to-power ratio of 275 kg/kW has been used as representative of the 85-Percentileof South African trucks; that is, 15% of trucks have a higher mass-to-power ratio andare not accommodatedbythe curvesin Figure3.3.

';!o;;r

Single unit + trailer

TABLE 3.1

Dimensions of design vehicles

Wheel- Frontbase overhang(m) (m)

2,85 0,75

6,10 1,22

6,7+3,4+6,116,2

Vehicle

Passenger car Ref. 12, p. 10

Single unit Ref. 7, p. 25

Ref. 13, Fig. 2-404.2A

Single-unit bus Ref. 14, p. 53Articulated bus Ref. 7, p. 27

6,005,49

+7,3212,81

2,502,59

Semi-trailer Ref. 7, p.30 6,10+9,1515,25

0,92

*Maximum in South Africa

Rearoverhang

(m)

1,2

1,83

J"

j........ "

"-

"-

\Width

(m)

1,80

2,50*

L RIR=RK+WL-WT2

ROF= [(RIR + WT)Z + LZJO.5

3,502,89

2,602,60

where

= Wheelbase of design vehicleL 3L

f.WT-..JWT = Track width

WL = Through lane width

0,61 2,50 R K = Kerb radius

RIR = Inner rear track radiusROF = Outer front track radius

Source: Adapted from Ref. 10, Table 2.2.1.

OH = Front Overhang x L

ROF

TABLE 3.2

Minimum outer turning radii

Minimum outer turningradius (m)

6,203,38

14,50*14,5012,8014,08

.Vehicle Reference

Passenger car Ref. 12, p. 10Single unit Ref. 7, p. 251Single-unit plus trailer Ref. 13, Fig. 2-404.2ASingle unit bus Ref. 14, p. 53 (updated)Articulated bus Ref. 7, p. 27Semi-trailer Ref. 7, p. 30

*Adjusted 0,50 m for body overhang

Source: Adapted from Ref. 10, Table 2.2.3.

12

*far R. = 10 Dimonslons In motr..

Sau,ce' Adapted tram Ret. 10, Fig. 2.2.2 (a)

WHEEL TRACKS OF RIGID CHASSIS VEHICLES FIGURE 3.\

Geometric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5. Pretoria. South Africa 1988

Geometric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5. Pretoria. South Africa 1988 13

Ro, FOR WL = 3.7 AND R. =OH*DESIGN VEHICLE L W,

10 15 20 30 45

PASSENGER CAR 2.85 1.8 13.1 18.0 22.9 32.9 47.8 0.16

SINGLE UNIT TRUCK 6.10 2.5 14.5 19.1 23.9 33.7 48.5 0.51

8US 6.00 2.6 14.5 19.2 24.0 33.7 48.6 1.03

R.'

+ WL - WT(

Minimum Value

)2 RK + 0,6 ,

ROF 0 [

:;;.-

3.2 THE DRIVER

3.2.1 Eye height

Research has indicated that 95 % of passenger car drivers have an eye height at orabove 1,05 m and 95 % of truck drivers an eye height of 1,8 m or more. These valueshave accordingly been adopted for use in these guidelines. Ref. 17 and Ref. 18.

3.2.2 Reaction time

A figure of 2,5 seconds has been generally adopted for reaction time for responseto a single stimulus. American practice also makes provision for a reaction time of5,7 to 10 seconds for more complex multi-choice situations, where more than oneexternal circumstance must be evaluated, and the most appropriate responseselected and initiated. Ref. 7, p. 137 and p. 147.

3.3 THE ROAD SURFACE

The road surface has numerous qualities which can affect the driver's perception ofthe situation ahead of him, but skid resistance is the only one of these qualities taken

into account in these guidelines.

3.3.1 'Skid resistance

Skid resistance has been the subject of research worldwide, and it has been locallyestablished that the derived values of brake-force coefficient are appropriate to theSouth African environment. There is a considerable range of values. At 50 km/h theskid resistance of a worn tyre on a smooth surface is half that of a new tyre on a roughsurface, and at 100 km/h it is five times lower. Skid resistance also depends on

speed, and reduces as speed increases. Ref. 19.

Brake-force coefficients are given in Table 3.3. No allowance is made for a safetyfactor, as these represent actually measured values for a worn tyre on a smooth wetsurface, which in engineering terms constitutes a "worst case". Furthermore, thecoefficient of friction is lower in sliding than in rolling, so that the driver, as long ashe is not involved in an emergency situation, has adequate distance for a comfort-

able stop under normal conditions.

3.4 SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight distance is a fundamental criterion in the design of any road, be it urban or rural.It is essential for the driver to be able to perceive hazards on the road, with sufficient

time available to initiate any necessary evasive action safely. On a two-lane two-wayroad it is also necessary for him to be able to enter the opposing lane safely'while

Geometric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5, Pretoria, South Africa 1988

16

overtaking. In intersection design, the application of sight distance is slightlydifferent from its application in design forthe open road, but safety is always the chiefconsideration.

TABLE 3.3

Brake-force coefficients for various speeds

Speed(km/h)

406080

100120

Source: Ref. 10, Table 2.4.1.

Brake-forcecoefficient

0,370,320,300,290,28

""""

3.4.1 Stopping sight distance

Stopping distance involves the capability of the driver to bring his vehicle safely toa standstill, and is thus based on speed, driver reaction time and skid resistance.The total distance travelled in bringing the vehicle to a stop comprises twocomponents:

. the distance covered during the driver's reaction period, and

. the distance required to decelerate to 0 km/h.

The stopping distance is expressed as

s = 0,7v + v2/254f

where s = total distance travelled (m)v = speed (km/h)f = brake-force coefficient

Stopping sight distances for a range of design speeds and appropriate brake forcecoefficients are given in Table 3.4.

Stopping sight distance is measured from an eye height of 1,05 m to an object heightof 0,15 m. This object height is used because an obstacle of a lower height wouldnot normally represent a significant hazard. Object height is taken into accountbecause measuring the sight distance to the road surface would substantiallyincrease the length of the vertical curve and hence the earthworks required.

The values of stopping sight distance given in Table 3.4 are similarto the lower rangeof design values given in AASHTO. Ref. 7, p. 138. South African practice has relatedto this lower range.

Values in Table 3.4 are recommended for design.

Geometric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5, Pretoria, South Africa 1988 17

- ..-

TABLE 3.4

Stopping sight distance on level roads

Design speed Assumed running speed, V(km/h) (km/h)

40 4050 5060 5870 6480 7290 78

100 ~110 92120 101

Source : Adapted from Ref. 10, Table 2.5.1 and Ref. 7, p.138

V2

5 ' O,7V + 254 (I joG)Stopping sightdistance (m)

45658095

115135155180210

400

-E

300

The gradient has a marked effect on the stopping sight distance requirements.Gradient (G) modifies the stopping sight distance formula to

s = 0,7v + v2/[254(f .:t.G)] Ref. 7, p. 143.

...uZ

"...

eoo

700

~600E

en::>a~ 500:::;:::>:::;:z~ 400

",

provide sufficient visibility distances for drivers to corroborate advance warningsand to perform the necessary manouevres. It is evident that there are manylocations where it would be prudent to provide longer sight distances. In thesecircumstances, decision sight distances provides the greater length that driversneed.

TABLE 3.6

Passing sight distance on level roads

Design speed(km/h)

5060708090

100110120

Passing sightdistance (m)

340420490560620680740800

Source: Ref. 11,Table B.2.4, p. B18. Ref. 10, Table 2.5.4

Decision sight distance is the distance required for a driver to detect an informationsource or hazard which is difficult to perceive in a roadway environment that mightbe visually cluttered, recognize the hazard or its threat potential, select appropriateaction and complete the manoeuvre safely and efficiently. Because decision sightdistance gives drivers additional margin for error and affords them sufficient lengthto manoeuvre their vehicles at the same or reduced speed rather than to just stop,its values are substantially greater than those of stopping sight distance.

Drivers need decision sightdistances whenever there is a likeli hood of error in eitherinformation reception, decision-making, or control actions. Examples of criticallocations where errors of this kind are likely to occur, and where it is desirable toprovide decision sight distance are:

interchanges and intersections;locations where unusual or unexpected manoeuvres are required;changes in cross section such as toll plazas and lane drops;areas of concentrated demand where sources of information compete, forexample from roadway elements, traffic, traffic control devices and advertising.

The decision sight distances in Table 3.7 provide values to be used by designers forappropriate sight distances at critical locations and serve as criteria in evaluating thesuitability of the sight lengths at these locations. Because of the additional safetyand manoeuvrability that these lengths yield, it is recommended that decision sightdistances be provided at critical locations or that these points be relocated to

.

.

.

.

22Geometric design of urban collector roads

UTG 5. Pretoria. South Africa 1988

locations where decision sight distance lengths are available. If it is not feasible toprovide these distances because of horizontal or vertical curvature, or if relocationis not possible, then special attention should be given to the use of suitable traffic

control devices for providing advance warning of the conditions that are likely to beencountered.

A range of decision sight distance values that will be applicable to most situations

has been developed. The range recognises the variation in complexity that mayexist at various sites. The values are based on the sum of distances travelled duringpremanoeuvre and manoeuvre times and validated at a number of locations.

TABLE 3.7

Decision sight distance

Design speed(km/h)

5060708090

100110120

Source: Ref. 11, Table B.2.5, p. B19.

Decision sightdistance (m)

135-195170-235200-275235-315270-355300-395335-435370-475

For measuring decision sight distance, the height of eye of 1,05 m should be used

together with an appropriate height of object, depending on the anticipated prevail-ing conditions. In some circumstances, the driver needs to see the road surface to

read pavement markings, in which case the object height is zero. In other situations,overhead signs over 5 m above the road surface may be the object. The lower endof the range for a given speed relates to situations in which a driver can perceive theoverall picture. The high end of the range relates to more ambiguous situations. Forexample, an overhead sign in advance of an intersection which indicates which lane

to be in for a given movement is more ambiguous than signing at an intersectionwhere specific movements are visible through geometric features and lane mark-

ings. Similarly, it is difficult to judge the distance to a traffic signal if only the signalhead is visible. Hence, in situations where a crest vertical curve obscures the

approach to an intersection, the traffic signal head should be visible over the longerdecision sight distance for a given design speed.

Geometric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5. Pretoria. South Africa 1988

23

'""'"-

4 ROAD RESERVE, CROSS-SECTIONELEMENTS AND CLEARANCES

4.1 ELEMENTS TO BE ACCOMMODATED

The two basic components of the cross-section of a collector road within the roadreserve, as shown in Figure 4.1, are the roadway (carriageway) and the verges.

Normally, medians are not provided on collector roads in residential areas. Someauthorities consider a median as a component of higher types of collector road,particularly if more than four basic lanes are required orwhere there are large turningvolumes. If a median is required, the reader is referred to the complementarydocument Draft Guidelines for the Geometric Design of Urban Arterial Roads. Ref.1, p. 33. Details of the two basic components are discussed in Chapter 5 and 6 ofthis document.

The roadway width includes all the cross-section elements between the faces of thekerbs on either side. The principle variables accounting forthe width of roadway arethe number of lanes and the width of lane used. The actual number of lanes to be

supplied depends on the projected traffic volumes.

The verge areas on either side of the road include all the elements from the face ofthe kerb to the property boundaries (edges of the road reserve). An element of theverge which could have a significant effect on road reserve widths is the sloperequired for earthworks.

>-0:...CZ:>c"'

ROAO RESERVE~- -

VERGE ROADWAY VERGE

[ ROAD RESERVE COMPONENTS FIGURE 4.\ I

24Geometric design of urban collector roads

UTG 5, Pretoria, South Africa 1988

4.2 DETERMINING ROAD RESERVE WIDTH

It is recommended that the road reserve width should be determined by makingprovision for each of the elements required. Width should be specific to the numberof lanes required, the width of median if required, and the width of the verges,including allowances for earthworks and services.

The practice of using nominal road reserve widths for urban collector roads is notrecommended. Nominal widths could either be wasteful in taking up more land thannecessary or lead to difficulties through not taking up enough, especially wheresignificant earthworks are required.

Determination of road reserve width therefore requires the design of the cross-section elements needed, as well as the vertical alignment to determine earthworks.

Nevertheless, designers should note that many road authorities do have policieswhich lay down nominal widths of road reserve required for various classes of road,including collector roads.

4.3 DEVIATIONS FROM RECOMMENDED DIMENSIONS

For each of the cross-section elements, recommended dimensions have beengiven. These dimensions, which have been determined through detailed discus-

sions and investigations by experienced highway designers, represent what leadingmembers of the profession consider to be good practice.

The chapters on the various elements provide guidelines for deviations from therecommended dimensions where, for unavoidable reasons, the recommendeddimensions cannot be provided. Designers should make every effort to use therecommended dimensions. Reduction in the dimensions to a certain degree wouldstill enable traffic to flow but would reduce the safety of traffic operation and wouldincrease driver tension and stress.

Where insufficient road reserve to provide the recommended dimensions for eachelement is encountered, decisions have to be made as to which dimensions should

be reduced. This involves a process of "trade-offs". For example, where high trafficvolumes and large trucks are likely to operate, reduction in the verge dimension maybe preferable to reduction in lane width. Conversely, where traffic volumes will not

be high or there will be few trucks, but intensive pedestrian activity is expected, thenit may be prudent to sacrifice lane width to preserve the recommended dimensionsfor the verge.

4.4EARTHWORKS SLOPES

Adequate provision must be made for earthworks slopes. The width requiredobviously depends on the height of the earthworks and the material through whichcuts are being made or which is being compacted to form embankments. A nominal

Geometric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5, Pretoria, South Africa 1988

25

road reserve may be used to accommodate the roadway and verges. Localwidenings of the reserve can be made to accommodate earthworks which wouldencroach beyond the nominal road reserve. Various local authorities have estab-lished techniques for acquiring this additional road reserve, for example, as aservitude. The property owner is thus able to use the servitude area in calculationsto establish the permissible floor area that can be constructed on the property.

4.5 CLEARANCES

The standard minimum vertical clearance from any point in a roadway to anoverhead structure is 5,1 m. If the structure is light, such as a pedestrian overpass,the vertical clearance required is 5,5 m or more. Future overlays must be taken intoaccount when determining clearances.

Many special circumstances require specific vertical clearances either above orbelow the road surface. These clearances have to be determined in consultationwith the appropriate authority. For example, when a road passes under a highvoltage line, special clearances are necessary under the Machinery and Occupa-tional Safety Act, 1983, No 6, 1983. Ref. 21. Similarly, special clearances relate torailways, trolley bus routes and pipelines.

Overhead traffic signs and signals require a clearance of 5,2 m. Ref. 20.

Street furniture, such as utility poles, bus shelters, post boxes and refuse bins,should be placed at least 2 m clear of the roadway, as should columns or supportstructures for overhead signs and bridges. Road signs and signals, however, areoften placed within the 2 m clear strip, and guidance on their location is given in theSouth African Road Traffic Signs Manual Ref. 20. Parking meters are often placedabout 300 mm behind the kerb to be close to the parking bays. In this location theyare subject to damage by the overhang of heavy vehicles and some motor cars. Aminimum clearance of 600 mm is recommended. All landscaping, such as trees,rockeries and shrubs which could form a physical or visual impediment, should besited so that dense foliage can be kept outside the clear zone beside and above theroadway.

Geometric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5, Pretoria, South Africa 1988

26

5 ROADWAYS

27

""-

5.1 ROADWAY ELEMENTS

The roadway is defined as the area available for vehicle movement between thekerbs. In an undivided road, the kerb would separate the roadway from the vergeson either side. For a divided road, on one side the kerb would separate the roadwayfrom the verge area and on the other side from the median.

The width of roadways is measured from the bottom of the face of kerb to bottom offace of kerb as shown in Figure 5.1.

Elements included in the roadway are:

. basic lanes;

. right and left turn lanes;

. parking lanes (where permitted);

. channels and offsets.

ROAO RESERVE.. -

~

I I

,~." I

z . .:>0'"

'VERGE I ill~ II

>-II

!'If ,.".."

provision should be made for level of service D. In practice expected volumes inmany metropolitan areas will be so high that even level of service E cannot beprovided for, when projecting 20 years ahead. See Ref. 2, Highway CapacityManual, Special Report 209 for the determination of design capacity in relation toprojected demand.

Where more than four lanes are indicated, consideration should be given todeveloping separate parallel facilities. The maximum that can be provided is sixbasic lanes, but this should only be resorted to in exceptional circumstances. Whensix lanes are used, including allowance for parking, a median to separate opposingtraffic flow is recommended.

Where collector roads are operated as one-way roads, as for example in centralbusiness districts, the maximum number of lanes should be five.

In many situations relating to average density development, two basic lanes willsuffice if adequate provision is made for turning movements at intersections.

5.3 BASIC LANE WIDTHS

I--

The recommended basic lane width for four-lane collector roads is 3,4 m.

Lane width is measured from the centre of the lane line to the centre of the adjacentlane line for inside lanes, and to the edge of the channel or to the edge of the concreteoffset from the kerb for a kerbside lane.

Reduction below 3,4 m would still permit traffic operation but would increase drivertension and the potential for side-swipe accidents and for collisions with fixedroadside objects.

Lane widths have to be sufficient to accommodate the widths of the design vehicles

and provide clearance between vehicles and, in the case of kerbside lanes,clearance to kerbside objects. An appropriate vehicle-to-vehicle clearance forvehicles travelling in the same direction is 1,2 m. Ref. 22, p. 4. A further 0,3 m widthat the centre of the road is desirable for safety in the separation of heavy opposingtraffic flows.

Table 5.1 shows the clearances provided by a range of practical lane widths forvarious combinations of design vehicles.

The recommended basic lane width for two-lane collector roads is 3,7 m.

The roadway width, including channel and offset, is 8,0 m. This relates to normalcollectors carrying a nominal percentage of heavy vehicles and local bus services.For lower-order collectors, such as those defined as residential access collectors bythe Department of Community Development, Ref. 6, p. 8113, where heavy vehiclesare not common, a roadway width of 7,0 m will be adequate.

Geometric design of urban collec1orroadsUTG 5. Pretoria, South Africa 1988

28

TABLE 5.1

Lane width and clearance between vehicles

Lane width Vehicle(m) types

Clearances(m)

1,20,80,5

3,0 car to carcar to trucktruck to truck

3,4 car to carcar to trucktruck to truck

1,61,20,9

3,7 car to carcar to trucktruck to truck

1,91,51,2

5.4 RIGHT-AND LEFT-TURN LANES

The recommended width of a turning lane is 3,0 m measured between centres oflane lines or from the centre of the lane line to the edge of the offset or channel.

This section refers to right-and left-turn lanes which are adjacent to and notseparatedfrom basic lanes. Separateturningroadwaysaredescribedin Section10.5.

Where significant volumes of trucks are expected to be turning, the turn lane shouldbe increased to 3,4 m or more in association with a 3,4 m adjacent lane and a 0,3m offset from the kerb. This would permit a 1,2 m vehicle-to-vehicle clearancebetween a turning truck and a through-moving car, as well as a 0,6 m clearance tothe bottom of the kerb.

The absolute minimum width of 2,7 m could be resorted to in traffic management

improvements where insistence on the 3,0 m width would mean that the turn lanecould not be provided.

Figure 5.2 shows a typical right-turn lane configuration in a two-lane collector road.

5.5 PARKING LANES

On-street parking may be provided on collector roads either in parking lanes or onthe verge.

Where a new road has to be built in areas where on-street parking is present andc~nnot be eliminated, it may be desirable to provide a parking lane. In thesecircumstances, a parking lane should have the same width as the basic through

Geometric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5. Pretoria. South Africa 1988 29

lanes, so that it can be used for moving traffic during the peak periods in associationwith stopping or parking prohibition. Details of on-street parking are given in ParkingStandards. Ref. 12.

---- ~-==--

I IN 2 ---

J RIGHT TURN LANE FIGURE 5.2 I

5.6 CROSS-FALL

The recommended cross-fall for drainage across a roadway is 2,0 %.

In areas bf intense rainfall, steeper cross-falls may be necessary to facilitatedrainage. The cross-fall may be increased to 2,5 % in such cases.

Where roadways have four basic lanes, the cross-fall should be increased by 0,5 %across the whole roadway or, alternatively, consideration may be given to a centralcrown (cambered) section. No significant discomfort is experienced by motorists on2 or 3% cross-falls towards the right-hand side instead of towards the left-hand sideas is usual. The cross-fall should not exceed 3 %.

5.7 OFFSETS AND CHANNELS

The recommended width between the bottom of the kerb face and the edge of laneis 0,3 m.

The offset is provided either by a drainage channel or, where no channel is needed,by a 0,3 m offset between the kerb and edge of lane.

30Geometric design of urban collector roads

UTG 5, Pretoria, South Africa 1988

5.8 CYCLE FACILITIES

31

The need for cycle facilities often arises on urban collector roads, particularly inresidential areas near schools. The implications of siting cycle facilities within theroadway, within the road reserve or in separate reserves are extensive and beyondthe scope of this document. Appropriate details are given in Guidelines for thePlanning and Design of Bicycle Facilities in Urban Areas, Ref. 23.

6 VERGES

6.1 DEFINITION AND MEASUREMENT

The verge of a collector road is the area between the roadway and the road reserveboundary. Its width is measured from the bottom of the face of the kerb or, where

no kEirb exists, from the edge of the hardened surface (edge of the roadway) to theroad reserve boundary (property line).

6.2 FUNCTIONS

The prime function of the verge of a collector road is to provide horizontal clearanceto enhance the safe and smooth flow of vehicles in the roadway. The verge is alsoa buffer zone between the roadway and adjacent property and therefore, mayinclude landscaping and visual screens. Owing to their location and continuity in theurban framework, collector roads are often required to serve other functions andinclude special facilities in the verges as indicated in Table 6.1. These facilities,when required and permitted, are usually located in the verge to preserve theroadway for the function of vehicle movement.

TABLE 6.1

Special facilities in vergesResidential Industrial Central business

xxxx

Driveways x xFootways (sidewalks) x xOverhead services x xUnderground services x xStreet furniture x xEmergency parking andbreakdowns x xBus stops x xBicycle paths x xParking x X

GeometricdesignofurbancollectorroadsUTG5,Pretoria,SouthAfrica1988

6.3 WIDTHS

The recommended width of the verge is 5,0 m. In new development plans 4,0 mshould be considered as a minimum width.

The widthrequired fora verge mayvary fromroad to road and, possibly,along a roadit may also be different on either side of a road, given the need or lack of the needto include the various elements.

In developed areas it is often impractical to set fixedwidths other than a minimumto ensure that there is lateral clearance to the roadway, sight distance for safety andsome flexibilityto handle future unknowns. The absolute minimumverge width inthese conditions is 2,0 m, and this should be as a clear strip with a mountable kerb.Indensely developed areas, such as citycentres or areas of high pedestrian activity,the 2,0 m may be a sidewalk and barrier kerb.

The balance of the verge should be planned according to needs, butwithrecognitionthat the 2,0 m clear strip may be used forcertain other facilitiessuch as undergroundservices, parking, bus stops and drivewayapproaches. Typicalwidths of a numberof elements whichcommonlyfeature inthe verges of urban collector roads are giveninTable6.2. The values given are forplanning guidance only. Design of the featuresaccording to specific needs could reveal considerable differences. Also,accommo-dation for one feature willoften satisfy the needs for other features. For example,if the road has to serve adjacent development and there are a certain number ofprivate driveways, itwould be desirable to have a 5 m wide verge to permit motorcars to turn offthe roadwayand stop beforea privategate without obstructingthrough traffic. With 5 m wide verges, virtuallyall other elements might beaccommodated withthe exception of major berms and earthworks.

VERGE4 .,..'"..0z::>0ID

~,.

~> " *h>... ~~:'~-,,~ 'D~~~-.s

~,

7 TAPERS

There are two basic types of taper, each with different geometric requirements invarious circumstances:

. An "active taper" causes lateral transition of traffic

A "passive taper" allows lateral transition of traffic..

Active tapers are used to narrow a roadway or a lane, or to merge two lanes into one.Passive tapers are used to widen a roadway or a lane, or to add a lane. In general,whereas active tapers should be long, passive tapers may be short.

Tapers are also used in higher-type intersections to lead into and out of turningroadways. Similarly, tapers are used at the ends of embayments for bus stops andfor parking.

7.1 TAPERS TO DEFINE TURNING LANES

With reference to Figure 7.1, a typical right-turn lane requires a passive taper fromthe right edge of the through lane to the right edge of the turning lane. This taper isnormally at a rate of 1 : 10. For a 3 m wide turn lane, the length of taper would be30 m. However, in urban conditions the need for storage length in the turn lane oftenoutweighs the need for a smooth transition, and the taper rate can be reduced to1 : 2. When traffic is light and speeds are high the transition can be done in thestorage lane. When traffic is heavy and speeds are low, the 1 : 2 taper will allow fourto five additional cars to queue for the turn. This will lessen the chance of vehiclesat the tail of the queue blocking through traffic.

If a median has to be created or widened to "shadow" the right-turn lane, an activetaper will be required on the approach. Rates of taper for this type of condition aregiven inTable 7.1, which isderived from Table RMC inthe South African Road TrafficSigns Manual. Ref. 20, p. 224.

The taper rates associated with painted lines in Table 7.1 are preferred for allapplications. The rates associated with kerbs are minimum rates, and the kerbshould be clearly visible and highlighted with paint or markers.

7.2 TAPERS TO NARROW OR MERGE LANES

These tapers are active, and the rates given in Table 7.1 are appropriate. Again, themore gradual taper rates associated with painted line tapers are preferred in allapplications.

34GeometJic design of urban collector roads

UTG 5, Pretoria, South Atrica 1988

Design speed (km/h)

Recommended taper (1 in)(Min for painted line taper)

Min for kerbed taper (1 in)

Source: Ref. 20, p. 224.

7.3 TAPERS TO WIDEN OR ADD A LANE

These tapers are passive and can be sharper than active tapers. As noted in Section7.1 , the taper rate can be as low as 1 : 2 if the additional lane has storage in advanceof an intersection as its prime function. Taper Rates for passive tapers are given inTable 7.2.

TABLE 7.2

Taper rates for passive tapers

Design Speed (km/h)

Taper Rate (1 in)

100

25

30

5

50

10

60

15

80

20

7.4 TAPERS IN TURNING ROADWAYS

As shown in Figure 7.2 passive and active tapers may be used to set off a turningroadway from through lanes in channelized intersections.

The rates of taper given in Table 7.2 apply to the passive taper leading into theturning roadway. When tapers are applied to either end of the horizontal curve of aleft-turning roadway, the far-side taper can be shortened to the same rate of taperas the near-side, passive taper. If the turning lane does not lead into an extra laneon the cross-road, it is important that the approach angle should be reasonable togive the driver agood view ofthe traffic stream to be entered. Inthis regard, this tapercan be omitted and the circular arc of the turning roadway can be tangent to thecross-road.

7.5 TAPERS IN BUS STOP EMBAYMENTS

Details of bus stop embayment design are given in Bus Terminals and Bus StationsPlanning and Design Guidelines; Ref. 14. The passive taper leading into anembayment does so at a taper rate of 1 : 4. In higher speed conditions,

Geometric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5. Pretoria, South Africa 1988 35

TABLE 7.1

Taper rates for active tapers

30 50 60 80 100

20 25 35 40 45

10 15 20 25 30

80 km/h or more, this taper is increased to 1 : 6. The active taper leading out of theembayment is 1 : 6 in normal urban conditions and 1 : 12 for higher speeds.

7.6 TAPERS IN PARKING EMBAYMENTS

~- -====- -

Where parallel parking is provided off the travelled way of a collector road in anembayment, the normal practice is to provide tapers at the start and end of theembayments, both at a taper rate of 1 : 2. Here demarcation of parking is desirable.

I IN 2

,( ~

--

~ 8 ALIGNMENT, CURVATURE AND GRADIENTS8.1 MINIMUM RADIUS FOR HORIZONTAL CURVES AND

SUPERELEVATIONPASSIVE TAPERS IN RIGHT TURN LANE FIGURE 7. I

ACTIVE TAPER-I IN 15

20

Owing to topographical and existing development constraints, the designer of urbancollector roads is often confronted with tight design situations where curves have tobe fitted in. In high-speed rural situations a sharp curve can be given a high rate ofsuperelevation to offset the side friction forces. In urban areas, with stop-go trafficconditions and limited space for embankments, it is often not practical to use high

rates for superelevation.

The maximum rate of superelevation recommended for urban collector roads is 0,04and possibly 0,06 under extreme conditions.

50 26

The recommended design practice is to use, where possible, large radius curveswithout superelevation. Where large radius curves are not possible, superelevationcan be introduced to offset the side-friction forces of smaller radius curves.

In Table 8.1, the minimum radius values of horizontal curves for different design

speeds are derived from the formula:.I IN 10 R= ~

127(e+f)PASSIVE TAPER

* FOROESIGNSPEEOOF 50km/h where R = radius of curve in metres

V = design speed in km/he = superelevation rate in metres per metref = side-friction factor

127 = a constant for metric unitsI TAPERS IN TURNING ROADWAYS FIGURE 7.2 ,

36

Geometric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5, Pretoria, South Africa 1988

Geomelric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5, Pretoria, South Africa 1988 37

50 80 lookml,60 70 90

500 1500

RADIUS (m )

2500 30001000 2000

FIGURE 8.1

Figures 8.1 and 8.2 give design superelevation rates for above minimum radii under

design standard conditions of maximum superelevation e(maX)= 0,04 and 0,06respectively. Ref. 7, p. 177-191.

The margin of safety in Table 8.1 is quite high, as the friction factors used relate todriver comfort rather than to limiting friction between tyres and roadway. AASHTOrecognise that higher friction factors can be used on low-speed urban streets andsuggest for example that f could equal 0,30 instead of 0,17 for a 30 km/h designspeed and could equal 0,18 instead of 0,15 for a 60 km/h design speed. Ref. 7, p.210.

SUPERELEVATION RATES FOR emax = 0,04

It should be noted also that the friction factors based on driver comfort were

measured in the 1930s and 1940s. Since then there have been many innovationsin vehicle suspensions, steering mechanisms and tyres, all of which make drivingand particularly cornering more comfortable. Hence, while the values given in Table8.1 are recommended minimums, a designer, if faced with costly solutions, couldchoose radii up to about 30 % less in some situations and still provide a reasonabledesign. In such situations, however, careful attention should be given to otherelements of design such as sight distance, pavement surface, lane widths, clear-ances and signing.

90 100km/h

8.2 TRANSITION CURVES

2500 3000 As traffic on most urban collectors operates at 80 km/h or less, transition curves arenot essential, particularly as superelevation rates should be less than 0,6.

500 1000 1500

RADIUS ( m )

8.3 SUPERELEVATIONRUN-OFF

RATES FOR emax = 0,06SUPERELEVATION

38

...

FIGURE 8.2There are a number of procedures used to achieve transition from normal cross-fallto superelevation. Normally the cross-gradient can be rotated about the centre lineof the roadway, that is, dropping one edge and raising the other. This method usually

Geometric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5, Pretoria. South Africa 1988

Geometric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5. Pretoria. South Africa 1988 39

q-0,040

0"

0,030EQ)

0,02a:frQ)

0," I0

TABLE 8.1

Minimum radius for horizontal curves (m)

Design Side Minimum radius for maximum superelevation rates (e)speed frictionkm/h factor (f) -0,02 0 +0,02 +0,04 +0,06

50 0,16 140 125 110 100 9060 0,15 220 190 170 150 13570 0,15 300 260 '230 205 18580 0,14 425 365 315 280 25590 0,13 585 495 400 380 340

100 0,13 - 610 530 465 420

0,06

(j)0 0,050"

0,040EQ)

a: 0,030IL

Q) 0,02

OPI

l0

8.4 LANE WIDENING

8.5 SIGHT DISTANCE ON HORIZONTAL CURVESrequires the least length to develop the full transition. The cross-gradient could alsobe rotated about the inside or outside edge of the roadway. For the same rate oftransition this will require twice the length of run-off as that for rotation around thecentre line.

The basic principles are to achieve visually smooth transitions and to maintainproper drainage run-offs.

The achievement of visually smooth transitions is empirical, and the reader isreferred to the procedures described by AASHTO. Ref. 7, p. 197-209 and p. 212-217. In essence, the gradient of an edge profile should not differ from the gradientof a centre line profile by more than a prescribed amount, depending on operatingspeed and distance between the two profiles. The basic relationship between edgeand centre line profiles for a two-lane roadway is given in Table 8.2.

See Section 3.4.1 and Figure 3.5.

8.6 GENERAL HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT CONTROLS

In addition to the preceding suggested standards concerning horizontal alignment,the following may serve as design supplements: Ref. 22, p. 12-14.

. On higher-type collectors the alignment should be as directional as possible, butconsistent with topography and with preserving developed properties and com-munity values. On lower-classification streets the alignment should bothenhance scenic views and discourage high-speed traffic or traffic throughresidential neighbourhoods. The alignment should minimize nuisance factors toneighbourhoods, such as excessive cuts or fills, sharp changes in verticalalignments and speed-inducing sections.

. Sharp horizontal curvatures should not be introduced at or near the top of apronounced crest vertical curve, nor at or near the low point of a pronounced sagvertical curve.

. Consistent alignment is necessary; a driver should not be surprised. Sharpcurved sections after long straight sections should be avoided.

. As a rule of thumb, the maximum number of breaks in the horizontal alignmentthat a driver can see should not exceed two.

TABLE 8.2

Relationship of speed to maximum relative profile gradients, edge and centre linetwo-lane roadway

Source: Adapted from Ref. 7, Table 111-113,p. 199.

. Kerb alignment should always be smooth and avoid kinks due to small deflectionangles, except at beginnings of turn lanes.

. Broken-back curves are not desirable.

8.7 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT Ref. 10, p. 4.2If the rotation is around the centre line of four lanes instead of two lanes, theoreticallythe length of the run-in or run-off should be doubled. AASHTO, however, suggestempirically that the length need only be 1,5 times as much. Ref. 7, p. 201.

Lane widening for sharp curves as found in turning roadways at intersections isdiscussed in Section 10.5. With 3,4 m basic lane widths, there is also a requirementfor lane widening in certain of the minimum radius design situations. For a radiusof 100 m or less a 0,45 m widening is recommended. For a radius of 100 m to 200m a 0,3 m widening is recommended. Such lane widening is normally developed onthe inside of the curve edge over the length of the superelevation run-off. Ref. 7, p.236-243.

Vertical alignment is the combination of sections of uniform gradient and parabolicvertical curves. The selection of rates of grade and lengths of vertical curves isbased on assumptions about characteristics of the driver, the vehicle and theroadway.

Vertical curvature may impose limitations on sight distance, particularly whencombined with horizontal curvature. The gradient of tangent sections introducesforces which affect vehicle speed, driver comfort and the ability to accelerate anddecelerate.

With the whole-life economy of the road in mind, vertical alignment should alwaysbe designed to as high a standard as is consistent with the topography.

The vertical alignment should also be designed to be aesthetically pleasing. In thisregard, due recognition should be given to the interrelationship between horizontal

40

Geometric design of urban collector roadsUTG 5. Pretoria, South Africa 1988 Geometric design of urban collector roads

UTG 5, Pretoria, South Africa 1988 41

Design speed Maximum relative Equivalent maximumkm/h gradients relative slopes

30 0,80 1 in 125

50 0,67 1 in 150

80 0,50 1 in 200

110 0,40 1 in 250