carolina had ratified the Constitution November 21, 1789; and he informed Congress on the 1st of June, 1790, that Rhode Island had ratified the Constitution May 29, 1790. Vermont, in convention, ratified the Constitution January 10, 1791, and was, by an act of Congress approved February 18, 1791, "received and admitted into this Union as a new and entire member of the United States."

Note 2: The part of this Clause relating to the mode of apportionment of representatives among the several States has been affected by Section 2 of amendment XIV, and as to taxes on incomes without apportionment by amendment XVI.

Note 3: This Clause has been affected by Clause 1 of amendment XVII.

Note 4: This Clause has been affected by Clause 2 of amendment XVIII.

Note 5: This Clause has been affected by amendment XX.

Note 6: This Clause has been affected by amendment XXVII.

Note 7: This Clause has been affected by amendment XVI.

Note 8: This Clause has been superseded by amendment XII.

Note 9: This Clause has been affected by amendment XXV.

Note 10: This Clause has been affected by amendment XI.

Note 11: This Clause has been affected by amendment XIII.

Note 12: The first ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States (and two others, one of which failed of ratification and the other which later became the 27th amendment) were proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the First Congress on September 25, 1789. The first ten amendments were ratified by the following States, and the notifications of ratification by the Governors thereof were successively communicated by the President to Congress: New Jersey, November 20, 1789; Maryland, December 19, 1789; North Carolina, December 22, 1789; South Carolina, January 19, 1790; New Hampshire, January 25, 1790; Delaware, January 28, 1790; New York, February 24, 1790; Pennsylvania, March 10, 1790; Rhode Island, June 7, 1790; Vermont, November 3, 1791; and Virginia, December 15, 1791.

Ratification was completed on December 15, 1791.

The amendments were subsequently ratified by the legislatures of Massachusetts, March 2, 1939; Georgia, March 18, 1939; and Connecticut, April 19, 1939.

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Note 13: Only the 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th articles of amendment had numbers assigned to them at the time of ratification.

Note 14: This sentence has been superseded by section 3 of amendment XX.

Note 15: See amendment XIX and section 1 of amendment XXVI.

Note 16: Repealed by section 1 of amendment XXI.

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